Introduction to the Endocrine

System
& mechanism of action of
hormones.
Learning Outcomes
1. List the major endocrine glands and the hormones
associated with each.
2. Describe the functions of the hormones secreted
from the following endocrine glands
• hypothalamus,
• the pituitary gland,
• the thyroid gland,
• the parathyroid glands,
• the adrenal glands,
• the pancreas.
The Endocrine System
• Includes all endocrine cells and tissues
• Functions together with nervous system
• Regulates the body activities
• Maintains homeostasis
The Endocrine cells
• glandular secretory cells
• release their secretions into the extracellular fluid
• Hormones are chemical messengers released in
one tissue and transported by the bloodstream to
target cells in other tissues
Organs and Tissues of the
Endocrine System
• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Pineal gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid glands
• Adrenal glands
• Pancreas (Pancreatic islets)
• Organs with secondary endocrine functions (heart,
thymus, adipose tissue, digestive tract, kidneys,
gonads)
1
Three Groups of Hormones
• Based on their chemical structure:
1. Amino acid derivatives (e.g. epinephrine,
norepinephrine, thyroid hormones)
2. Peptide hormones (e.g. antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin)
3. Lipid derivatives (e.g. corticosteroids, sex hormones)
Hormone Action
• Change types, activities, locations, or quantities of
structural proteins and enzymes
• Sensitivity of target cell to hormone depends on
presence or absence of receptors for that
hormone
• Receptors are located either on plasma membrane
or inside the cell
2

Mechanism of Hormonal Action

Hormone released from endocrine cell
↓
Enters the blood circulation
↓
Distributed throughout the body
↓
Bind to receptor of target cell (Lock & Key combination)
↓
Hormonal effects
3

Figure 10-2 The Role of Target Cell Receptors in Hormone Action.

1
Endocrine cells
release hormone.

Hormone is distributed
throughout the body.
2
Hormone enters
the bloodstream.

NEURAL TISSUE

4
3 If receptors are not present, no
Binding at receptor binding occurs, and there is no
sites initiates change in cellular activity.
hormonal effects.
Receptor

Hormone-receptor
SKELETAL MUSCLE complex
TISSUE
Control of Endocrine Activity
• negative feedback control for the majority of
hormones
• ↑ blood hormone levels inhibit further secretion of
the hormone
• ↓ blood hormone levels stimulate further
secretion of the hormone
4

Negative Feedback control

Hypothalamus (detector)
↓
Releasing hormones
↓ stimulation
Inhibition
Anterior lobe of pituitary gland (control center)
↓
Tropic hormones to target endocrine glands
↓
Raised blood levels of target gland hormones

Use of hormones

Lower blood levels of target gland hormones

Hypothalamus and Endocrine
Control
• Hypothalamus provides highest level of endocrine
control
• Hypothalamus regulate nervous and endocrine
systems in three ways
1. Secretes two hormones directly into general circulation:
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
2. Secretes releasing and inhibiting regulatory hormones
to control anterior pituitary secretions
3. Contains ANS centers that control adrenal medullae
through sympathetic innervation
5

Figure 10-4 Hypothalamic Control over Endocrine Function.

1 2 3
Production of Secretion of regulatory Control of
antidiuretic hormones to control sympathetic
hormone (ADH) and activity of the anterior output to adrenal
oxytocin (OXT) lobe of pituitary gland medullae

HYPOTHALAMUS
Preganglionic
motor fibers

Adrenal gland
Infundibulum Adrenal cortex

Adrenal medulla

Posterior lobe
Anterior lobe of pituitary gland
of pituitary gland

Hormones secreted by the anterior Release of antidiuretic hormone Secretion of epinephrine (E)
pituitary control other endocrine organs (ADH) and oxytocin (OXT) and norepinephrine (NE)
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Diagram 1,4 • Diagram 2, 3, 5
• Definition of hormone • Organs with secondary
• List of endocrine organs endocrine functions
• Hormone action • Three groups of
hormones
• Negative feedback
mechanism
• Role of hypothalamus
in feedback mechanism
The Pituitary Gland
Learning Outcomes
• Describe the location, hormones, and functions of
the pituitary gland.
The Pituitary Gland (Location)
• Also called the hypophysis
• Protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
• Hangs from hypothalamus by infundibulum
• Divided into anterior and posterior lobes
6

Figure 10-5 The Location and Anatomy of the Pituitary Gland.

