Unit – 2

Genesis of Modern Management Practices

(Lesson Structure)
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Scientific Management
2.3 Human Relations Approach
2.4 Systems Approach to Management
2.5 Summary
2.6 Questions for Exercise

3.7 Suggested Readings

2.0 Objective
This lesson traces the origin of modern management practices. Students can learn
about various aspects of scientific management including management thought of Robert
Owen, Charles Babbage and F.W. Taylor. The principlal objective of this lesson is to highlight
human relations approach and systems approach to management.

2.1 Introduction
The principles of management as in the case of other disciplines, have their impact on
the practice of management. The nature of management principles include: universal
applicability, dynamism, relative but not absolute limits due to human behaviour and the like.
A number of practitioners, thinkers and academicians of management have contributed to
the formation and development of management principles, thought and approaches.
The importance of organisation and administration in the bureaucratic states of antiquity
was manifest in the interpretations of early Egyptian papyri, extending as far back as 1300
B.C. The same kind of records exist for ancient China. Practical suggestions for proper public
administration and admomitions to choose honest, unselfish and capable publice officers
were included in Confucius' parables.

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Even though the records of eary Greece and Rome do not offer much insight into the
principles of management, existence of Athenian Commonwealth and the Roman Catholic
Church indicates a consideration of management principles and functions.
In military organisations too, principles of management have been considered. Although
certain important principles have been applied in recent times, several others were considered
long back in militar organisations.
Public administrations also considered several management principles for
administering the people properly.
The study of theories is more important as they guide management decisions, they
shape our organisation, make us aware of the business environment and are a source of
new ideas.
Now, we shall study these theories in order in know how the management thought is
developed, principles of management are evolved and different approaches to management
are designed. The first among the management theories is scientific management.

2.2 Scientific Management

The forerunners of Scientific Management theory are Robert Owen, Charles Babbage
and Henry Robinson Towne.

Robert Owen :
Robert Owen, who was the manager of different cotton textile mills between 1800 and
1828, was the first person to pay attention to labour welfare. He suggested a change in the
attitude of industgrialists towards workers. He worked up to his maximum possible extent for
the amelioration of working conditions of workers and thereby tried to win over their confidence.
He stated that men should not be treated as secondary and inferior to machines.

Charles Babbage :
Besides Robert Owen, there were some scientists who though of making improvement
in the management by observing the scientific techniques. Prominent among them was
Charles Babbage, a leading British mathematician at Cambridge University from 1828-1839.
He studied the working conditions of factories in England and France and observed that
most of the factory class used to work on the basis of estimates and imagination. They were
tradition-oriented rather tan scientific-minded. Two pioneering works of Babbage are The
Differential Engine and On the Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers. He stated that the
methods of sicence and mathematics could be applied to the solution of the factory's problems.

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Contribution of Babbage :
• Babbage stressed that good machines and efficient workers do not inevitably
ensure success in business. Good management that directs and controls machines
and workers is the most crucial element in successful business.
• He advocated, like Adam Smith, the principle of division of labour. He also
suggested the use of time study techniques.
• Babbage conceived an analytical machine as far back as 1833 which was a
forerunner of today's digital computer. So he was a visionary much ahead of time.
• He considered all aspects of contemporary management thinking-mutuality of
interest between employees and employer, production, incentive pay, quality control,
wage and salary administration, profit sharing, operations research, preventive
maintenance and research and development.
It is rightly stated "He wrote a premiere of management before the world is able to
read it and he invented the computer before its time."
Mcfarland indicates: "To Babbage goes the credit for advocating in relation to industrial
problems in fundamental thinking which proceded the formulation of a science of management."
Hence othe background for the formulation of the science of management was provided
initially by Charles Babbage. Afterwards, credit has been given to F.W.Taylor for enunciating
the area of scientific management.

