ESP Motor Starting Torque Characteristics with and without

a VSD
Authors: Tony Radcliff & Mickey Leuthen

Abstract of current between the two branches will obviously be frequency

A novel submersible torque transducer placed between the dependent.
seal section and pump of an ESP system is used to investigate
the developed torque by ESP motors in various system Before examining the current division between the two branches
configurations involving different cable lengths, of the circuit and its effect on torque production, we should
transformers, with and without VSDs. Evaluation of locked look at the more basic constant frequency situations using direct
rotor torque as a function of frequency and current is on line starters and soft starters.
performed. Suggestions for maximizing torque production
while minimizing equipment s t a r t u p stress and Constant Voltage & Frequency Relationships
destabilization are made. When a direct on line starter or switchboard is used with ESP
motors, disregarding the effects of a soft power system, we can
Basic Motor Model think of the well head voltage as being a constant. Likewise in
To begin the discussion of ESP motor starting torque this situation the operator cannot vary the system supply
considerations, we need to recall the basic equations governing frequency. Thus in this section relationships are shown or
the operation of the AC induction motor. In Figure 1 the familiar developed for synchronous speed, slip, as well as the circuit
circuit model of the induction motor is shown. The components model equations leading to the fixed frequency and voltage
in the diagram represent the following: speed torque curve.

Rs = Stator Winding Resistance The synchronous speed of an induction motor, or the speed of
Ls = Stator Leakage Inductance the rotating magnetic field, is always determined by the
Lm = Stator Magnetizing Inductance frequency of the applied voltage and the number of poles in the
Rm = Stator Core Loss motor winding. Virtually all ESP motors in the oil industry are
Lr = Rotor Leakage Inductance of the two pole design. The synchronous speed of a motor is
Rr = Rotor Resistance (component converted to torque) found as follows:
Hz*120
Note that the rotor resistance models the output work done by RPM =
the motor and is associated with slip, i.e. Rr/S, where S is the #poles
slip of the motor. In this paper we are concerned with the
Equation 1 - Synchronous Speed
starting torque specifically, and therefore will be analyzing
many situations where the slip is one and the rotor resistance is In the case of an induction motor, the actual mechanical speed of
fixed. the rotor will always lag the speed of the rotating field. The
amount the rotor lags is proportional to the torque being
produced by the motor (under normal operating conditions) and
is referred to as the motor slip.

The slip of the motor is spoken of in terms of a percentage of

synchronous speed. Since we know that in the case of a two pole
motor that the motor’s actual mechanical speed (Wm) will vary
from 0 to 3600 RPM, then the slip of the two pole motor is
defined in Equation 2.

Figure 1 - Standard Basic Induction Motor Model 3600- Wm

s(Wm) :=
Once we have the circuit model of the induction motor, we can 3600
then apply circuit analysis to develop the behavioral equations Equation 2 - Definition of Slip
for the motor. From the model diagram, it is apparent that the
total current (Is) divides between the parallel circuits of the Using this definition of slip and returning to the basic motor
magnetizing path (Im) and the rotor path (Ir). Since the model, we can develop equations which express the motor’s
reactance values of the inductors are frequency dependent while torque-speed characteristics with a constant applied voltage and
the resistors have a fixed impedance with frequency, the division frequency. First we find the motor impedance as a function of
the mechanical speed in Equation 3.

1
 Rm2.K .f.Lm 2,n .fLr+ opposite. This is why the operating range of the motor is always
.-
Rm+ 23 ,fLm I: confined to the portion of the curve to the right of the peak. In
Zs( Wm) :=Rs + 2,s .f.Ls + this region stability is achieved since an increased demand in
Rm.2.n .fLrn torque results in a slowing of the motor.
+ 2.x ,f.Lr+ -
Rm+2.x .fiLrn i
Remember that this torque-speed curve represents a case where
Equation 3 - Motor Impedance as a Function of Speed (Slip)
the current is not regulated, and the voltage is held constant at
Next by Ohm’s Law, we define the total motor current as the the motor terminals. In ESP applications, the motor voltage will
applied phase voltage divided by the total motor impedance in seldom be a constant during the start up process due to the
Equation 4. current dependent voltage drop in the down hole cable. Again in
Figure 2 note how the current falls off dramatically as the motor
Is(Wm) := V0 nears full speed. Obviously in the case of a real induction
Zs( Wm) machine, synchronous speed is never truly realized, i.e. slip is
never zero.
Equation 4 - Motor Current as a Function of Speed (slip)