Anterior Posterior
Third Mammillary lobe lobe
ventricle body

HYPOTHALAMUS

Optic
chiasm
Infundibulum

Anterior lobe
Posterior
lobe

Secretes other Secretes Releases

Sphenoid
pituitary hormones MSH ADH and OXT
(sella turcica)
Pituitary gland LM × 77

a Relationship of the pituitary gland to b Histology of the pituitary gland showing

the hypothalamus the anterior and posterior lobes
The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary
Gland
• Also known as adenohypophysis
• Contains endocrine cells
• Cells are surrounded by a complex capillary bed
called the hypophyseal portal system
• Regulatory hormones from the hypothalamus
diffuse onto target cell in anterior lobe through
hypophyseal portal system
7

Figure 10-6 The Hypophyseal Portal System and the Blood Supply to the Pituitary Gland.
Hypothalamic nuclei Hypothalamic neurons
producing ADH producing regulatory
and oxytocin hormones

Mammillary
body

The superior hypophyseal artery delivers

Optic blood to a capillary network in the upper
chiasm infundibulum.

Capillary network

The portal vessels deliver blood containing

Infundibulum
regulatory factors to the capillary network in
the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Anterior lobe of
the pituitary gland

Capillary network in The inferior hypophyseal artery delivers

the anterior lobe blood to the posterior lobe of the pituitary
Posterior lobe of gland.
the pituitary gland

Endocrine cells Hypophyseal veins carry blood containing

the pituitary hormones to the
cardiovascular system for delivery to the
rest of the body.
Seven hormones from Anterior
Lobe of the Pituitary Gland
1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
3. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
4. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
5. Prolactin (PRL)
6. Growth hormone (GH)
7. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone
(TSH)
• Released in response to thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus
• Targets thyroid gland and triggers the release of
thyroid hormones
• Increases in thyroid hormones cause decrease in
TRH and TSH secretion
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH)
• Released in response to corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus
• Targets adrenal cortex and stimulates secretion of
glucocorticoids
• Increases in glucocorticoids cause decrease in ACTH
and CRH secretion
Gonadotropins
• Released in response to gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) from hypothalamus
• Target the male and female gonads
• Includes two hormones
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Follicle-stimulating Hormone
(FSH)
• Females
• Promotes ovarian follicles development
• Secretion of oestrogen
• Males
• Promotes sperm maturation
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• Females
• Induces ovulation
• Secretion of estrogens and progesterone
• Males
• Secretion of testosterone
Prolactin (PRL)
• Released in response to prolactin-releasing factor
(PRF) from the hypothalamus
• Targets mammary glands in females
• In pregnancy and nursing, stimulates production of
milk
Growth Hormone (GH)

• Regulated by:
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GH–RH) and
growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GH–IH) from the
hypothalamus

• Stimulates cell growth and replication of all cells,

especially skeletal muscle and chondrocytes
Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone
• Increases activity of melanocytes in skin to increase
melanin production
• Appears to be nonfunctional in adults
8

Figure 10-7a Negative Feedback Control of Endocrine Secretion.

Hypothalamus Releasing Hormone 1 Endocrine Hormone 2
hormone (from target (from target
(RH) pituitary) organ organ)

TRH TSH Thyroid Thyroid

RH gland hormones

Pituitary CRH ACTH Adrenal Gluco-

gland cortex corticoids

Testes Inhibin
FSH Inhibin
Anterior Ovaries
Estrogens
lobe
GnRH
Testes Androgens
LH Progesterone
Ovaries
Hormone 1 Estrogens

Negative feedback
Endocrine
organ KEY
Stimulation
Hormone 2 Inhibition

Target cells

a A typical pattern of regulation when multiple endocrine organs are involved.

The hypothalamus produces a releasing hormone (RH) to stimulate
hormone production by other glands; control occurs by negative feedback.
9
Negative feedback loops affecting hypothalamic and
anterior pituitary hormones

Hypothalamus
(Tropic hormone 1)
Negative feedback
(Short loop)

Anterior pituitary
Negative feedback (Tropic hormone 2)
(Long loop)

Endocrine gland
(Hormone 3
secretion)

Tropic hormone is
a hormone that regulates
the secretion of other Target cell
hormones response
10

Figure 10-7b Negative Feedback Control of Endocrine Secretion.

