= — Analyse and interpret data to reach conclusions Processing results Data can be processed in different ways depending on the aim of the practical. Simple process methods include calculating means, changes, and rates. Means are calculated when the practical is repeated or multiple samples are taken. Taking a mean value of many data points allows the variability of the results to be assessed. Using means, standard deviation can also be calculated, which is a measure of the spread of data. Standard error, which is a measure of the reliability of the mean i.e. how close the sample mean is to the real mean, can be calculated from standard deviation. The formula for standard error is: ‘Standard deviation / yn ‘Standard error can be presented on graphs in error bars, where the range is + and - 2x standard error. Generally, if the error bars on two values do not overlap, the values are significantly different ‘Change may be calculated for change of mass, length or temperature eg. in osmosis-related practicals. Percentage change may sometimes be required, as this allows comparison when the starting point is different. The formula of percentage change is: (inal value - initial value) / initial value x 100% Rates can be directly or inversely proportional to the results collected. If time to complete a certain reaction is measured, often in the case of enzyme reactions, rate is calculated by 4/time. However, rate can also be indicated by the release of a product, eg. volume of gas produced in a fixed time, then rate is directly proportional to the volume and may not require further processing, For certain practicals (often involving field investigations and genetic crosses), statistical tests will have to be used to analyse the significance of the results. There are four statistical tests that students are expected to use: © Spearman's rank coefficient ‘© Pearson's linear correlation coefficient © Test © Chi-squared test The first step to performing a statistical test is to write a null hypothesis. A null hypothesis states that there is no significant correlation or difference between the two data sets students have collected. Next, whether the data sets are being compared or correlated, and the nature of the data - whether itis continuous or discontinuous. Select the appropriate statistical test using the table below. © wwwpnteducation OOOO PMTEducation= — Statistical test Purpose Type of data Degrees of Freedom T-test Compare, find if Continuous, normally | (n, - 1) + (n, - 1) difference is distributed eg. means significant Chi-squared Compare observable | Frequency, discrete _| No. of categories - 1 and expected values, | and categorical find if difference is significant ‘Spearman's rank Correlate Ordinal data No. of pairs of data - 2 Pearson's linear Correlate Continuous, linear, | No. of pairs of data - 2 correlation normally distributed Use the formula provided to calculate a value. Find the critical value in a table provided at p=0.05 and the calculated degrees of freedom, where p=0.05 indicates a 5% probability that the difference or relationship in the data is due to chance alone. If the calculated value is larger than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, and there is a smaller than 5% probability that the difference or relationship is due to chance alone, Another statistical test called Simpson's Index of Biodiversity is specific to field investigations on biodiversity. It gives a value between 0 and 1, where values closer to 1 have higher biodiversity. The formula may or may not be provided in the exam, hence it should be memorised. D=1-(5 (nin) Patterns and trends To describe patterns and trends, first describe the overall trend, quoting data to support your observations. Afterwards, move onto describing any particular features of the graph, eg. peaks and troughs, or data points that do not fit the overall trend. Students may be asked to identify anomalies. Anomalies are data that do not fit the trend. When calculating a mean, the anomalies in the data set should be excluded. Finding unknowns Certain practicals require students to estimate an unknown value, eg. concentration of an unknown solution. This often requires students to produce a set of standards to compare against, which may be colour standards, time taken for the reaction of a known solution, or a graph plotted using standard solutions. To increase the accuracy of the estimate, the number of different standards used should be increased at smaller intervals around the estimate. © wwwpnteducation OOOO PMTEducation-resaurces-tuen-couses Collect, record and present observations, measurements and estimates ns will require data to be presented in suitable tables, whether they are recording observations or numbers. ‘Prepare your space’ generally indicates that the student should draw a table to record the data Tables must have headings with ruled lines, where the vertical column represents the independent variable, while the horizontal column represents the dependent variable. Appropriate SI units should be included in the table headings and not next to the recorded data itself. Data should be presented in a table according to the order in which it is collected. Processed results should also be presented in a table, including results of repetitions, means, and rates. Graphs Data from a table can then be presented in a graph so that any trends or pattems can be easily visually observed. The x-axis is the independent variable while the y-axis is the dependent variable. The axes should be labelled appropriate with units if necessary, separated from the heading with ‘” or ‘()'. A tile for the graph is not required in an exam. The 3 types of graphs that students may be tested on are line graphs, bar charts, and histograms. Line graphs are used when the relationship cannot be clearly shown in a table alone, and when the independent variable is continuous. Your axes should go up in multiples of 1,2.5 or 10 (for every 20mm square). Do not use multiples of 3. Bar charts are used when the independent variable is discontinuous. The blocks should not touch and should be equidistant from each other with the same width. The order of the blocks should be the same order as in the table of results. Histograms are used when the independent variable is continuous and divided into classes. Before drawing the histogram, the number of classes should be determined, where the number of classes = 5 x log, total number of readings, making sure the classes do not overlap. The blocks should be touching, and the area of the blocks should be proportional to the frequency. Drawings The two types of diagrams students may be asked to draw are plan diagrams and cell