ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2022-2024 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Shouryasena Reddy Pamulapati for personal use only.
CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Multiples
1. Physical Quantities and Multiple Prefix Symbol

Units 12
10 Tera (T )
9
10 Giga (G)
6
1.1. Physical Quantities 10 Mega (M )
3
10 Kilo (k)
All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude
ㅤ

Sub-Multiplesㅤ

Sub-multiple Prefix Symbol

and a unit:
10 −3 Milli (m)
10 −6 Micro (μ)
Estimating Physical Quantitiesㅤ 10 −9 Nano (n)
Quantity Estimate
10 −12 Pico (p)
Height of an Adult Human 2m
The mass of an adult human 70 kg 1.3. Errors and Uncertainties
Mass of a car 1000 kg Systematic Errors:
Power of a lightbulb 60 W Constant error in one direction: too big or too small
Errors made by instruments used and wrong
Speed of sound in air 330 ms−1
techniques
Speed of a car on the motorway 30 ms−1 It cannot be eliminated by repeating or averaging
Weight of an apple 1N If systematic error is small, measurement is accurate
Density of water 1000 kgm−3 Accuracy: the degree of agreement between the
result of a measurement and the true value of
Time taken for a sprinter to run
10 s quantity.
100m
Random Errors:
Current in a domestic appliance 13 A Random fluctuations or scatter about a true value
E.M.F of a car battery 12 V Caused by the observers and environmental
techniques
Atmospheric pressure 1.0 × 10 5 P a
This can be reduced by repeating and averaging
Young’s modulus of a given material Something × 10 11 When random error is small, measurement is precise
Precision: the degree of agreement of repeated
1.2. SI Units measurements of the same quantity (regardless of
whether it is close to the true value or not)
Quantity Base Unit
Calculations Involving Errorsㅤ
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg)
Length (l) Meter (m) For a quantity x = (5.0 ± 0.2)mm
Time (t) Second (s)
Absolute Uncertainty Δx = ±0.2mm
Temperature (T ) Kelvin (K ) Fractional Uncertainty = Δx x = 0.04 ​

Electric Current (I ) Ampere (A) Percentage Uncertainty = Δx x × 100% = 4% ​

Combining errors:
ㅤ When values are added or subtracted, add absolute
error
All units (excluding those above) can be broken down into 2x+y 2x−y 2Δx+Δy
If p = 3 or p = 3 ​,then Δp = 3
the base units
​ ​ ​

When values are multiplied or divided, add % errors

Homogeneity can be used to prove equations. When values are powered (e.g., squared), multiply the
An equation is homogenous if base units on the left side percentage error by the power
are the same as those on the right side.
If r = 2xy 3 , then Δr Δx
r = x + y
3Δy
​ ​ ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

1.4. Scalars and Vectors

Scalar: has magnitude only, cannot have direction
e.g., speed, energy, power, work, mass, distance
Vector: has magnitude and direction
e.g., displacement, acceleration, force, velocity
momentum, weight, electric field strength
2.4. Non-Linear Motion
Both scalars and vectors have magnitude and unit.
Velocity-time graph:

Gradient = acceleration
The area under graph = change in displacement

Uniform acceleration and straight-line motion equations:

v = u + at
s = ut + 12 at2 = vt − 12 at2
​ ​

s = 12 (u + v ) tv 2 = u 2 + 2as
​

A force vector can be split into its vertical and horizontal Acceleration of free fall = 9.81ms-2
components, which are independent.
Pythagoras theorem (a2 + b2 = c 2 ) and vector 2.5. Motion of Freefalling Bodies
parallelograms can add coplanar vectors.