Stimulation Stimulation
PIH GH–IH
Inhibition GH–RH
PRF Inhibition

Anterior Anterior
lobe lobe

Epithelia,
GH adipose tissue,
PRL
liver
Liver

Stimulates
mammary Somatomedins
glands

Stimulates growth of skeletal muscle,

cartilage, and many other tissues

b Variations on the theme outlined in part (a). Left: The regulation of prolactin
(PRL) production by the anterior lobe. In this case, the hypothalamus
produces both a releasing factor (PRF) and an inhibiting hormone (PIH);
when one is stimulated, the other is inhibited. Right: the regulation of
growth hormone (GH) production by the anterior lobe; when GH–RH release
is inhibited, GH–IH release is stimulated.
The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary
Gland
• The two hormones secreted by neurons in the
hypothalamus and transported to the posterior
pituitary are:
1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
2. Oxytocin (OXT)
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
• Stimuli for its release
• an increase in concentration of solutes in the blood
• decrease in blood volume and pressure
• Primary target is the kidneys
• Effects
• to increase reabsorption of water
Oxytocin (OXT)
• stimulates contraction of uterine muscles during
labor and delivery
• stimulates contraction of cells surrounding milk
secretory cells in mammary glands (milk letdown
reflex)
11

Figure 10-8 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets.

Hypothalamus KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES:
Direct Control Indirect Control through Release Direct Release ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone
by Nervous of Regulatory Hormones of Hormones TSH Thyroid-stimulating hormone
System Regulatory hormones are released Sensory Osmoreceptor GH Growth hormone
into the hypophyseal portal system stimulation stimulation PRL Prolactin
for delivery to the anterior lobe of FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone
the pituitary gland LH Luteinizing hormone
MSH Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
ADH Antidiuretic hormone
OXT Oxytocin

Posterior lobe
Anterior lobe of
of pituitary gland
Adrenal pituitary gland
medulla ADH
Adrenal ACTH
gland
Adrenal GH
TSH Kidneys
cortex OXT

Males: Smooth
Epinephrine and Liver MSH
Thyroid muscle in ductus
norepinephrine PRL FSH LH deferens and
gland
Somatomedins prostate gland

Females: Uterine
smooth muscle and
mammary glands
Glucocorticoids
(cortisol, Melanocytes (uncertain
corticosterone) significance in healthy
adults)
Bone, muscle, Ovaries
Testes of female
other tissues Mammary
of male
glands
Thyroid
hormones (T3, T4)
Inhibin Testosterone Estrogen Progesterone Inhibin
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Diagram 6, 9, 11 • Diagram 7, 8, 10
• Location of pituitary • Hypophyseal portal
gland system
• 9 hormones secreted
by pituitary
• Feedback system
The Thyroid Gland
Learning Outcomes
• Describe the anatomy of the thyroid gland.
• List the hormones secreted by the thyroid gland.
• Describe the effects of the thyroid hormones and
calcitonin.
Anatomy of the thyroid gland
• Location
• Structure
• Relations
• Histology
Anatomy of the thyroid gland
(Location)
• Reddish organ located in the neck at C5 to T1 level
• Lies on anterior surface of trachea and inferior to
the thyroid cartilage
• Moves with swallowing
Anatomy of the thyroid gland
(Structure)
• Surrounded by 2 coverings
• true capsule
• false capsule (pretracheal fascia)
• Has two lobes connected by a narrow isthmus
• Each lobe has an apex and a base
Anatomy of the thyroid gland
(Relations)
• Anteriolatral - neck muscles

• Lateral - carotid sheath (common carotid

artery, internal jugular vein, vagus nerve)

• Posterior – trachea, oesophagus, recurrent

laryngeal nerve
12
Figure 10-9a The Thyroid Gland.

Hyoid
bone

Thyroid
Internal artery
jugular vein
Thyroid cartilage
Thyroid vein

Thyroid Gland
Left lobe of
thyroid gland
Right lobe of
thyroid gland
Isthmus of
thyroid gland

Common
carotid artery

Thyroid veins

Trachea

Outline of
sternum

a Location and anatomy of the thyroid gland

Anatomy of the thyroid gland (The
Histology)
• Contains many spherical thyroid follicles
• Lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
• Filled with viscous colloid containing many proteins
and thyroid hormone molecules
• Surrounded by the network of capillaries
• Parafollicular cells or C cells (secrete calcitonin)
13

Figure 10-9b-c The Thyroid Gland.