This allows us to define the rotor current (the torque producing Variable Voltage &Constant Frequency Relationships
component) by use of the current divider rule. The relationship
In some installations, the issues of excessive inrush current or
is shown in Equation 5.
torque during motor start up must be addressed. There are two
Rtn2.n .f,Lm different issues involved in determining the need of a reduced
Rm+ 2.i7 .f.Lrn voltage starting system: protection of the ESP equipment string
Ir( Wm) := .Is( Wm) and isolation of the utility’s distribution system from the inrush
Rm.2.n +Lm i Rr current. The first case involves a situation where the motor is a
+ 2.n .f,Lr+ -
Rm+ 2.n .f.Lm I s(Wm) r high horsepower unit in a shallow well with a strong power
system. In this case the high starting torque of the machine could
Equation 5 - Rotor Current as a Function of Speed (slip) cause mechanical damage such as a broken shaft or coupling.
Finally, the torque capability can now be expressed as a function Likewise, a high motor inrush current could create a voltage sag
of the rotor current. The familiar relationship is shown in on a weak to moderate utility system resulting in distributed
Equation 6. problems on the power grid. In either of these cases, sometimes
a reduced voltage or so called “soft” starter can be used to
3.Ir( Wm)2.L manage the problem.
T(Wm) := SOW
The misconception exists that a reduced voltage starter creates
2.x .f the same starting conditions for a motor as a variable frequency
Equation 6 - Induction Motor Torque-Speed Relationship drive (VFD). This is not the case. In the remainder of this
section and the next one the differences between the two
Now that we have an expression for torque as a function of methods will be highlighted.
mechanical speed (or slip), we can graph the relationship to see
a typical induction motor speed-torque curve. It is shown in There are many different types of reduced voltage starters on the
Figure 2 along with the current-speed relationship. Note that all market today. They include saturable core reactors, auto-
torque and current values will be represented in this paper as per transformers, and solid state units. Of these, both the most
unit values with the motor nameplate ratings as the base. expensive and sophisticated is the solid state unit. For purposes
of this paper, we will be concerned with the application of a
fixed reduction of voltage at the well head. In practice this
would most closely resemble the auto-transformer type unit, but
the basic characteristics of reduced voltage starting remain
similar regardless of the style of soft starter employed.

Recall from Equation 4, Equation 5, and Equation 6 that the

motor current is directly proportional to the motor phase voltage,
the rotor current is proportional to motor current, and that the
torque produced is proportional to the square of the rotor
current. This means that the torque produced by the unit is also
” proportional to the square of the motor voltage. For a reduction
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 of voltage to eighty percent of iitss
its nominal value, Equation 7
Wm
shows that the associated motor torque is reduced to sixty-four
Figure 2 - Per Unit Motor Speed-Torque/Current Curve percent.
The peak of this curve represents the so called pull out or break
down torque of the machine. When starting a motor, it is
essential to get the unit “over the hump” rather quickly so as not
to operate in an unstable condition. To the left of the peak an
increasing torque results in an increase in speed. Obviously the Equation 7 - Relationship of Reduction of Voltage to Motor
load of the pump will not behave in this fashion but just the Torque

2
In Figure 3 the functions T, X and Y plot the motor torque-speed A graph of Equation 8 is shown in Figure 4. Because of the
characteristics for one hundred, eighty, and sixty percent motor inductive elements in the motor circuit model the impedance
voltages respectively and LT shows a typical centrifugal pump rises with increasing frequency.
load torque requirement.
15 I I I