Frederick Winslow Taylor :

Fredrick Winslow Taylor, known popularly as the father of sicentific management and
a classicist in mangement theory, was the first person who insisted on the introduction of
scientific methods in management. He made for the first time a systematic study of
management and evolved an orderly set of principles to replace the trial and error methods
then in vogue.
F.W.Taylor made a humble beginning by joining as an apprentice in a small machine-
making sho in Philadelphia in the 1870s. Later he became a machinist in 1878 at the Midvale
Steel Works in Philadelphia (USA). Afterwards he rose to the position of a machinist foreman.
He observed that workers were ot enthusiastic and were doing as little as possible,
just adequate to maintain their job. Instead of becoming angry at the outlook of workers,
Taylors sympathized with them. He wrote "When a naturally energetic man works for a few
days besides a lazy one, the logic of the situation in unanswerable; Why should I work hard
when that lazy fellow gets the same pay that I do and does only half as much work?"
Taylor formed opinions on the basis of his observations. There was an uncompromising
nature on his part and he never tried to satisfy his opponents. He was a man of firm convictions.
After leacing the Midvale Factory, he joined Behtleham Steel Company: wherein he introduced
scientific management. But there was strong opposition from all hte managers because of

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his uncompromising nature and this led to the termination of this services unceremoniously.
After leaving Bethleman in 1901, he wrote his pioneering work 'Shop Management'. Besides
this, he wrote several other books and among them the pioneering work was Principles and
Methods of Scientific Management (1911).

Principleas of Scientific Management :

The contributions of scientific management evolve into principles. These principles
are called principles of scientific management. They include:
1. Time and Motion Study: Workers were performing their work haphazardly before
the era of scientific management. F.W.Taylor observed that a number of movements of
the workers at the work place were unnecessary and consequently they were takin
more time to do the job than necessary.
• Observing the necessary motions (movements) of the worker at the work place.
• Identifying the necessary and unnecessary movements in carrying out the work
• Elimination of unnecessary movements.
• Observing the time required for each of the necessary movements with the help of
a stop watch.
• Developing shorter and fewer motions and
• Standardising the motions and time.
Thus, this study developed the best way of doing the job, replacing the old rule of
thumb knowledge of the workers.
2. Science, but not Rule of the Thumb: Scientific management suggests doing the
work systematically, determining the work clearly and sequentially, standardisation of
motions and time for each motion and allotment of fair work to each worker. Thus,
scientific management eliminated the rule of the thumb at the workplace.
3. Differential Payment: F.W.Taylor suggested differential piece rate system. He fixed
the standary level of production. Those employees who produce less than the standard
production reveived low piece rate and employees produced above the standard
production received higher piece rate. Differential piece rates are introduced in order
to motivate the employees to produce more than the standard level and enhance
productivity.
4. Group Harmony: F.W.Taylor emphasised upon group harmony which can be achieved
through satisfying the needs of the grouop members, eliminating the idssatisfaction
and frustration of group members, maintaing the sound interpersonal relations among
the group and involving them in various group activities.

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5. Cooperation Between Workers and Management: He also advocated sound