2. Kinematics
Continues
2.1. Kinematics Concepts to curve as
Displacement
it
Distance: total length moved irrespective of direction accelerates
Displacement: shortest distance in a certain direction
Speed: distance traveled per unit of time, no direction
Velocity: the rate of change of displacement
Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
Graph
levels off as
2.2. Equations of Motions
it reaches
terminal
s = ut + 12 at2
velocity
​

v = u + at
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
s = (v1 +2 v2 ) × t
​ ​

2.3. Linear Motion Continues

to
Velocity
Distance: total length moved irrespective of direction accelerate
Displacement: distance in a certain direction constantly
Speed: distance traveled per unit of time, no direction
Velocity: the rate of change of displacement
Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
Displacement-time graph:
Gradient = velocity

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Continues
to curve as
Displacement
it
accelerates

Graph
curves as it
decelerates
and levels
off to
terminal
velocity
Acceleration Straight line
s = ut + 12 at2 and u = 0 ; s = 12 at2 i.e h = 12 gt2
​ ​ ​

Graph
curves 2.7. Projectile motion
down to
zero Projectile motion: uniform velocity in one direction and
because the constant acceleration in perpendicular direction
resultant
force
equals zero

2.6. Determining Acceleration of Free

Fall
A steel ball is held on an electromagnet.
When the electromagnet is switched off, the ball
interrupts a light beam, and a timer starts.
As the ball falls, it interrupts a second beam of light &
timer stopped
Vertical distance h is plotted against t2
Horizontal motion = constant velocity (speed at which
projectile is thrown)
Vertical motion = constant acceleration (caused by the
weight of the object, constant free fall acceleration)
Curved path – parabolic (y ∝ x2 )

Component of Velocity
Horizontal Vertical
Without air Increases at a constant
Constant
Resistance rate

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Component of Velocity Mass: is a measure of the amount of matter in a body, &

is the property of a body that resists change in motion.
Decreases to Increases to a constant
With Air resistance Weight: is the force of gravitational attraction (exerted by
zero value
the Earth) on a body.

2.8. Motion of a Skydiver 3.4. Elastic Collisions

Total momentum conserved
Total kinetic energy is conserved

Example: Two identical spheres collide elastically. Initially, X is

moving with speed v and Y is stationary. What happens after
the collision?

3. Dynamics
3.1. Newton’s Laws of Motion X stops and Y moves with speed v:
(relative velocity before collision) = (relative velocity after
First Law: if a body is at rest, it remains at rest, or if it is in collisions)
motion, it moves with a uniform velocity until it is acted on u A ​− u B ​= vB ​− vA
by resultant force or torque
​ ​ ​ ​

Second Law: the rate of change of momentum of a body is

proportional to the resultant force and occurs in the 3.5. Inelastic Collisions
direction of force; F = ma
Third Law: if a body A exerts a force on a body B , then relative speed of approach > relative speed of separation

body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A, Total momentum is conserved
forming an action-reaction pair Total kinetic energy is not conserved
Perfectly inelastic collision: only momentum is conserved,
3.2. Momentum and the particles stick together after collision (i.e. move
with the same velocity)
Linear Momentum: product of mass and velocity In inelastic collisions, total energy is conserved but Ek ​ ​

may be converted into other forms of energy e.g. heat

p = mv
Force: rate of change of momentum 3.6. Collisions in Two Dimensions
mv − mu
F = t ​ ​

Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum: when

bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains
constant, provided no external force acts on the system.

mA u A + mB u B = mA vA + mB vB ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

3.3. Mass and Weight

Mass Weight
Measured in kilograms Measured in Newtons
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Constant throughout the universe Not constant
W = mg

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Change in momentum (impulse) affecting each sphere

acts along line of impact
Law of conservation of momentum applies along line of
impact
Components of velocities of spheres along plane of
impact unchanged
Note the direction of the velocities when calculating

4. Forces, Density, and

Pressure Forces on masses in gravitational fields: a region of space
in which a mass experiences an (attractive) force due to
4.1. Introduction the presence of another mass.
Forces on charge in electric fields: a region of space
Force: rate of change of momentum where a charge experiences an (attractive or repulsive)
Density: mass per unit of volume of a substance force due to the presence of another charge.
Pressure: force per unit area Upthrust: an upward force exerted by a fluid on a
Finding resultant (nose to tail): submerged or floating object
By accurate scale drawing Origin of Upthrust:
Using trigonometry Pressure on Bottom Surface > Pressure on Top Surface
∴ Force on Bottom Surface > Force on Top Surface
⇒ Resultant force upwards
Frictional force: force that arises when two surfaces rub
Always opposes relative or attempted motion
Always acts along a surface
Value varies up to a maximum value
Viscous forces:
A force that opposes the motion of an object in a fluid;
Only exists when there is motion.
Its magnitude increases with the speed of the object
Centre of gravity: point through which the entire weight of
the object may be considered to act
Couple: a pair of forces which produce rotation only
To form a couple:

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Equal in magnitude
5.3. Gravitational, Elastic and Electric
Parallel but in opposite directions
Separated by a distance d Potential Energy
Moment of a Force: product of the force and the
perpendicular distance of its line of action to the pivot Gravitational Potential Energy:
ㅤ Energy possessed by a mass due to its position in the
gravitational field
ㅤM oment = F orce × ⊥Distance from P ivot Arises in a system of masses where there are
ㅤ attractive gravitational forces between them.
Elastic potential energy:
Torque of a Couple: the product of one of the forces of the Energy stored in a body due to a change in its shape
couple and the perpendicular distance between the lines Arises in a system of atoms where there are attractive
of action of the forces. / repulsive short-range inter-atomic forces between
ㅤ
them
Electric potential energy:
T orque = F orce × ⊥Distance between F orces
Arises in a system of charges where there are
ㅤ
attractive / repulsive electric forces between them
Conditions for Equilibrium:
The resultant force acting on it in any direction equals 5.4. Deriving Gravitational Potential
zero.
The resultant torque about any point is zero. Energy
Principle of Moments: for a body to be in equilibrium, the
sum of all the anticlockwise moments about any point W = F s & w = mg = F
must be equal to the sum of all the clockwise moments ∴ W = mg.s
about that same point. s in direction of force = h above ground
∴ W = mgh
4.2. Pressure in Fluids
5.5. Deriving Kinetic Energy
Fluids refer to both liquids and gases
Particles are free to move and have EK ∴ they collide
​

W = F s & F = ma
with each other and the container. This exerts a small ∴ W = ma.s
force over a small area causing pressure to form. v 2 = u 2 + 2as ⟹ as = 1 (v 2 − u2 )
2 ​

∴ W = m. 12 (v 2 − u 2 )
​

Derivation of Pressure in Fluids ∴ W = 12 mv 2 ​

Volume of water = A × h
5.6. Internal Energy
Mass of Water == density × volume = ρ × A × h
Weight of Water == mass × g = ρ × A × h × g Internal energy: sum of the K.E. of molecules due to its
Pressure = Force
ρ×A×h×g
Area =​

A ​= ρgh​
random motion & the P.E. of the molecules due to the
intermolecular forces.
Gases: k.e. > p.e.
5. Work, Energy, Power Molecules far apart and in continuous motion = k.e
Weak intermolecular forces so very little p.e.
5.1. Energy Conservation Liquids: k.e. ≈ p.e.
Molecules able to slide to past each other = k.e.
Law of Conservation of Energy: the total energy of an Intermolecular force present and keep shape = p.e.
isolated system cannot change—it is conserved over time. Solids: k.e. < p.e.
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but can
Molecules can only vibrate ∴ k.e. very little
change form, e.g. from g.p.e to k.e
Strong intermolecular forces p.e. high

5.2. Work Done

5.7. Power and Efficiency
Work done by a force: the product of the force and
Power: work done per unit of time
displacement in the direction of the force
W= Fs P ower = Work Done
Time Taken ​​

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Deriving it to form P = Fv Measure diameter of wire using micrometer screw gauge

Set up arrangement as diagram:
P = W.d
T ​& W .d. = F s
​

∴ P = Fs s
T = F ( t )​ ​ ​

∴ P = Fv
Efficiency: ratio of (useful) output energy of a machine to
the input energy
Useful Energy Ouput
Efficiency = Total Energy Input ​ × 100 Attach weights to end of wire and measure extension

6. Deformation of Solids
6.1. Stress and Strain
Deformation is caused by a force
Tensile force
Act away from each other, object stretched out and
increased in length (extension)
Compressive force Calculate Young’s Modulus using formula
Act towards each other, object squashed and
decreased in length (compression)
6.4. Stress, Strain and Young’s Modulus
Stress: the force applied per unit cross-sectional area

σ= F
A ​( N
​
m −2 ​or Pascals)
Strain: fractional increase in original length of wire

ε = xl ​(no units)
​

Young’s Modulus: ratio of stress to strain

E= σ
ε ​in N ​ m −2 ​or Pascals
Stress-Strain Graph:

6.2. Elastic and Plastic Behaviour

A spring produces an extension when a load is attached
Hooke’s law: the extension produced is proportional to the
applied force (due to the load) as long as the limit of
proportionality hasn't been reached.