T(Wm) I-
X(Wm) ZS( f)

LT( Wm)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 “0 20 40 60

Wm

Figure 3 - Reduced Voltage Per Unit Torque-Speed Curves Figure 4 - Per Unit Impedance/Frequency for Locked Rotor

A few important points can be made at this time. First, the peak At the same time the motor’s overall impedance is changing, so
or break down torque consistently occurs at the same RPM (or too is the current division between the two branches in the
slip). This means that no matter what level the voltage is reduced circuit. This is very significant, as the division of current
to, the motor still must be capable of producing enough torque to between the two branches greatly influences the production of
accelerate up to the same speed. If the motor voltage is reduced starting torque.
enough such that the load’s torque-speed requirement intersects
the motor’s speed-torque curve to the left of break down, the Torque in the motor is generated from an interaction of the rotor
motor will fail to start. In this example the sixty percent motor magnetic field with the net magnetic field produced by the
voltage case would fail to start. combination of the stator and rotor fields. Because of the relative
values of inductances and resistances in the motor circuit’s
Variable Voltage & Frequency Relationships magnetization and rotor branches, the current division between
the two branches changes with frequency. In Figure 5 the change
With the application of a VSD to an ESP system, both the motor
in magnetization and rotor current is practically zero at
frequency and voltage can be adjusted. While it is beyond the
frequencies greater than twenty hertz. Below twenty hertz,
scope of this paper to discuss the many algorithms used in
however, the ratio of the two currents changes dramatically.
controlling the motor voltage, frequency, current, and torque, the Since the magnetic fields of the rotor and stator are directly
effect of varying the supply frequency on motor starting torque
proportional to these two currents, the motor torque is
capabilities will be described in this section. Keep in mind that
proportional to the product of these two currents.
when a VSD is used, a specific current limitation is imposed. In
I
other words, under start up conditions, a VSD should be viewed
as a constant current source with a variable voltage and
frequency. A good understanding of the effects of frequency on
starting torque allows a VSD installation to deliver the best start
up performance.

As mentioned earlier, the motor circuit model contains both

resistive elements with frequency independent resistance and
inductors whose reactance values are frequency dependent. This
of course leads to the motor’s overall impedance being
frequency dependent. From the basic motor circuit model, the 0 20 40 60
f
impedance relationship as a function of frequency can be
developed. In this section we will be dealing specifically with Figure 5 - Magnetization & Rotor Current Vs. Frequency
the motor in a locked rotor condition, that is the state when
power is initially applied. In this condition recall that the slip of The absolute relationship between the magnetization current,
the motor is one and a constant regardless of what electrical rotor current, and the relative angles between fields is a bit
frequency is being supplied to the motor. This makes the rotor cumbersome but unnecessary to delve into here. If we alter
resistance constant with frequency. In Equation 8 the Equation 6 to be a function of frequency rather than slip, we can
relationship between frequency and motor impedance is shown. develop the relationship shown in Equation 9.

Rm’2’x ‘f’Lm .(2.x .f.Lr+ &-) T(f) :=

Ir(f)2Rr.K
Rm+ 2.x .f.Lm f
Zs(f) :=Rs+2.x.f.Ls+
Rm.2.n .f.Lrn Equation 9 - Motor Torque as a Function of Frequency
+ (2.~ .f.Lr+ Rr)
Rm+ 2.x .f.Lrn Plotting this equation in Figure 6 shows the remarkable effect
Equation 8 - Motor Impedance as a Function of Frequency lowering the starting frequency has on increasing the motor’s

3
start up torque. This particular graph shows the relationship at ESP Application’s Specific Concerns
full motor name plate current. It is obvious from this graph that Now that the basic motor characteristics have been reviewed, let
we can achieve very high starting torques by reducing the start us turn our attention to specific considerations regarding ESP
frequency without having to resort to potentially hazardous high installations. The two factors that influence an ESP’s starting
current levels in the machine. torque characteristics most which are not involved in surface
motor applications are the step up transformer and the down
hole cable impedance.

