Unit 2

Comprehensive skills

1. Concern logical fallacies-

Logical fallacies are arguments that may sound convincing, but are based on faulty
logic and are therefore invalid. They may result from innocent errors in reasoning, or
be used deliberately to mislead others.

fallacy
/ˈfaləsi/

noun
plural noun: fallacies
1. a mistaken belief, especially one based on unsound arguments.

What is a logical fallacy?

A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning that can invalidate your argument. Not every logical
fallacy sounds the same. While some have obvious inconsistencies, others are subtle enough
to go undetected. Understanding common logical fallacies is an important part of judging
other's arguments and crafting your own. When you use logic that is consistent and makes
sense, your employer and colleagues are more likely to take your arguments seriously.
1. The correlation/causation fallacy
This fallacy is when people believe that correlation equals connection. Oftentimes,
correlations happen by coincidence or outside forces. They don't necessarily mean that one
thing is directly causing the other. Although this argument may seem easy to notice in theory,
it can be challenging to determine in reality.
Example: "Our website got a lot of new traffic last week. We also changed the font on our
website last week. This leads me to believe that our new font is the reason we got more
website views."
2. The bandwagon fallacy
This fallacy is based on the idea that if many people agree on the same point, it must be true.
The issue with this kind of argument is that just because an idea is popular, it is not
automatically right or true. When people use this kind of argument, it can lead to major issues
for the company. By taking a step back to observe how things really are, you can make
meaningful changes in your workplace. Believing this kind of fallacy can make you
susceptible to peer pressure.
Example: "Everyone is happy with our company's policies. This means that there is no need
to get feedback from our new employees."
3. The anecdotal evidence fallacy
Rather than using hard facts and data, people using the anecdotal evidence fallacy base their
arguments on their own experiences. These kinds of arguments focus on emotions over logic.
They do not recognize that one person's experience may not provide sufficient evidence to
make a generalized claim. While something may be true to this one person, it may not apply
to the general population.
Example: "Whenever I use our email system, I always experience glitches. I think we need to
replace the entire system for the company."
4. The straw man fallacy
The straw man fallacy gets its name because it is an argument that is thin and has no
substance. It occurs when your opponent argues against a position you aren't even trying to
present. With this tactic, they tend to misrepresent or alter the points you are making. Rather
than debating your actual argument, they are attacking a weaker or entirely untrue version of
what you really meant
.Example:
Person A: "I think that George is a talented copywriter and should be promoted
Person B: "So what you're saying is that all of our other copywriters are untalented? That
kind of attitude is hurtful to our team."
5. The false dilemma fallacy
This fallacy argues that you can break all arguments into two opposing views. The reality is
that most subjects have a spectrum of views and opinions. Rather than assuming an issue is
clear-cut between two arguments, they typically are more fluid and nuanced. The main
drawback of this kind of fallacy is that it makes the other party look unreasonable. Instead of
trying to compromise, those using this kind of argument try to make their opponent look
more extreme.
Example: "If our competitor believes in this cause, then it must be wrong. We should avoid
supporting this cause since their ideals are so different from ours."
6. The slothful induction fallacy
People use the slothful induction fallacy when they ignore substantial evidence and make
their claim based on a coincidence or something entirely irrelevant. With this kind of
argument, there is research or evidence that clearly indicates that something is true. The
person making their argument may choose or fail to acknowledge this.
Example:
Person A: "I was excited to see that our on boarding process increased our employee
retention rates. When I interviewed our employees last week, 98% of them said they are still
with the company because of the support they got when they first started.
Person B: "I think the real reason everyone likes it here is that we allow dogs in the office."
7. The hasty generalization fallacy
When someone comes to a conclusion based on weak evidence, they are using the hasty
generalization fallacy. Those using this argument fail to use well-researched and proven
evidence to make their claims. Instead, they may pick and choose a few key details that
happen to fit their position. While one piece of evidence can prove their argument, they fail to
address counterarguments or other types of evidence that may invalidate their claims.
Example: "Sydney learned a lot from our last company retreat. We need to spend a large
portion of our budget sending our entire company on annual retreats so that we can all learn
8. The middle ground fallacy
Those using this kind of argument believe that finding a compromise between two
contrasting points must be the right solution. What they may not realize is that there may be
better solutions that are entirely unrelated to those two opposing arguments. In reality, these
arguments may be completely invalid, which would mean finding a middle ground wouldn't
necessarily be the right decision.
Example: "I think our employer should raise our salaries while Jenny thinks they should stay
the same. To compromise, our employer is giving us a small end-of-the-year bonus."
9. The burden of proof fallacy
The burden of proof fallacy is when you assume something is true simply because there is no
evidence against it. Those using this argument claim that their ideas and opinions are correct
because they cannot find any other sources that oppose what they have to say.
Example: "Everyone loves our marketing campaign because I haven't heard anyone say
otherwise.
10. The no true Scotsman fallacy
This fallacy is when one person protects their generalized claim by denying counterexamples.
They do this by changing the initial terms of their generalization to invalidate any
counterexamples that might exist.
Example:
Person A: "Every writer loves using the Oxford comma
Person B: "Well, actually, many writers who follow AP style do not use the Oxford comma.
Person A: "Then writers who use AP style must not be true writers
11. The Texas sharpshooter fallacy
This fallacy gets its name from a story where a man shoots his gun at a wall and draws a
target around the bullet holes afterward. He then shows people the target to prove that he has
excellent aim. Essentially, this fallacy is when you pick specific evidence or data that fits
your claim while ignoring the rest of the information you have. Researchers often need to be
careful about only picking sets of data that support their hypothesis when they should be
looking at everything they collected
.Example: "Jeremy claims he is a successful businessman because he landed five new clients
this month. What he fails to mention is that his sales are down 50% this year."