diagrams. Plan diagrams are drawings of tissue, showing their outlines and relative proportions, without including cells. Cell diagrams are drawings of a few cells, showing any observable cell features. For both types of diagrams, the drawing should fill out at least half the space provided. Lines should be sharp, thin and continuous, with no shading and colouring. Labels should only be added when necessary, and label lines should be ruled, without crossing each other. © wwwpnteducation OOOO PMTEducation-resaurces-tuen-couses To find the magnification of the cells/tissues drawn, the eyepiece graticule should first be calibrated (with a stage micrometer) to measure the actual length of what is drawn. Use the formula: magnification = length of drawing / actual length. Measurements should be taken in mm. © wwwpnteducation OOOO PMTEducation= — Evaluate methods and quality of data and suggest improvements Errors The two types of errors are random and systematic errors. A systematic error is an error that is consistently repeated throughout the practical, often caused by a fault in the apparatus used. A random error is an unpredictable, spontaneous error that cannot be predicted. Systematic errors do not affect the trend in results, as each result is affected in the same way by the error, while random errors affect the trend as not every result is affected the same way. Students may be asked to identify the significant sources of error in their practical. This will most likely not include simple measuring errors eg. parallax errors in apparatus but rather an error concerning the method itself. For example, in practicals that involve a colour change to determine the end-point, a likely error may be that the observation is difficult to determine and involves a degree of subjectivity. Students should also understand how to calculate uncertainty. Uncertainty is half the smallest division on the apparatus used. For example, if the apparatus is a measuring cylinder with the ‘smallest division of 1cm’, then the uncertainty is 0.5cm”. However, if two readings are taken using the same apparatus, eg. a syringe is used to transfer 1 cm’ of solution, moving the plunger from 3cm* to 2cm”, then the uncertainty is doubled. The total uncertainty is the sum of the uncertainty of each individual reading, hence if there are two readings, then the uncertainty is doubled. ‘Suggesting improvements Students may be asked to suggest improvements regarding the reliability and accuracy of a practical One way to increase reliability is to do repeats of the same practical. With the results of the repeats, anomalies can be identified and excluded from the mean, hence minimising the effect of anomalies on the results. While repeats are more often performed to gain quantitative data, qualitative data eg. food tests may sometimes require repeats as well Another way to improve practicals is to better standardise the controlled variables, which are the variables held constant in a practical. Common controlled variables include: temperature, pH, mass, length. Better methods of standardising these variables may include using more accurate or controlled equipment, eg. a thermostatically controlled water bath to standardise temperature. ‘A method to improve the accuracy of students’ results by using different apparatus to measure the dependent variable. This involves using more accurate measuring equipment, eg. a Vernier calliper as opposed to a ruler, or through using quantitative data rather than qualitative observations, eg. using a colorimeter to determine colour change rather than using sight. Lastly, students may be asked to evaluate the validity of a method. Validity is a measure of how sound or fair the practical is, which is to measure if the variable measured is actually what the practical aims to. Validity is lowered due to confounding variables, which is a variable other © wwwpnteducation OOOO PMTEducation-resaurces-tuen-couses than the independent variable that also varies in the practical to affect the dependent variable. Students may be asked to evaluate the validity of a practical by identifying the possible confounding variables. © wwwpnteducation OOOO PMTEducation= — Planning experiments and investigations Outlining the plan A practical plan should be organised into different subsections with these headings: hypothesis, variables, method, risk assessment, collection and analysis of results. Variables The 3 variables that students should identify are the dependent variable, independent variable and controlled variables. The dependent variable is what is measured in the practical, the independent variable is what is varied, and the controlled variables are what are kept constant in the practical. Students should describe how these variables are measured, varied or controlled, including the apparatus needed eg. measure length with a ruler. When stating the dependent variable, state exactly what is being measured rather than the final processed result eg. number of bubbles formed rather than the rate of photosynthesis. Method Outline the practical procedure. Make sure to specifically state the apparatus used, eg. volume of beakers and measuring cylinders used. It is important to select apparatus of the appropriate precision to make sure the measurements are accurate. Acontrol may be necessary. A control is to show the actual effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, this can be done by replacing enzyme solution with distilled water, or replacing a live organism with a dead organism. Some examples of important procedures to keep in mind include: when inserting a shoot into a potometer, make sure the cut of the shoot is slanted and underwater, for respirometer practicals, the air must be replaced between each set-up. Risk assessment Identify any safety hazards in the practical, and state the level of risk involved. For every hazard, suggest a suitable precaution to take, Some practicals involving animals may involve ethical concerns. If any, state the ethical issues and the steps you will take to minimise them. For example, minimise exposure to stressful testing conditions, and for humans, gain consent before testing and allow participants to stop at any point during the practical. Suggested practical topics for paper 5 Respirometer Potometer Gel electrophoresis Reaction time Enzyme activity Photosynthesis, ‘Sampling (random and systematic) © wwwpnteducation OOOO PMTEducation= — PM Osmosis Microscopy Chromatography Students can practise planning each of these practicals by outlining the procedure, dependent, independent and controlled variables, risk assessment and suggest improvements. © wwwpnteducation OOOO PMTEducation