F = ke
Where k is the spring constant (unit: force per unit
extension); e is the extension.

Limit of proportionality: the point beyond which the

extension is no longer proportional to the force
Calculating effective spring constants: Gradient = Young’s modulus
Area under the curve = work done per unit volume = energy
Series Parallel
stored per unit volume
1 1 1
kE ​ = k1 ​ + k2 ​
​ kE = k1 + k2 ​
​ ​ ​

Elastic deformation: when deforming forces are removed,

​ ​

the spring returns back to its original length

6.3. Determining Young’s Modulus

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Plastic deformation: when deforming forces are removed,

7.3. Phase Difference
the spring does not return to its original length
Elastic limit: maximum stress that can be applied before Phase difference between two waves is the difference in
causing plastic deformation
terms of fraction of a cycle or in terms of angles (A B)
Force-Extension Graph: Wave A leads wave B by θ or Wave B lags wave A by θ
Phase difference = xλ × 2π (unit: radians or degrees)
​

Gradient = Spring constant

The area under the curve = work done = strain energy stored

Strain energy: the potential energy stored in or work done

by an object when it is deformed elastically In phase (in step): phase difference = 0, 2π , …, 2nπ
Strain energy = area under force-extension graph Antiphase: phase difference = π , 3π , …, (2n + 1)π
W = 12 F x = 12 kx 2
7.4. Wave Graphs
​ ​

7. Waves
7.1. Progressive Waves
Wave motion: a propagation of disturbance that travels
from one location to another.
Displacement: distance of a point from its undisturbed
(equilibrium) position
Amplitude: maximum displacement of a particle from an
undisturbed position
Period: time taken for one complete oscillation
Frequency: number of oscillations per unit time
1
f= T​
​

Wavelength: distance from any point on the wave to the

next precisely similar point (e.g. crest to crest) Displacement-distance graph: for a fixed time
Wave speed: speed at which the waveform travels in the Displacement-time graph: for a fixed position
direction of the propagation of the wave
Progressive waves transfer energy from one position to
another.
7.5. Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

7.2. Deducing Wave Equation

Speed = Distance ​
Time ​

Distance of 1 wavelength is λ and time taken for this is T

∴ v = Tλ ​

f = T1 ​so v = fλ
​

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Source moving away from Observer:

Change in wavelength leads to change in frequency

Observed frequency (f0 ) is different from actual
​

frequency (fs ​); related by equation:

​

fs v
f0 =
​

v±vs ​
​

source moves towards observer: v − vs ,​f0 increases; ​ ​

blue shift
source moves away observer: v + vs ,​f0 decreases; red
​ ​

shift

where v is speed of wave and vs ​is speed of source relative

​

Used to determine frequency and amplitude to observer

Y-gain: increase in voltage per unit (determine amplitude)
Time-base: increase in time per unit (determine period 7.8. Transverse and Longitudinal waves
and frequency)
Transverse Waves
7.6. Intensity Oscillation of wave particles perpendicular to direction of
propagation
Rate of energy transmitted per unit area perpendicular to Polarization can occur
direction of wave propagation (unit: W m −2 ) E.g. light waves

Power
Intensity = Cross Sectional Area ​

Intensity ∝ Amplitude 2
Power Power
For a point source: Intensity = Cross Sectional Area = 4πr 2
​ ​

∴ Intensity ∝ r12 ​

∴ Amplitude ∝ r1 ​

7.7. The Doppler Effect

Arises when source of waves moves relative to observer
Can occur in all types of waves, including sound & light
Source stationary relative to Observer:

Longitudinal Waves
Oscillations of wave particle parallel to direction of
propagation
Polarization cannot occur
E.g. sound waves

Source moving towards Observer:

7.9. Polarization

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

8.2. Interference and Coherence

Interference: the superposition of two or more waves in
similar or same direction to give a resultant wave whose
amplitude is given by the principle of superposition.
Coherence: same type of waves having same
frequency/wavelength and a constant phase difference.
Constructive
Two sources in-phase: path difference = nλ
Two sources anti-phase: path difference = n λ2 ​

Destructive
Two sources in-phase: path difference = n λ2 ​

Two sources anti-phase: path difference = nλ

Polarization: the action of restricting the vibration of a

transverse wave wholly or partially to one direction.
ONLY transverse waves can be polarized.
Malus’ Law: I = I 0 c os2 θ
​

A = A0 c osθ , I ∝ A2
​

where I is the intensity, A is the amplitude, θ is the angle

between the
transmission axis of the polaroid and the plane of the incident
polarized wave.