Thyroid Cuboidal epithelium

follicles C cell of follicle

Thyroid hormones
Follicle cavities C cell stored in colloid
of follicle

Capillary

Capsule Follicles of the thyroid gland LM × 260

b Histological organization of the thyroid c Histological details of the thyroid gland

Formation of Thyroid Hormones
• Follicular cells make thyroid hormones and store in
colloid
• TSH causes release of thyroid hormones
• Derived from amino acid tyrosine, and iodine
• Thyroxine (T4) or tetraiodothyronine has four atoms
of iodine
• Triiodothyronine (T3) has three iodine atoms
• More potent than T4
The Effects of Thyroid Hormones
• Affect nearly every cell in body
• Increase rate of ATP production in mitochondria
• Essential to normal development of skeletal,
muscular, and nervous systems (for normal
development of the brain especially during the 1st
year of life)
Regulation of thyroid hormones
secretion
• A negative feedback mechanism
• Hypothalamic control of TSH
• TRH from the hypothalamus -> acts on the anterior pituitary->
control the release of TSH
• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the
anterior pituitary -> ↑ thyroid hormones secretion
• Feedback control by plasma T4 & T3
• ↓ T4 & T3 -> stimulates TSH
• ↑ T4 & T3 -> inhibits TSH
14

Hypothalamus
releases TRH
Homeostasis
Disturbed
Decreased T3 and TRH
T4 concentrations
in blood or low
body temperature
Anterior
lobe
Pituitary
gland
HOMEOSTASIS
Normal T3 and T4 Anterior
concentrations, lobe
normal body
temperature
TSH

Homeostasis
Restored
Increased T3 and
T4 concentrations
Thyroid
in blood
gland

Thyroid follicles
release T3 and T4

The regulation of thyroid secretion

Calcitonin
• Secreted by the parafollicular cells or C cells
• Decreases the blood calcium levels
• Targets
• Kidneys (increased calcium excretion)
• Bones (increased calcium deposition)
15

The picture can't be displayed.

Effectors Increased excretion of

Secrete Respond with
calcitonin
calcium by kidneys
Kidney, bone
Calcium deposition
in bone
Receptors
C cells in
Homeostasis thyroid gland Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY

INCREASING DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED
blood calcium blood calcium

HOMEOSTASIS
levels levels

NORMAL BLOOD CALCIUM LEVELS

(8.5–11 mg/dL)
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Diagram 12, 15 • Diagram 13, 14
• Location of thyroid • Formation of thyroid
• Structures close to thyroid hormone
• Microscopic structure of • Regulation of thyroid
thyroid hormone
• Thyroid hormones
• Effects of thyroid hormone
• Calcitonin- details later
with parathyroid gland
The Parathyroid Glands
Learning Outcomes
• Discuss the regulation of blood calcium levels.
• Describe the location, hormones, and functions of
the parathyroid glands
The Parathyroid Glands
• Two pairs of small glands embedded in posterior
surface of thyroid
• Parathyroid (chief) cells produce parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid
glands
Left lobe of
thyroid gland
The Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Increases blood calcium levels
• Targets
• Kidneys (increased reabsorption of calcium)
• Bones (increased calcium release)
• GIT (increased calcitriol production by kidneys causes
calcium absorption by GIT)
16

Figure 10-10b The Homeostatic Regulation of Calcium Ion Concentrations.

The picture can't be displayed.

HOMEOSTASIS
NORMAL BLOOD CALCIUM LEVELS
Homeostasis (8.5–11 mg/dL) Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY
STIMULUS RESTORED INCREASING
DECREASING

blood calcium blood calcium

levels Receptors levels
Increased reabsorption of
Chief cells in
calcium by kidneys
parathyroid glands
Calcium release from bone
Effectors
Increased calcitriol
Secrete Kidneys, bone, Respond with production by kidneys
parathyroid digestive causes Ca2+ absorption
hormone (PTH) tract by digestive tract
Regulation of blood calcium levels
• By two hormones
1. Calcitonin
2. Parathyroid hormones (PTH)
17

Figure 10-10 The Homeostatic Regulation of Calcium Ion Concentrations.