employee-emloyer relations which should result in cooperation between workers and
the management. Sound employee-employer relations can be achieved in the following
ways:
• Management should understand the workers' needs and take steps to satisfy them.
• Workers should understand the organisational requirements like increasing
productivity, sales, profitability etc. and maximising their contribution.
6. Method Study: F.W. Taylor believed that a mehtodological and systemtatic
movement of materials ensure fast movement of materials in the factory, avoidance of
unnecassary transportation of material from one stage to another stage of prodcution,
reduction of distance from one machine to another machine, reduction of the
transportation time etc.
7. Scientific Selection and Training: He suggested the scientific selection of
employees based on job analysis and using various selection tests. He also suggested
providing training and development facilities to all the employees based on training
needs. This process helps the organisation to exploit the employers' potentialities
and faculties for organisaitonal success.
8. Standardisation: Taylor advocated separation of the planning function from the
execution function. He advocated that supervisors perform planning function whereas
from his testimony are as follows.
9. Separation of Planning from Execution: He advocated spearation of the planning
function from the execution function. He advocated that supervisors perform planning
function whereas workers perform execution functions.
Taylor got an excellent opportunity in 1912 to explain his scientific management
philosophy when he was invited to give a testimony before the house of Representatives
Committee. Some of extract from his testimony are as follows:
• Scientific management involves a complete mental revolution on the part of the
working men engaged in any particular establishment or industry — a complete
mental revolution on the part of these men as to their duties towards their work,
towards their fellowmen and towards their employees.
• Employer and employees both realise that when they substitute friendly co-operation
and mutual helpfulness for antagonism and strife, they are together able to make
surplus so enormously greater than it was in the past that there is ample room for a
large increae in wages for the workmen and an equally great increase in profits for
the manufacturer.
Thus, Taylor advocated a total mental revolution on the part of management and workers.
Even though is scientific management was confined to management at the shop level, he
indicated the prossibility and significance of the scientific analysis of the various aspects of
management. To sum up, the stressed the following :

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1. Replacement of rule-of-thumb by science.

2. Achieving harmony in group action rather than discord.
3. Attaining maximum output in place of restricted output.
4. Scientific selection, traninig and placement of workers and
5. Development of all workers to the fullest extent possible for their own and their
enterprise's highest priority.

Criticism of Taylor's Contributions :

F.W.Taylor's contribution was criticised on the following grounds:
1. The consideration of the word 'Scentific' before 'Management' was criticised
since that actually is meant by scientific management is nothing but an approach
to management.
2. His principles were mostly confined to production management. He ignored other
functional areas of management like finance, marketing, personnel and
accounting.
3. His functional foremanship violates the principle of unity of command.
4. Trade unionists criticised Taylor's principles as the means to exploit workers due
to the reason that wages of the workers were not increaed in direct proportion to
the increase in productivity.
Despite the criticism leveled against Taylor's scientific management, the techniques
advocated by him were further refined by his followers like Henry L.Gant, Frant B.Lillian and
M.Gilbreth.

Henry L. Gnatt :
Henry L.Gnatt (1861-1919) had worked on several projects jointly with F.W.Taylor. He
had modified Taylor's incentive system when he worked independently. He abandoned the
differential reate system as having too little motivational impact, introduced 50% bonus to
those workers who could complete a day's work. He also introduced bonus to the supervisors
for each worker who could compleate a day's work and additionaal bonus, if all the workers
reached it, with a view to enable the supervisors to train their workers to do a better job. Gnatt
also built upon Ownen's idea of rating an employee's work publicity.

The Glibreths :
Frank B.Gilbreth (1868-1924) and Lillian M.Gilberth (1878-1972) made their
contributions to the scientific management movement as a husband and wife team. Although
both of them collaborated on fatigue and motion studies, Lillian also focused on ways of
promoting the individual workers' welfare. According to her, the ultimate aim of scientific
management was to help workers reach their full potential as human beings. According to

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them, a worker would do his/her present job, prepare fo the next highest job and train his/her
successor, all at the same time. Thus every worker would always be a doer, a learner and a
teacher.
The developments in the scientific management approach and principles led to the
development of administrative management. Now. we shall discuss the contributions to
administrative management.

2.3 Human Relations Approach

The human element was recognised even in the Scientific Management School. The
human relations approach is the outcome of reactions of classical theorists like Mary Parker
and Chester I Barnard. Elton Mayo and his associates pointed out that the techniques of
scientific management are not adequate and they do not contribute to individual and
organisational goals.
The essence of human relations approach is that workers should be treated as human
beings but not as mere factors of production. Workers' needs, feelings, attitudes, values and
desires are extremely important. The theme of human relations approach is that (i)
organisational situation should be viewed in social terms as well as in economic and technical
terms and (ii) the social process of group behaviour can be understood in terms of the clinical
method analogous to the doctor's diagnosis of the human organism.