7.10. Electromagnetic Waves

As electromagnetic wave progresses, wavelength
decreases and frequency increases n = 1, 2, 3, …

8.3. Two-Source Interference

Visible light: 400 nm - 700 nm

All electromagnetic waves:

All travel at the speed of light: 3 ∗ 10 8 ms− 1

Travel in free space (don’t need medium)
Can transfer energy
Are transverse waves

8. Superposition
Conditions for Observable Two-Source Interference:
8.1. Principle of Superposition Meet at a point
Must be of the same type
When two or more waves of the same type meet at a Must be coherent
point, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum of Must be unpolarized or have the same plane of
the individual displacements polarization

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Must have approximately the same amplitude Stationary waves will be produced by the direct and
Demonstrating Two-Source Interference: reflected waves in the string.

Water Ripple generators in a tank

Light Double slit interference
Microwaves Two microwave emitters

8.4. Formation of Stationary waves

Microwaves:
A stationary wave is formed when two progressive waves
A microwave emitter placed a distance away from a metal
of the same frequency, amplitude and speed, travelling in
plate that reflects the emitted wave.
opposite directions are superposed.
By moving a detector along the path of the wave, the
Node: region of destructive superposition where waves
nodes and antinodes could be detected.
always meet out of phase by π , ∴ displacement = zero
(closed end)
Antinode: region of constructive superposition where
waves meet in phase ∴ particle vibrate with max
amplitude (open end)

Air Columns:

A tuning fork held at the mouth of an open tube projects a

sound wave into the column of air in the tube.
The length can be changed by varying the water level.
Neighboring nodes & antinodes separated by 12 λ ​ At certain lengths tube, the air column resonates
Between 2 adjacent nodes, particles move in phase; they This is due to the formation of stationary waves by the
are out of phase with the particles between the next two incident and reflected sound waves at the water surface.
nodes by π Node always formed at surface of water
Stationary waves cannot transfer energy.

Stationary wave at different times:

8.5. Stationary Wave Experiments

8.6. Stationary and Progressive Waves
Stretched String:

String either attached to wall or attached to weight Stationary Waves Progressive Waves

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Stationary Waves Progressive Waves

Stores energy (cannot
Transmits energy
transfer energy)
Have nodes & antinodes No nodes & antinodes
Amplitude increases from Amplitude constant along
node to antinode length of the wave
Phase change of π at node No phase change

8.7. Diffraction
Diffraction: the spreading of waves as they pass through a
narrow slit or near an obstacle
For diffraction to occur, the size of the gap should be
equal to the wavelength of the wave.

ax
λ= D​​

Where a = split separation

D = distance from slit to screen
x = fringe width

If white light is used:

Central fringe is white: all wavelengths are in step
Other fringes show colored effects: different
wavelength (red light will be further than violet light
because λ red > λ violet )
​ ​

Increase amplitude of one Decrease amplitude of one

source source
fringe spacing does not fringe spacing does not
change change
bright fringes are brighter bright fringes are darker
dark fringes are darker dark fringes are brighter

Experimental Arrangement
Add a single slit before the double slit: ensure that the
Gap Width Amount of diffraction two waves are coherent (needed when using light
>> λ smallest bulbs).
λ < Gap < 2λ limited Use lasers: light is more concentrated; light is
monochromatic (makes fringes clearer); no single slit
≤λ greatest
needed.