Taking the second concern first, recall from the discussion of

reduced voltage starters that the motor torque varies directly
with the square of the motor terminal voltage. Since the motor
current is high at start, decreasing to the nominal value only
when the motor reaches normal operating speed, the cable
voltage drop will be greatest under locked rotor conditions. This
means full starting torque can not be achieved without some
cl 20 40 60 voltage boost until the motor current decreases resulting in a
I
reduction of the down hole cable voltage drop. The effects of
Figure 6-Constant Current P.U. Starting Torque/Frequency drooping voltage on starting torque have been presented
At this point it needs to be emphasized that an increase in torque previously.2
per amp of current is not the only benefit of starting an ESP
system with a VSD. As we stated earlier, in any constant The step up transformer can be a concern in limiting starting
frequency starting method, constant or variable voltage, the torque as well. Since a voltage boost during start up is required
synchronous speed of the machine remains constant. Or in other to achieve full torque due to the significant cable voltage drop in
words, the speed that the motor has to reach to exceed break some installations, the VSD must artificially boost the voltage
down torque is a constant (recall Figure 3). during this time. This results in a higher than nominal volts to
hertz ratio on the transformer. If the transformer’s maximum
In a variable frequency application, we have the ability to create volts to hertz ratio is exceeded, the transformer core will saturate
a family of torque-speed curves, so that the motor can get “over magnetically. Once the transformer begins to enter saturation,
the hump” of its torque-speed curve at a very low torque level. increasing current on the primary winding only results in
The unit can then ramp up to speed while remaining in a increased core and winding losses, not increased secondary or
relatively constant slip condition all the way up to full speed motor current. For this reason, it is critical that properly
riding on its torque speed curve family like a surfer on an ocean specified transformers are used and the VSD is capable of
wave. In Figure 7 the constant volts to hertz ratio family of specific start up configurations to match the installation
torque-speed curves is shown.1 The torque levels of all of the requirements.
curves shown can be increased by boosting the voltage at lower
speeds increasing the current up to the maximum rated motor To highlight this effect let us examine the case of various cable
current. Many different control algorithms use so called voltage drops compared with a standard transformer’s volts per
“enhanced” volts per hertz ratios to increase torque capability at hertz ratio to determine the minimum allowable starting
low speeds such as vector control, IR compensators, voltage frequency. A typical industrial transformer will have a 480 volts
boost schemes, etc. at 60 Hz rating. This establishes the volts per hertz ratio as 8
V/Hz. Transformers designed for use with VSDs have extra
Out of all of the methods we have discussed, obviously the VFD core material to allow higher volts per hertz ratios. Typically a
grants the operator the highest level of control over starting 133% voltage boost capability is specified. This would increase
torque. Since the torque of the machine at start up is related to the 8 to 10.64 V/Hz. The testing described later in this report
frequency and voltage, and the synchronous speed is determined was performed using a transformer with a 133% voltage boost
by frequency alone, only through control of both variables can capability.
the operator have total flexibility in setting the motor start up
conditions. In order to see the combined effect of transformer saturation and
cable voltage drop, the motor volts per hertz ratio was calculated
“YU
for various frequencies to maintain 1 5 0 % nameplate current
7ooc under locked rotor conditions. The relationship is shown in
Equation 8.

v(f) := (Zs(f).Is).1.5
f
Equation 10 - Motor Required V/Hz Ratio for Locked Rotor
Current of 150% of Nameplate
100
I I I I I I I 1
\ For a unit with no cable voltage drop this would be the surface
0
0 200 400 600 800 IO00 I zoo 1400 1600 1800 voltage. However, most ESP systems have a significant cable
Mechsnical rpeed. r,min voltage drop. The needed surface volts per hertz ratio was
Figure 7 - Constant V/Hz Torque-Speed Curves calculated for cable voltage drops of zero, ten, and twenty

