HUMAN REPRODUCTION

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EVENTS IN HUMAN REPRODUCTION

The process of human reproduction includes the following events.
 Gametogenesis (formation Of Gametes)
 Insemination(Transfer of gametes into female genital tract )
 Fertilization (Fusion of gametes)
 Formation of zygote
 Development of blastocyst
 Implantation (Attachment of blastocyst to the uterine wall)
 Gestation (Development of the embryo)
 Parturition (Delivery of the baby)
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Male reproductive system includes
 a pair of testes,
 accessory ducts,
 accessory glands and
 external genitalia.
TESTES
 Testes is the organ in which sperms are produced.
 It is oval in shape with a length of about 4 to 5 cm and a width of
about 2 to 3 cm .

Scrotum and its Importance

 The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch
called scrotum.

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  Scrotum maintains the temperature of the testes 2- 2.5 degree
celsius lower than the normal internal body temperature which is
necessary for spermatogenesis.

Testicular lobules
 Each testes has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules .
Seminiferous tubules
 Each testicular lobule contains one to three highly coiled tubules
called seminiferous tubules . Sperms are produced here .

Three types of cells in testes

 Spermatogonial cells (Male germ Cells)

 Sertoli cells

 Interstitial cells or Leydig cells

Spermatogonial cells (Male germ Cells)
 The cells which lines the inner surface of seminiferous tubule is
called spermatogonial cells.
 These cells undergo meiotic division and transforms in to sperms .

Sertoli cells .
 These cells are also present in the inner surface of seminiferous
tubule.
 Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cells

Interstitial cells or Leydig cells

 These cells synthesise and secrete the hormones called androgens.

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The male sex accessory ducts
The male sex accessory ducts include
 rete testis ,
 vasa efferentia ,
 epididymis and
 vas deferens.
 Accessory ducts store and transport the sperms from the testis to
the outside through urethra.
 The urethra (ejaculatory duct) originates from the urinary bladder
and extends through the penis to its external opening called
urethral meatus
Flow chart of conduction of sperms through accessory ducts

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Penis
 The penis is the male external genitalia.
 It is made up of special tissue that helps in erection of the penis to
facilitate insemination.
 The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose
fold of skin called foreskin.

The male sex accessory glands

The male sex accessory glands include paired
 paired seminal vesicles ,
 a prostate gland
 paired bulbourethral glands .
 Secretion of these glands constitute the seminal plasma which is
rich in fructose , calcium and certain enzymes .
 The secretion of bulbourethral glands also help in the lubrication of
the penis

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 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
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THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system consists of
 a pair of ovaries,
 a pair of oviducts,
 uterus,
 cervix,
 vagina and the
 external genitalia located in pelvic region.
OVARY
 Ovaries are the primary female sex organs that produce the female
gamete (ovum) and several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones).
 Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected to the pelvic
wall and uterus by ligaments.
 The outer part of the ovary is called cortex and inner medulla .

Oviducts (Fallopian tubes)

Oviduct has the following parts
 Fimbriae
 Infundibulum
 Ampulla
 Isthmus
 The funnel shaped part closer to the ovary is the infundibulum.
 The finger like projections in the edges of the infundibulum is called
fimbriae.
 Fimbriae help in collection of the ovum after ovulation.
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  The wider part after infundibulum of the oviduct is called ampulla.
 The last part of the oviduct which joins the uterus is called isthmus.

Uterus (womb)

 The uterus is single and it is also called womb.

 The shape of the uterus is like an inverted pear.
 It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall.

Cervix.
 The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix.
 The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal
Birth Canal

 Cervical canal along with vagina forms the birth canal.

Wall of Uterus

 The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue.

 Perimetrium
 Myometrium
 Endometrium
 Perimetrium is the external thin membrane .
 Myometrium is the middle thick membrane made up of smooth muscles ,
which exhibit strong contraction during delivery of the baby .
 Endometrium is the inner glandular layer that lines the uterine cavity
Endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle .

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FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITALIA
The female external genitalia includes
 mons pubis,
 labia majora,
 labia minora,
 hymen,
 and clitoris.
 Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair .
 The labia majora are fleshy folds of tissue , which extend down from the
mons pubis and surround the vaginal opening .
 The labia minora are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora .
 Hymen is the thin ring of tissue partially covering the vaginal opening.
 Clitoris is the tiny finger like structure which lies at the upper junction of
the two labia minora above the urethral opening.