Effectors Increased excretion of

Secrete Respond with
calcitonin
calcium by kidneys
Kidney, bone
Calcium deposition
in bone
Receptors
C cells in
Homeostasis thyroid gland Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY

INCREASING DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED
blood calcium blood calcium

HOMEOSTASIS
levels levels

NORMAL BLOOD CALCIUM LEVELS

Homeostasis (8.5–11 mg/dL) Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY
STIMULUS RESTORED
DECREASING INCREASING

blood calcium blood calcium

Receptors
levels levels
Increased reabsorption of
Chief cells in
calcium by kidneys
parathyroid glands
Calcium release from bone
Effectors
Increased calcitriol
Secrete Kidneys, bone, Respond with production by kidneys
parathyroid digestive causes Ca2+ absorption
hormone (PTH) tract by digestive tract
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Diagram 16, 17 • Target organs of PTH
• Hormones secreted by • Regulation of blood
parathyroid gland calcium levels using
• Action of PTH PTH & calcitonin
The Adrenal Glands
Learning outcomes
• Describe the anatomy of the adrenal glands.
• List the hormones secreted from the adrenal
glands.
• Describe the effects of the adrenal hormones.
Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands
• Location
• Structure
• Relations
• Histology
Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands
(Location)
• Also called the suprarenal glands
• Yellow, pyramid-shaped, retroperitoneal organs
• Located on superior border of each kidney
• Lies at the level of 12th ribs
• Firmly attached to the kidneys by the fibrous
capsule
• Highly vascularized
Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands
(Structure)
• Two portions
1. Adrenal cortex (Outer part)
2. Adrenal medulla (Inner part)
Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands
(Relations)
• Right adrenal gland
• Pyramidal in shape
• Lies behind the right lobe of liver, the inferior vena cava
• Left adrenal gland
• Crescent shaped
• Lies behind: the pancreas, the stomach
18

The picture can't be displayed.

Left adrenal gland

Arteries

Left renal artery

Left renal vein

Abdominal aorta
Capsule
Inferior vena cava
Cortex
Medulla
a A superficial view of the left kidney and adrenal gland

b An adrenal gland
in section
Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands
(Histology)
• Outer Cortex (yellowish)
• divided into 3 zones
• Zona glomerulosa
• Zona fasciculata
• Zona reticularis
• Inner Medulla (reddish)
Adrenal Cortex
• Zona Glomerulosa
• Outer most layer
• Produce mineralocorticoids
• Zona Fasciculata
• Forms 78% of cortical volume
• Produce glucocorticoids
• Zona Reticularis
• Narrow band next to medulla
• Produce small amount of androgens (gonadocorticoids)
Adrenal Medulla
• Produce catecholamines

• Adrenaline (epinephrine)

• Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
19
Mineralocorticoids
• Affect electrolyte balance in body fluids
• Aldosterone
• The principal mineralocorticoids
• Secreted in response to low plasma Na+, low BP, high
plasma K+, or presence of angiotensin II
• Triggers reabsorption of sodium ions and elimination of
potassium ions
Glucocorticoids
• Affect glucose metabolism
• Most important are cortisol (hydrocortisone),
corticosterone, and cortisone
• Secreted in response to ACTH
• Increase rates of glucose synthesis and glycogen
formation, resulting in increase in blood glucose levels
• Also act as anti-inflammatory
The Androgens
• Small quantities produced in both males and
females
• Stimulate development of pubic hair in boys and
girls before puberty
• Not important in adult men
• In adult women, produce muscle mass, blood cell
formation, and support sex drive
The Catecholamines
• Epinephrine (adrenaline)
• Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
• Increase cardiac activity, blood pressure, glycogen
breakdown, blood glucose levels, release of lipids
by adipose tissue
20 The Adrenal Gland and Adrenal Hormones.

The Adrenal Hormones

Region/Zone Hormones Target Effects

ADRENAL CAPSULE
ADRENAL CORTEX Mineralocorticoids, Kidneys Increase reabsorption of Na+
Zona primarily aldosterone and water by the kidneys;
glomerulosa accelerate urinary loss of K+
Zona fascicu- Glucocorticoids: Most cells Release of amino acids from
lata (cortisol skeletal muscles, and lipids
[hydrocortisone], from adipose tissues; pro-
corticosterone) mote liver formation of
glucose and glycogen; pro-
mote use of lipids; anti-
inflammatory effects