4
percent. Then the three different ratios were all normalized to sets of tests follow
the maximum allowable transformer volts per hertz ratio. In
Figure 8 it is apparent that the transformer with only 133% The locked rotor test allows a comparison of actual test data to
voltage boost capability will considerably limit the available the developed formulas and relationships regarding starting
motor starting torque in an application with a twenty percent torque as a function of frequency. The test results are shown in
cable voltage drop (recall the motor’s starting torque Vs. Figure 9. From this graph note that as the starting frequency is
frequency characteristics from Figure 6). In the case of a twenty reduced the torque begins to increase. Keep in mind that the
percent cable voltage drop, the minimum starting frequency current is being held constant as any VSD has some specific
without transformer saturation would be about fourteen hertz. current limitation. In this case the starting current was held to
Again from Figure 6 at this frequency the unit is unable to reach the typical 150% motor nameplate rating. Considering motor
nameplate torque at start up. If full nameplate torque were characteristics (recall Figure 6), the starting torque would be
required to ensure starting, the transformer would have to have a expected to continue rising as frequency is decreased. However
voltage boost capability higher than 133% or the cable size due to the effects of transformer saturation the developed torque
would have to be increased to reduce the cable voltage drop. begins to decrease at about eight hertz. This agrees well with the
results seen in Figure 8 for a system with a ten percent voltage
drop. From that graph the transformer begins to enter saturation
at about seven or eight hertz. Decreasing the frequency below
this point actually lowers the developed locked rotor torque
since the VSD output current remains constant but a decreasing
percentage of that current passes through the transformer core to
the motor.

The second test set demonstrates the difference between direct

on line stating stresses and VSD starting stresses on the ESP
system. With fixed voltage starters the motor inrush current and
associated starting torque is uncontrolled by anything other than
the utility system and down hole cable impedance. With a VSD
the motor’s inrush current and starting torque can be controlled
to the minimum required to start the system. Reducing inrush
current and stating torque stresses to the minimum needed for a
ESP Starting Torque Tests given application can increase ESP system life.
Two different types of tests have been performed using an ESP
motor. One test was a locked rotor test, in which an ESP motor’s For the direct on line case, two different cable lengths were
shaft is blocked to prevent rotation and a VSD supplies 150% used: one allowing for a five percent cable voltage drop during
starting current through a step up transformer and cable system stat up and the other causing a ten percent voltage drop during
providing a ten percent voltage. drop under starting conditions. A start up. In Figure 10 the resultant instantaneous torque
load cell on a lever arm produces a signal proportional to the waveform is shown. In about one quarter of a second the torque
torque of the machine and this torque value was recorded for has stabilized to it’s full load value. However a three times rated
various frequencies. The locked rotor test was not performed torque peak was reached on the initial “kick” and the unit
with a direct on line starter due to possible damage of experienced a negative torque of about three quarters of full
equipment. load. If a particular system is operating at high nominal torque
values under it’s full load conditions, these high torque
The second type of test involved the use of a submersible torque oscillations could result in damage to the mechanical system.
transducer connected in series between the ESP seal and pump
in a complete ESP string. A separate control lead brings the
signal back up to the surface to a signal conditioner and then to
2
an oscilloscope for monitoring the instantaneous torque
produced during the start up sequence. This test was performed Per Unit
with both a direct on line starter and a VSD. The results of both Torque ,

1.6

1.6
1.4
1.2
I .L
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
Start Frequency 0.2 Figure 10 - DOL ESP Starting Torque with 5% Cable
0 Voltage Drop
3 5 7 9 11 13 15