8.8. Double-Slit Interference 8.9. Diffraction Grating

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

V2
P = V I ; P = I 2R ; P = R ​

P = Power
V = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance

9.2. Current-Carrying Conductors

d sin θ = nλ
1
Where d = distance between successive slits = N ​

N = number of slits per meter

θ = angle from horizontal equilibrium
n = order number Electrons move in a certain direction when p.d. is applied
λ = wavelength across a conductor causing current
double-slit diffraction grating Deriving a formula for current:
closely spaced bright widely spaced bright Q
I= t ​
pattern fringes on a dark fringes on a dark
​

background background
Q t
L
brighter and sharper vol. of container = LA time needed = t = v​
​

(more slits: more light No. of free electrons = nLA

features less bright and sharp
pass through; narrower Total charge = Q = nLAq
slits: more diffracted)
nLAq
∴I = L ​ ​
9. Electricity
v
​

I = Anvq
Where L = length of conductor
A = cross-sectional area of conductor
9.1. Introduction n = no. free electrons per unit volume
q = charge on 1 electron
Electric Current: the flow of charged particles
v = average electron drift velocity
Charge at a point. Product of the current at that point and
the time for which the current flows,
9.3. Resistance and Resistivity
Q = It
Resistance: defined as the ratio of the potential difference
Q = Charge, I = Current, t = time taken to flow through to the current (unit: Ω )
point
Coulomb: charge flowing per second passes a point at R= V
I ​

which the current is one ampere

−1
Charge is Quantised: charge values are not continuous; Ohm is defined as volt per ampere ( Ω = VA )
they are discrete. Ohm’s Law: the current in a component is proportional to
All charges are multiples of charge of 1e: 1.6 × 10 −19 C the potential difference across it provided physical
Potential Difference: two points have a potential conditions (e.g. temp) stay constant
difference of 1V if the work required to move 1C of charge Ohmic Component: obeys Ohm’s law
between them is 1 joule R = ρLA ​

Volt: joule per coulomb ρ = resistivity (constant for the same material at constant
temperature; unit: Ωm )
W =VQ L = length
W = Work Done A = cross-sectional area
V = Voltage
Q = Charge
9.4. I-V Characteristics

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Metallic Conductor
Ohmic conductor
V/I constant
Temperature constant

Semi-Conductor Diode
Non-ohmic conductor
Low resistance in one direction and infinite resistance
in opposite
Threshold voltage: the voltage at which the diode
suddenly starts to conduct \n

Filament Lamp
Non-ohmic conductor
Volt ↑
Temp. ↑
Vibration of ions ↑
Collision of ions with e- ↑
Resistance ↑

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Light intensity ↑
Resistance ↓

10. D.C. Circuits

10.1. Potential Difference and
Electromotive Force
Electromotive Force: the amount of energy given to each
Thermistor (Negative Temperature Coefficient)
coulomb of charge to go around the circuit once.
Non-ohmic conductor
Potential difference (work done per unit charge)
Volt ↑
energy transformed from electrical to other forms per
Temp. ↑
unit charge
Released e- ↑
Electromotive force (work done per unit charge)
Resistance ↓
energy transformed from other forms to electrical

10.2. Internal Resistance

Internal Resistance: resistance to current flow within the
power source; reduces p.d. when delivering current

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The voltage across resistor: V = IR

Voltage lost to internal resistance: V = E − I r Usage of a thermistor at R1:
Thus e.m.f.: E = I R + I r Resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
E = I (R + r) It can be used in potential divider circuits to monitor
and control temperatures.
Usage of an LDR at R1:
10.3. Kirchhoff’s 1st Law Resistance decreases with increasing light intensity.
It can be used in potential divider circuits to monitor
The sum of currents in a junction light intensity.
IS EQUAL TO
The sum of currents out of the junction.
10.8. Potentiometers
Kirchhoff’s 1st law is another statement of the law of
conservation of charge A potentiometer is a continuously variable potential
divider used to compare potential differences
Potential difference along the wire is proportional to the
10.4. Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law
length of the wire
It can be used to determine the unknown e.m.f. of a cell
Sum of e.m.f.s in a closed circuit
IS EQUAL TO This can be done by moving the sliding contact along the
wire until it finds the null point that the galvanometer
Sum of potential differences
shows a zero reading; the potentiometer is balanced
Kirchhoff’s 2nd law is another statement of the law of
conservation of energy Example: E1 is 10 V, and and distance XY equals 1m. The
potentiometer is balanced at point T, which is 0.4m from X.
Calculate E2
10.5. Deriving Effective Resistance in
Series
From Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law:
E = ∑ IR
I R = I R1 + I R2 ​ ​ ​