Hawthorne Expreriments :
An intensive and systematic analysis of human factor was made in the form of
Hawthonre Experiments. Elton Mayo is generally recognised as the father of human relations
approach although a number of professors of the Harvard Business School and managers of
Hawthrone Plant of Western Electric Company USA where the experiments were conducted
between 1924 and 1933 had been associated with him. The series of experiments conducted
may be classified as:
1. Phase-1. Illumination Experiments
This experiment was conducted to know the impact of illumination on productivity. The
experiment invlved the proplonged observation of two groups of employees making telephone
relays. The intensity of light under which one group worked (test group) systematically varied
while the light was held constant for the second group (control group). The productivity of the
test group and control group increased. The researchers concluded that some other variables
were contaminating the effect of the light changes.
2. Phase-2. Relay Assembly Test Group
A small group of workers was placed in a separate room and a number of variables
were latered-like wages were increased, rest periods of varying lengths were introduced, the
workday and work week were shortened. The supervisors, who acted as observers, also

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allowed the groups to choose their own rest periods and members of their own groups and to
involve in decision making regarding suggested changes. Performance tended to increase
over the period but it aslo increased and decreaed erratically.
3. Phase-3. Interviewing Programme
Mayo initated a three year long interviewing programme in 1828, covering more than
21,000 employees to find out th ecauses for increased productivity. The emphasis of this
phase was on human relations rather than on working conditions. This programme initially
proved to be useless as employees often gave stereotyped responses. This led the interviews
towards asking indirect questions. Then the employees began to air their feelings freely. The
point demonstrated by this interviewing programme is central to the human relations approach.
And for the first time, the importance of the informal work group is recognised. Then, the bank
wiring room experiment was set up in order to find out h ow informal work groups operate.
4. Phase-4. The Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment (1931-32)
In this experiment, 14 male workers formed into a work group and intensively observed
for seven months in the bank wiring room, engaged in the assembly of terminal banks for the
use in telephone exchanges. The employees were paid individual wages and a bonus based
on group effort. It was expected that highly efficient workers would bring pressure on others
for increased output and high bonus. However, the expected results did not come about an
indeed the group developed specific mechanisms to protect themselves based on certain
sentiments:
The rate buster sentiment : don't turn out too much work
The chiseler sentiment : don't turn out little work.
The squealer sentiment : don't tell superiors anyting that owuld harm an associate.
The officious sentiment : don't act too officious in performing duties, conform
rather to work group norms.
Work group norms, beliefs, sentiments had a greater impact in influencing individual
behaviour than did the monetary incentives offered by the management. Thus, the Hawthorne
Experiments indicated that employees were not only economic beings but social and
psychological beings as well.
The researchers concluded that employees would work better had they believed that
the management was concerned about their welfare and supervisors paid special attention
to them. This phenomenon (subsequently labelled the Hawthorne effect), has remained quite
controversial to this day.
The conceptual social man, according to Mayo, motivated by social needs, wanting,
rewarding, on-the-job relationships and responding more to work-group pressures than to
management control - was necessary to complement the old concept of rational man motivated
by personal economic needs.

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Contributions of the Human Relations Approach :

There is a departure from the scientific management approach regarding the influence
of engineering factors for increase in productivity. Mayo and rediscovered Robert Owen's
century-old dictum that a true concern for workers, 'those vital machines', paid dividends.
• This approach suggested that the democratic style of supervision yields more
benefits than task-centred leadership by informal orgnisation than by formal
organisation.
• In addition, the researchers recognized the significacne of a manager's style
and thereby stressed on management training.
• More attention was paid on teaching management skills rather than technical
skills to people.
• Finally their work led to a new interest in group dynamics, group process and
group reward rather tan individual worker.
• Another contribution of human relations approach was that business organisation
is more than the logical arrangement of work functions and social factors should
also be considered in designing an organisation structure. This school is
characterised by a genuine itnereste in organic (humanistic) structure rather than
mechanistic structure.
• Workers' output is determined by the group norms but not by the time study and
motion study.
• Workers are motivated not only by the money but also by non-financial rewards.