Figure 9-Constant Current Locked Rotor Torque/Frequency

.-
Next the cable length was doubled to create a ten percent voltage Conclusions
drop under start up inrush current. In Figure 11 note that the The relationships governing motor starting torque performance
peak torque was reduced to about two and a half times the full
have been developed for fixed voltage and frequency, variable
load torque value and the negative ringing was less than fifty voltage and fixed frequency, and variable voltage and frequency.
percent. Nonetheless, significant sudden torque oscillations are It has been shown that variable voltage starters can only reduce
still present. the available torque to a machine but cannot change the speed at
which an induction motor reaches break down torque. Caution
must be used when employing a reduced voltage starter to
ensure the motor has sufficient voltage available to overcome
the load’s torque requirements.
2
Per Unit The only way to increase a motor’s torque per amp production
Torque during start up is to decrease the starting frequency. In this
fashion greater than full load motor torque can be achieved
under locked rotor conditions without resorting to potentially
damaging current levels. In order to guarantee the low frequency
starting capability, an appropriately designed VSD transformer
with adequate voltage boost capability must be employed to
-1
I I I I overcome the cable voltage drop on the given application.
” 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

Finally, even when a pump does not require high starting torque,
Time (Seconds) a switchboard starter will produce a large “kick” when the unit is
Figure 11 - DOL ESP Starting Torque with 10% Cable
started resulting in highly oscillating torque which could cause
Voltage Drop
mechanical damage to the equipment. With a VSD, the current
and starting frequency can be controlled to achieve only the
Finally, the ESP string was connected to a VSD. The VSD required load torque for the given application thus minimizing
allowed starting frequency and currents to be controlled through starting stresses on equipment.
proper set up of the controls. The start frequency was established
at nine hertz which has been shown to be the starting frequency References
which maximizes torque per amp for this particular system with ’ S. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals 2”d ed.
a maximum starting current of one and a half times motor (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991).
nameplate current. It is important to note here that while
maximum starting torque can be achieved if needed, what is
’ Knox, Dick & Cashmore, Doug, “ESP Motor
desired is the minimum torque required to start the load. In this Starting,” 1996 SPE ESP Workshop, 2 May 1996.
way the start up stresses can be minimized on the ESP system.

Tony L. Radcliff w a s b o r n i n
1.2 I I I I
Tulsa, OK in 1962. He received the
B.S.E.E. from the University of
Tulsa in 1994. He is a member of
Per Unit IEEE and ASHRAE professional
Torque societies as well as Etta Kappa Nu,
Tau Beta Pi, and Phi Kappa Phi
honor societies.
After working in the HVAC service
industry for ten years, he joined the
Centrilift Control Technologies
Group. In various positions within
Centrilift he has been involved with the design, application and
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I support of AC variable speed drives. The reduction of input
current distortion on variable speed drives has been a primary
Time (Seconds) responsibility including the development of an auto transformer
connected twelve pulse converter system. Impact evaluation of
Figure 12 - VSD ESP Starting Torque Characteristics the connection of VSDs to power systems along with
Note in Figure 12 that with the pump under test requiring very performance testing of various topologies of VSD systems and
little starting torque, the developed torque is controlled by the specifically their impact on electrical submersible pumping
VSD to that required to accelerate at the desired rate. While systems occupy much of his time at present.
some torque oscillation is still present, the stresses in this
starting configuration are greatly reduced. The VSD starting
system is certainly capable of generating higher torque levels at
start up, but the optimum starting torque is always the minimum
required by the load.
 John M. “Mickey” Leuthen was
born in Waco, Texas in 1948. He
received his B.S.E.E. from the
University of Tulsa in 197 1. After
spending ten years in the
consumer electronics industry, he
joined Centriift Control
Technologies Group in 1979.
Since then his primary job
responsibility has been as
Principal Design Engineer of the
company’s four generations of AC
Variable Speed Drive product. He
has a broad range of experience in power converter topologies,
analog and digital hardware, and embedded systems using
various processors and languages. He is also involved in the
application of VSD’s to electrical submersible pumping systems
and their impact on this unique and unusual load.