12. The tu quoque fallacy

Rather than coming up with a valid counterargument, those using the tu quoque fallacy
invalidate their opponent's criticisms by addressing them with another criticism. With this
kind of argument, you find a way to attack your opponent instead of coming up with a logical
reason to argue against their original claim.
Example:
Person A: "I think you need more project management experience before you can qualify for
this promotion.
Person B: "You don't even have any project management experience, so who are you to
make this claim?"
13. The personal incredulity fallacy
When people find it challenging to understand why or how something is true, they may use
this argument to claim it is false. Even if a large group of people agrees that they find it
challenging to believe something is true, this doesn't automatically mean it is false. It may
simply mean that they need more context or information to fully understand the claim.
Example: "I don't understand how social media engagement is benefiting our brand, so I'm
only going to focus on traditional forms of marketing."
14. The appeal to authority fallacy
When people misuse authority, this kind of fallacy can occur. Those who use this fallacy
often put too much confidence into one person's opinions or thoughts. This is especially
evident when this person is arguing something outside of their expertise. Although asking an
authority figure to support your argument can be a good debate tactic, it can also become
misleading if you do it incorrectly. While it can be a feature of your debate, you should also
use researched-based facts and figures to prove your point
Example: "Our CEO says we don't need to worry about climate change, so I no longer need
to find out ways for our company to be more sustainable
15. The fallacy fallacy
While logical fallacies can undermine your argument, they don't necessarily render your
claims untrue. A fallacy fallacy is when someone notices your argument contains a fallacy,
which leads them to believe your entire claim is false. Even if someone has a weak argument,
you can still find that their point is true.In the example below, the first person uses a fallacy
to show that dogs are good companions. The second person uses the fallacy to prove them
wrong. The third person explains that even though the first person is using a fallacy to
support their claim, there actually is proof that dogs make good companions
.Example:
Person A: "Dogs are great companions because I love them.
"Person B: "Well, it's clear to me that you are using the anecdotal evidence fallacy to prove
your point. Due to this, I find it hard to believe that dogs make good pets.
"Person C: "While they are using that fallacy, there is plenty of hard evidence that does
prove that does are good companions."

What can I do to counter logical fallacies?

If you're speaking with someone who's using logical fallacies, the first step is to identify the
tactic clearly. To do this, it's vital that you understand the different types of fallacies and why
they invalidate an argument. Then, you can explain your opponent's fallacy to them and to the
rest of the audience uing examples or analogies. Changing the context of the fallacy can often
show why it doesn't prove the point in question.In some cases, a speaker might be using a
fallacy intentionally, although this is rare. If you're speaking to someone who's using
fallacious arguments unintentionally, remain calm and explain why the arguments are
incorrect without assigning fault. In some cases, it may be impossible to dismantle logical
fallacies, and you may have to modify your tactics. For example, if your colleague is using
emotional arguments, it may be helpful to calm the audience's emotions rather than using
logical proofs.

Why is it important to understand logical fallacies?

When we speak with others or consume media, we can be subject to persuasion. This is why
it's important to think carefully about the arguments you hear. Learning to identify logical
fallacies is a good way to improve your critical thinking and avoid erroneous opinions.
Knowing about logical fallacies can also help you improve your own thinking and make more
effective arguments.