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The presence or absence of hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity or
sexual experience. Justfy
 The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse).
 It can also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal
tampon, active participation in some sports like horseback riding,
cycling, etc.
 In some women the hymen persists even after coitus.
 So the presence or absence of hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity
or sexual experience
MAMMARY GLANDS
• The mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain
glandular tissue and variable amount of fat.
• The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes
containing clusters of cells called alveoli.
• The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the cavities (lumens)
of alveoli.
• The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
• The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
• Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is
connected to lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out.

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Sectional view of mammary gland

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 HUMAN REPRODUCTION -Part 3
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GAMETOGENESIS
 Gametogenesis is the formation of male and female gametes .
 Formation of male gamete is spermatogenesis and female gamete is
oogenesis.
SPERMATOGENESIS
 Spermatogenesis begins at puberty .
 The spermatogonial cells present on the inside wall of the seminiferous
tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in numbers .
 Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes .
Primary spermatocytes
 Spermatogonial cells synthesize cellular materials and stores food and
grows.
 After growth it is known as primary spermatocytes.
Secondary spermatocyte
 Primary spermatocyte undergoes the first meiotic division and two
haploid secondary spermatocyte are formed(have 23 chromosomes)
Spermatids
 Secondary spermatocytes undergoes second meiotic division and four
haploid spermatids are formed.
Spermiogenesis
 It is the transformation of spermatids in to functional spermatozoa or
sperms.

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Spermiation
 After spermiogenesis sperm heads become embedded in the sertoli
cells ,and are finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the
process called spermiation
 It is the release of sperm from seminiferous tubules.
Sectional view of seminiferous tubules

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HORMONAL CONTROL OF SPERMATOGENESIS
 Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to significant
increase in the secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
from the hypothalamus .
 GnRH acts at the anterior pituitary and stimulate the secretion of
luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
 LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulate the synthesis and secretion
of androgens .
 Androgens stimulate the process of spermatogenesis .
 FSH acts on sertoli cells and stimulate the secretion of some factors
which help in the process of spermiogenesis.

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STRUCTURE OF SPERM
Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of
• a head
• neck
• a middle piece and
• a tail
Acrosome
• The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior
portion of which is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome.
• The acrosome is filled with enzymes that help fertilisation of the
ovum.
Middle piece
 The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce
energy for the movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility essential
for fertilisation.
Sperm Count
• The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms during a
coitus of which, for normal fertility, at least 60 per cent sperms must
have normal shape and size and at least 40 per cent of them must
show vigorous motility.
Semen
• Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate
are essential for maturation and motility of sperms.
• The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen.

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 HUMAN REPRODUCTION -Part 4
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OOGENESIS
 The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called
oogenesis.
 Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic stage
 No more oogonia are formed and added after birth.

Primary oocytes
 Oogonial cells start division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic
division and get temporarily arrested at that stage, called primary
oocytes.
Primary follicle
 Each primary oocytes gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells
and is called the primary follicle.
 A large number of primary follicles degenerate during the phase from
birth to puberty.
 At puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
Secondary follicles
 The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells
and a new theca and are called secondary follicles.
Teritiary follicles
 The secondary follicle transforms into a tertiary follicle.

Antrum
 The fluid filled cavity in tertiary follicle is called antrum.

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Secondary oocyte
 The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size and
completes its first meiotic division and transforms into a large
haploid secondary oocyte.
 Secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the
primary oocyte.
Polar body
 The functionless tiny cells formed during the unequal cell division of
oogenesis is called polar body
Graafian follicle
 The mature tertiary follicle is called Graafian follicle.
Zona pellucida
 The membrane covering secondary oocyte is called zona pellucida.
Ovulation
 The Graafian follicle ruptures to release the secondary oocyte
(ovum).
 The process of release of ovum from the ovary is called ovulation

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 HUMAN REPRODUCTION -Part 5
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Menstrual Cycle
 The reproductive cycle in the female primates is called menstrual
cycle.
 In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of
about 28/29 days .
 The cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is
called the menstrual cycle.

Menarche & Menopause

 The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called menarche.
 In human beings, menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is
termed as menopause.

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 Menstrual phase(1-5th
th day)

 If the released ovum is not fertilized Endometrial lining of

uterine wall degenerates and blood vessels rupture.

 The blood, degenerated endometrial cells and secretory products are
discharged through vagina and is called menstruation.

 The menstrual flow lasts for 3-5 days.

