CAIE Biology A-level

Topic 2: Biological molecules

Notes

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Biochemical tests:
● Benedict’s solution can be used to test for the presence of reducing sugars.
Reducing sugars include all monosaccharides and some disaccharides. Therefore it
can be used to test for glucose, fructose and maltose. It does not test for sucrose,
however. The test involves heating the sugar with Benedict’s solution – if the colour
changes from blue to brick red then glucose is present.

● A chemical test for starch is iodine/potassium iodide. If the solution turns blue/black
in colour then starch is present.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules which consist only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and they
are long chains of sugar units called saccharides. There are three types of saccharides -
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single units
that can join together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides by glycosidic bonds which
are formed in condensation reactions.

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are small organic molecules used as building blocks of complex
carbohydrates. Monosaccharides have a varying number of carbon atoms, for instance:

● Glyceraldehyde is a triose used in metabolic reactions

● Ribose is a pentose sugar which is a component of nucleic acid

alpha beta ● Glucose is a monosaccharide

containing six carbon atoms in each
molecule, it is the main substrate for
H respiration therefore it is of great
OH importance. It has two isomers – alpha and
beta glucose.

Disaccharides:
Disaccharides are formed in a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides.
● Maltose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of two glucose molecules
● Sucrose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of glucose & fructose
● Lactose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of glucose & galactose
Polysaccharides:
Polysaccharides are formed from many monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic
bonds and include:

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● Glycogen and starch which are both formed by the condensation of alpha glucose
● Cellulose formed by the condensation of beta glucose
Glycogen is the main energy storage molecule in animals and it’s formed from many
molecules of alpha glucose joined together by 1, 4 and 1, 6 glycosidic bonds. It has a large
number of side branches meaning that energy can be released quickly. Moreover, it is a
relatively large but compact molecule thus maximising the amount of energy it can store.
Starch stores energy in plants and it is a mixture of two polysaccharides called amylose and
amylopectin:

● Amylose – amylose is an unbranched chain of glucose molecules joined by 1, 4

glycosidic bonds, as a result of that amylose is coiled and thus it is a very compact
molecule meaning it can store a lot of energy in a small space.

● Amylopectin is branched and is made up of glucose molecules joined by 1, 4 and 1, 6

glycosidic bonds, due to the presence of many side branches it is rapidly digested
by enzymes therefore energy is released quickly.

Cellulose is a component of cells wells in plants and it’s composed of long, unbranched
chains of beta glucose which are joined by glycosidic bonds. Microfibrils are strong threads
which are made of long cellulose chains joined together by hydrogen bonds and they
provide structural support in plants cells.

Lipids
Lipids are biological molecules which are only soluble in organic solvents such as alcohols.
There are two types of lipids:

Saturated ● Saturated lipids such as those found in animal

H H H H H H H H H
fats – saturated lipids don’t contain any carbon-
Q❖ I I I I I I
c-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-c-H
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o" I I I I I I I I I
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H increasing the risk of coronary heart disease.

Unsaturated ● Unsaturated lipids which can be found in

plants – unsaturated lipids contain carbon-carbon
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o" 1 1 1 1 1 -c-c_H
H HHHHH H/t saturated fats. Unsaturated fats are healthy as they
provide essential fatty acids.

The greater the number of unsaturated bonds, the weaker the intermolecular bonds
resulting in lower melting point, and as a result of that saturated fats which don’t contain
any double bonds are solid at liquid temperature and unsaturated lipids are liquid at room
temperature.

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,./"....,./"....,./"....,./"....,./"....,./"....,./"..v-O-C-H
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0 I and three fatty acids joined by ester bonds formed in
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H number of double bonds. Also, some triglycerides contain
3 Fatty Acids + Glycerol a mix of different fatty acids. Triglycerides are used as
energy reserves in plant and animal cells.

In phospholipids, one of the fatty acids of a triglyceride is substituted by a phosphate-

containing group. Phosphate heads are hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic and as a
result phospholipids form micelles when they are in contact with water as heads are on the
outside as they are attracted to water and tails are on the inside as they move away from
water.

Proteins
Amino acids are the monomers from which proteins
are made. Amino acids contain an amino group –
NH2, carboxylic acid group and a variable R group
which is a carbon-containing chain. There are 20
different amino acids with different R groups. Amino
acids are joined by peptide bonds formed in
condensation reactions. A dipeptide contains two
amino acids and polypeptides contain three or more amino acids.

The structure of proteins is determined by the order and number of amino acids, bonding
present and the shape of the protein:

● Primary structure of a protein is the order and number of amino acids in a protein.

● The secondary structure is the shape that the chain of amino acids makes – either
alpha helix or beta pleated sheet. The shape is determined by the type of bonding
present such as hydrogen bonding, ionic bonds and disulphide bridges.

● Tertiary structure of proteins is the 3D shape of the protein, it can be globular or

fibrous. Globular proteins such as enzymes are compact whereas fibrous proteins
such as keratin are long and thus can be used to form fibres.

● For instance, collagen is a fibrous protein of great strength due to presence of both
hydrogen and covalent bonds in the structure. Collagen molecules wrap around
each other and form fibrils which form strong collagen fibres. Collagen forms the
structure of bones, cartilage and connective tissue and is a main component of
tendons which connect muscles to bones.
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 ● Haemoglobin is a water soluble globular protein which consists of two beta
polypeptide chains and a haem group. It carries oxygen in the blood as oxygen can
bind to the haem (Fe2+) group and oxygen is then released when required.

Peptide bonds can by hydrolysed (broken) with the addition of water in a hydrolysis
reaction.

Water
Water is a very important molecule which is a major component of cells, for instance:

● Water is a polar molecule due to uneven distribution of charge within the molecule
– the oxygen atom attracts electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atoms causing
one end of the molecule to be more positive than the other.

● It is a metabolite in metabolic reactions such as condensation and hydrolysis which

are used in forming and breaking of chemical bonds.

● It is a solvent in which many metabolic reactions occur .

● It has a high specific heat capacity meaning that a lot of energy is required to warm
water up therefore minimising temperature fluctuations in living things therefore it
acts as a buffer.

● It has a relatively large latent heat of vaporisation, meaning evaporation of water

provides a cooling effect with little water loss.

● There is strong cohesion between molecules enables effective transport of water in

tube like transport cells as the strong cohesion supports columns of water (capillary
action), as a result of strong cohesion the surface tension at the water-air boundary
is high.

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