Human Relatioins: Definition :

Human relations pertains to motivating people in organisations in order to develop
teamwork which effectively fulfils their needs and leads to acieving organisational goals. Thus
human relations:
• strive to create a positive and conducive work environment, focuses on people,
• has the ultimate goal of increase in productivity and
• seeks to build human cooperation towards achievement of organisational goals.
Major Concepts in Human Relations: According to experts in human relations,
organisations should be viewed as a social system with economic and social dimensions.
The work environment should be conducive for the restoration of man's dignity.
Sound human relations encourage people to work together. It is determined by the
nature of the leader, the work environment and the work.

Basic Model :
The humanistic approac is based on two assumptions viz. (i) the organisation is a

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system designed to produce or distribute a product of a service at a reasonable price and (ii)
the organisation is a social system through which individuals try to find expression for their
needs, goals and aspirations. The basic model for this approach should be employer
participation, job satisfaction and increased productivity.
The Individual: According to the neoclassical theory, individual behaviour is affected
by feelings, sentiments and attitudes. An individual is motivated not only by economic factors
but also by social factors. Due consideration should be given to economic and socail factors
in motivating employees.
The Work Group: The social group is the centre of focus fo human relations studies.
The Hawthorne studies proved that the informal work groups exert tremendous influence over
workers' behaviour patterns. Work is a social interaction, where workers are more satisfied
as members in a social group.
The Organisation and the Work Enviroment: An industrial organisation is a techno-
economic and social system. Hence it necessary to understand rational as well as non-rational
and formal as well as informal aspects and the work environment of an organisation. Posivite
work environments are characterized by factors like: clearly stated goals, incentives to improve
performance, performance feedback, employee involvement in decision making, rules to the
minimu, extent, interesting and challening work and the like.
The leader: The leader has to use all types of resources including human resources
in the process of attaining organisational goals. Proper utilisation of human resources enables
the leader to achieve these goals effectively. A leader can contribute significantly for high
productivity by creating a conducive and free-work environment.

Criticisms of the Human Relations Approach :

1. Scientific Validity: Although the Hawthorne Experiments profoundly influenced the
managers in managing their employees, the studies had many weaknesses of design,
analysis and interpretation. Whether Mayo and his colleagues' conclusions are
consistent with their data is still the subject of liverly debate and considerable confusion.
These studies had a clinical bias as they discounted theory and stressed on radical
empiricism. Most of the conclusions are not supported by adequate scientific evidence.
2. Shortsighted: The following points confirm the shortsightedness of this approach:
(1) it lacks of adequate focus on the work; (2) human relations tend to neglect economic
operative employees but not managerial and supervisory personnel.
3. Over-concern with happiness: The Hawthorne studies suggested that happy
employees would be productive employees. But studies have failed to establish a
positive correlation between happiness and productivity.
4. Misunderstanding of Participating: Many of the post Hawthorne human relationists
expected that participation would reduce resistance to formal authority and would ensure
worker's support for organisational goals. But recent studies indicate that employees
want to be utilised properly.

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5. The Mystery surrounding group decision-making: Research evidence on the

superiority of group decision-making to individual decision-making is conflicting and
inconclusive. The entire thinking of group decision-making is mystical.
6. Conflict: The human relationists failed to recognise positive aspects of conflict like
creative force in society. They believed that conflict is always bad and should be
minimised.
7. Anti-Individualist: The human relations movement is anti-individualist. The concept
of individualism and individual behaviour which is preodminant in an organisational
setting is overridden by the concept of group decision-making and group behaviour.
Human relations approach failed describe completely individuals in the work place.
8. Total Work Environment is not considered: Work environment comprises of
organisational structure, its culture and climate, labour-management relations, social
environment etc. But the human relations approach considered only social environment
as the total work environment.
The next approach developed towards management is sytems approach. Now, we
shall study the system approach to management.