Follicular (Proliferative) phase

5-13th
th day

 Starts from 5 th day to 14 the day of cycle.

 Ovarian follicles begin to develop and developing follicles are called
Graffian follicles.
 Graffian follicles secrete estrogen.
 Endometrium become thicker glandular and vascularised.
 LH and FSH secretion from pituitary increases and attains a peak level
about 14 th day ( LH Surge).

Ovulatory phase (14th

th day)

 LH surge induces rupture of Graafian follicle.

 Mature Graffian follicle rupture and ovulation takes place.
 Ovulation takes place about 14 the day of menstrual cycle.
Secretory (Luteal) phase
15-28th
th day

 The remaining part of the Graffian follicles transforms in to corpus

luteum.
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 The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is
essential for the maintenance of the endometrium .
 Such an endometrium is necessary for implantation of the fertilised
ovum and other events of pregnancy.

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 HUMAN REPRODUCTION -Part 6
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FERTILISATION
 The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilization .
 The fertilization in human beings takes place in the ampullary isthmic
junction of fallopian tube.
 Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and sperms are transported
simultaneously to the ampullary-isthmic junction.
 This is the reason why not all copulations lead to fertilisation and
pregnancy.
During copulation, millions of sperms enters into the uterus. But only one
sperm fuses with the egg .Which process ensures that only one sperm can
fertilise an ovum?
• During fertilisation, a sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida
layer of the ovum and induces changes in the membrane that block
the entry of additional sperms.
• The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the
cytoplasm of the ovum through the zona pellucida and the plasma
membrane.
• Thus, it ensures that only one sperm can fertilise an ovum.
Oogenesis is completed only after fertilisation. Justify this statement.
• At the time of ovulation, ovum is at the secondary oocyte stage.
• The entry of sperm induces the completion of second meiotic division
of the secondary oocyte.

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 • This results the formation of haploid ovum and second polar body is
released.

Sex of the baby is determined by the father not by the mother . justify ?

 The chromosome pattern in the human female is XX and that in the

male is XY.
 Females produce gametes with only X chromosomes and male produce
gametes with either X or Y chromosomes .
 50 percent of male gametes carry X chromosomes and 50 percent carry Y
chromosomes .
 If the X chromosome carrying sperm fuses with the X egg of female, XX
female will be formed.
 If the Y chromosome carrying sperm fuses with the X egg of female, XY
male will be formed.
 Thus the sex of the baby is determined by the X and Y chromosome
carrying sperms of the father .
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Cleavage
 Cleavage is the repeated mitotic division of the zygote

Blastomeres
 Blastomeres are the cells formed during cleavage

Morula
 The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula

Blastocyst
 The morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst.
 The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called
trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called
the inner cell mass.
 The trophoblast layer then gets attached to the endometrium and the
inner cell mass gets differentiated as the embryo.

Implantation
• After attachment of blastocyst to the uterine wall, the uterine cells
divide rapidly and covers the blastocyst.
• As a result, the blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of
the uterus .
• This is called implantation and it leads to pregnancy.
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 HUMAN REPRODUCTION -PART 7
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Chorionic villi

• After implantation, The finger-like projections appear on the

trophoblast after implantation is called chorionic villi.
• They are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.

PLACENTA

• The structural and functional unit between developing embryo

(foetus) and maternal body is called placenta.

FUNCTIONS OF PLACENTA

• The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the

embryo and also removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste
materials produced by the embryo.
• The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord
and it helps in the transport of substances to and from the embryo.
• Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several
hormones like

• human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG),

• Human placental lactogen (hPL),

• estrogens,

• progestogens, etc.

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Relaxin
• It is the hormone secreted by ovary in the later phase of pregnancy.

Stem cells
• The inner cell mass of embryo contain certain cells called stem cells
which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs.

Major features of embryonic development at various months of

pregnancy

Major features of embryonic development

at various months of pregnancy

PARTURITION
• This process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition.
• The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed fetus
and the placenta which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal
ejection reflex.
• This triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.

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 • Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine
contractions, which in turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
• Stronger contractions leads to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus
through the birth canal called parturition.
• Doctors inject oxytocin to induce delivery.

LACTATION

• The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during

pregnancy and starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by
the process called lactation.
Breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth is recommended by
doctors for bringing up a healthy baby...Why ?
• The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called

colostrum which contains several antibodies absolutely essential to

develop immune resistance for the new-born babies.