Zona reticu- Androgens Most cells Stimulate development of

laris pubic hair in boys and girls
before puberty

ADRENAL MEDULLAEpinephrine Most cells Increase cardiac activity,

(E, adrenaline) blood pressure, glycogen
Norepinephrine breakdown, blood glucose
(NE, noradrenaline) levels; release of lipids by
Adrenal gland LM × 70 adipose tissue
c The major regions and zones of an adrenal gland and the hormones they produce
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Diagram 18, 19 • Diagram 20
• Adreanl cortex, medulla • Location of adrenal
• Zone of adrenal cortex glands
and hormones secreted • Right & left adrenal
by individual zones glands
• Actions of
mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids,
androgens &
catecholamines
The Pancreas
• Describe the anatomy of the pancreas.
• List the hormones secreted by the pancreas.
• Describe the effects of the insulin and glucagon.
• Discuss the regulation of blood glucose levels.
Anatomy of the Pancreas
• Location
• Structure
• Relations
• Histology
Anatomy of the Pancreas
(Location)
• Pale nodular organ within the abdominal cavity
• Retroperitoneal, behind the stomach
Anatomy of the Pancreas
(Structure)
• has the head, body and tail
Anatomy of the Pancreas
(Relations)
• Anteriorly
• transverse colon, stomach
• Posteriorly
• bile duct, inferior vena cava, aorta, left
kidney, spleen
Anatomy of the Pancreas
(Histology)
• Has exocrine and endocrine functions
• 2 million islets of Langerhans in endocrine
pancreas
• 1% of pancreatic cells
• Surrounded by extensive capillary network
• Alpha (α)cells produce glucagon
• Beta (β) cells produce insulin
21

Pancreatic acini
(clusters of
exocrine cells)

Pancreatic islet
(islet of Langerhans)
Capillary

Pancreatic islet LM × 400

Blood Glucose and Insulin
• Increases in blood glucose levels activate beta cells
to release more insulin
• Stimulates glucose uptake by cells that have insulin
receptors,
• Increases rates of protein synthesis and fat storage
• Result is lower blood glucose levels
22

The Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentrations.

The picture can't be displayed.

Increased rate of glucose

transport into target cells
Effectors
Secrete Respond with Increased rate of glucose
insulin All body cells use and ATP generation

Increased conversion of
glucose to glycogen
Receptors Increased amino acid absorp-
Beta cells in tion and protein synthesis
pancreatic islets
Increased triglyceride (fat)
Homeostasis synthesis in adipose tissue Homeostasis
Pancreas
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY

INCREASING DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED
blood glucose blood glucose

HOMEOSTASIS
levels levels

NORMAL BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS

(70–110 mg/dL)
Blood Glucose and Glucagon
• Decreases in blood glucose levels activate alpha
cells to release more glucagon
• Mobilizes energy reserves
• Glycogen in liver and muscles broken down to glucose
• Adipose tissue releases fatty acids
• Result is higher blood glucose levels
23

The Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentrations.

The picture can't be displayed.

HOMEOSTASIS
NORMAL BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS
Homeostasis (70–110 mg/dL) Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY

DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED INCREASING

blood glucose Receptors blood glucose

levels Increased breakdown of levels
Alpha cells in glycogen to glucose (in liver,
pancreatic islets skeletal muscle)
Pancreas Effectors Increased breakdown of fat to
fatty acids (in adipose tissue)
Secrete Liver, Respond with
glucagon skeletal muscle, Increased synthesis and
adipose tissue release of glucose (in liver)
24 The Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentrations.

Increased rate of glucose

transport into target cells
Effectors Respond with Increased rate of glucose
Secrete
insulin All body cells use and ATP generation

Increased conversion of
glucose to glycogen
Receptors Increased amino acid absorp-
Beta cells in tion and protein synthesis
pancreatic islets
Increased triglyceride (fat)
Homeostasis synthesis in adipose tissue
Homeostasis
Pancreas
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY

INCREASING DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED
blood glucose blood glucose

HOMEOSTASIS
levels levels

NORMAL BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS

Homeostasis (70–110 mg/dL) Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY
STIMULUS RESTORED INCREASING
DECREASING

blood glucose Receptors blood glucose

levels Increased breakdown of levels
Alpha cells in glycogen to glucose (in
pancreatic islets
liver, skeletal muscle)
Pancreas Effectors Increased breakdown of fat to
fatty acids (in adipose tissue)
Secrete Liver, Respond with
glucagon skeletal muscle, Increased synthesis and
adipose tissue release of glucose (in liver)
Regulation of Blood Glucose
1. Secretion of insulin and glucagon
2. Indirectly affected by any hormone that also
influences blood glucose levels
• Examples: cortisol and thyroid hormones
3. Also affected by ANS activity
• Parasympathetic stimulation enhances insulin release
• Sympathetic stimulation inhibits insulin release
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Diagram 22, 23 • Diagram 21,24
• Structure of pancreas • Location & relations of
• Endocrine cells of pancreas
pancreas • Actions of insulin &
• Insulin & glucagon glucagon
• Regulation of blood • Details of blood glucose
glucose regulation