2.4 Systems Approach to Management

A system is a set of interrelated but separate parts working towards a common purpose.
The arrangement of elements must be orderly and there must be proper communication
facilitating interaction between the elements and finally this interaction should lead to achieve
a common goal.
Thus, systems approach to management views the organisation as a unified, purposeful
system composed of interrelaated parts. Hence, managers have to deal with the organisation
as a whole rather than dealing separately with various-segments of an organisation. This
approach also gives the managers to see the organisation as a whole and as a part of the
larger external environment. Systems theory revelas to us that the activity of any segment of
an organisation, affects in different degrees, the activity of every other setment.
Systems-oriented managers would make decisions after they have identified impact
of these decisions on all other departments and the entire organisation. The essence of the
systems approach is that each manager cannot is isolation and within his organisational
boundary of authority and responsibility of the traditional organisational chart. They must
interwine their departments with the total organisation and communicate witht all other
departments and employees and also with other oganisations.

Key Concepts of Systems Approach :

1. Subsystem: Subsystems are those parts which make up the whole system.
Each system in turn may be a subsytem of a still larger system. Thus, a department

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is a subsystem of a factory, which is a subsystem of a firm, which is a subsystem

of an industry, which is a subsytem of a national economy, wich is a subsystem of
the world economic system.
2. Synergy: Synergy is the situation in which the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts. In organisational terms, synergy means that departments that interach
co-operatively are more productive than they would be, if they operated in isolated.
3. Open System: It is a system that interacts with its environment. All organisations
interact with thier environment, but the extent to which do so varies.
4. Closed system: It is a system that does not interact with its environment
5. System Boundary: It is the boundary that separates each system from its
environment. It is rigid in a closed system while flexible in an open system.
6. Flows: A system has flows of information, materials and energy. These center
the system form the environment as inputs (like raw materials), undergo
transformation process within the system (like production process ) and exist in
the sytem as outputs (like products/services). (Fig.2.2 shows the flows and
feedback in an open system).
7. Feedback: It is the part of system control in which the results of actions are
retunred to the individual, allowing work procedures to be analysed and corrected.
Systems apporach helps the dynamic and interrelated nature of organisations to plan
for actions and anticipate consequences and mutual effects. It helps the geneal managers to
maintain balance among various subsystems and the organisation. Thus a major contribution
of the systems approach results from its strong emphasis on the interrelatedness or mutuality
of various subsystems of the organisation. Treatment of the organisation as an open system
is another contribution of systems approach.

Features of Systems Approach to Management :

According to Herbert B.Hicks and C.Ray Gullett, the characteristics of systems
approach to management are:
1. Dynamic: The process between subsystems within an organisation is dynamic.
2. Multilevel and multidimensional: An organisational can interact with other
organisations and the economy at various levels and in multifarious ways.
3. Multimotivated: Since the organisation is dynamic and has multiple goals, an
act in the organisation may be motivated by several motives.
4. Probabilistic: Management would be mostly probabilistic as it is operated under
a highly turbulent and dynamic environment.
5. Multidisciplinary: Systems theory of management is contributred by various
disciplines.

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6. Descriptive: Instead of providing certain prescriptions, this theory describes

the features of organisation and management.
7. Adaptive: All the subsystems should be adaptable and accommodate to the
changes in other subsystems.

2.5 Summary
Contingency Apporach :
Contigency approach is also called situational apporach. This approach was
developed by managers, consultants and researchers who tried to apply the concepts of the
major schools to real life situations. They sought to know the causes for the success of methods
in one situation and failure in another situation. Advocates of this approach answered that
results differ sitations differ, as such a technique that works effectively in one situation will not
necessarily work in all cases. Hence managers have to identify the techninque which will best
contribute to the attainment of the management's goal in a particular situation, under particular
circumstances and a particular time. Classical theoriests suggest work implication for increase
in productivity whereas behavioural scientists suggest jo enrichment. But the manager under
contingency apporach shoulld find out which method will work better in that particular situation.
This approach builds upon systems approach. The composition of a particular situation or
system will help to kno technique best suited to that particular situation or system.

Human Resource Management Approach :

Human resource is a principal and central sub-system and resouce of an organisation.
Both the human resource system and the entire organisation operate under the same
environmental factors.Greater the effectiveness and productivity of human resources, the more
will be effectiveness of the organisation. Most of the mangagers say, our greatest asset is
people. Human resource management approach is developmental. It is concerned with the
growth and development of people towards higher levels of competency, creativity and
fulfilment.
The human resource management approach is suppotive. It helps employees to develop
through training and development and other techniques of human development. It also
develops more responsible and committed persons through the creation of conducive
organizational cliimate, strong culture, attractive reward system, free and challenging
work environment, team spirit and the like.
This apporach assumes that increased capabilities and expanded opportunities for
people will lead directly to the improvement of the organizationl effectiveness and efficiency.
Employee job satisfaction will also be a direct result when employees make use of their
resources to the fullest extent. Thus, the human resource management approach reveals that
sound management of human resources through proper training and development, judicious

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salary administration, creating conducive work environment, providing challenging job and
maintaining sound industrial result in the empoyee contribution for achievement of
organizational goals.
Management Science Approach :
Science is a systematically organized body of knowledge based on proper findings
and exact principles and is capable of verification and general application. Science is
systematic in the sense that certain relationships between variables have been ascertained,
priciples and their limitations have been discovered, tested and establised. Facts are
determined based on events or things observed initially with the help of scientific methods.
The accuracy of the facts are verified through observations on a continuous basis. Thus, the
knowledge obtained must be verifiable in scientific method. Any subject to be called science
must have the following characteristics:
1. Systematic body of knowledge
2. Method of scientific enquiry
3. Should establish cause and effect relationship
4. Principles should be verifiable
5. Should ensure predictable results
6. Should have universal application.
Management has a systematized body of knowledge pretaining to its field. The
scientific character of management is well supported by mathematial models and operations
research. A manager can slo take appropriate decisions based on science like any scientist.
The principles underlying time and motion studies, market research, morale, motivation,
job satisfaction etc. are developed based on scientific enquiry. Many management principles
like planning, direction, organisation, motivation, morale etc., esablish cause and effect
relationship. Management principles like unity of comman, span of control and unity of direction
can be verifiable. Those in the category of job satisfaction, morale and job enrichment ensure
predicable results. Almost all the management principles are universally applicable.

2.6 Questions for Excercise

1. What is scientific management?
2. Discuss the contributions of Charles Babage towards Scientific Mangement?
3. What are the contributions of FW Taylor towards Scientific Management?
4. What are the principles of Scientific Management?
5. What are the criticisms against Scentific Management?

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6. What are the contributions Elton Mayo's experiments towards Human Relations
Approach?
7. What are the contributions of Human Relations Approach towards management
thought?
8. What are the criticims against human relations apporach?
9. What is Systems Approach to management?
10. What are the key concepts and features of Systems Apporach to Management?
11. What is the contribution of contingency approach to management thought?
12. What is the contribution of human resource management approach to
management thought?
13. What is the contribution of management science apporach to management
thought?

2.7 Suggested Readings

1. Natrajan & Ganeshan: Principles of Management, HPH, New Delhi, 2008
2. M.N. Mishra: Organisational Behaviour, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2008
3. A. Bhatia and M. Bansal: Business Management, Kalyani Publishing House,
New Delhi, 2011.

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