Current constant therefore cancel:

R = R1 + R2 ​ ​ ​

10.6. Deriving Effective Resistance in

Parallel
E1
E2 = LLXY
​

​
​

XT
​ ​
​

From Kirchhoff’s 1st Law: 10 1

E2 = 0.4 ​
​ ​

I = ∑I
​

E2 = 4 V ​

I = I1 + I2 ​​ ​

V V V
R = R1 + R2 ​
​

​
​

​
​

10.9. Circuit Symbols

Voltage constant therefore cancel:
1 1 1
R ​
= R1 ​
​
+ R2 ​​
​

10.7. Potential Divider

A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts.

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

11. Nuclear Physics

11.1. Geiger-Marsden α
Experiment: a beam of α -particles is fired at thin gold foil

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Random: impossible to predict and each nucleus has the

same probability of decaying per unit time
Spontaneous: not affected by external factors such as the
presence of other nuclei, temperature and pressure
Evidence on a graph:
Random; graph will have fluctuations in count rate
Spontaneous; graph has same shape even at different
temperatures, pressure etc.

11.4. Radiations
α-particle β-particle γ-ray
Helium Fast-moving
Identity Electromagnetic
nucleus electron/positron
Symbol 4 0 − 0 + 0
2 He ​

−1 e / 1 e
​ ​

0γ​

Charge +2 −1 0
Relative
4 1/1840 0
Mass
Slow ( v of light ( 3 ×
Speed Fast ( 10 8 ms−1 )
10 6 ms−1 ) 10 8 ms−1 )
Continuous range
(because
Results of the experiment: Energy Discrete
(anti)neutrinos are
Most particles pass straight through emitted in β-decay)
Some are scattered appreciably
Few mm of
Very few – 1 in 8,000 – suffered deflections > 90º Stopped by Paper Few cm of lead
aluminium
Conclusion:
Most of an atom is empty space Ionizing
High Low Very Low
All mass and charge concentrated in the center of power
atom ∴ nucleus is small and very dense Effect of Deflected
Deflected greater Undeflected
Nucleus is positively charged as α -particles are Magnetic slightly
repelled/deflected Effect of Attracted
Attracted to +ve Undeflected
Electric to -ve
11.2. The Nuclear Atom Force
Strong
Weak interaction
interaction
Nucleon number: total number of protons and neutrons
Proton/atomic number: total number of protons
11.5. Types of Decays
Isotope: atoms of the same element with a different
number of neutrons but the same number of protons
α decay: loses a helium nucleus
Simple model: A X → A−4 X + 4 α
The nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. Z ​

Z−2 2 ​ ​

β − decay: neutron turns into a proton and an electron &

Electrons move around the nucleus in a cloud, some
electron antineutrino are emitted
closer to and some further from the nucleus. A A 0 −
Nuclide notation: A Z X → Z+1 X + −1 e + B \n u}
ZX
​ ​ ​

d → u + 0−1 e− + B
A: nucleon number
​

Z: proton number β + decay: proton turns into a neutron and a positron &
X: element electron neutrino are emitted
A X → A X + 0 e+ + \n u
Unified atomic mass unit: u Z ​

Z−1 1 ​ ​

1
1 u = 12​mass of a carbon-12 atom u → d + 01 e+ + \n u
​

γ decay: a nucleus changes from a higher energy state to

a lower energy state through the emission of
11.3. Nuclear Processes electromagnetic radiation (photons)

During a nuclear process, nucleon number, proton

number and mass-energy are conserved 11.6. Fundamental Particles
Radioactive process are random and spontaneous

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CAIE AS LEVEL PHYSICS

Fundamental Particle: a particle that cannot be split up Antiquark Symbol Charge

into anything smaller
Anti-Up u − 23 e
Electron is a fundamental particle but protons and
​

neutrons are not Anti-Down d + 13 e​

Protons and neutrons are made up of different

combinations of smaller particles called quarks These antiquarks combine to similarly form respective
Table of Quarks: antiprotons and antineutrons

Quark Symbol Charge 11.7. Particle Families

Up u + 23 e ​

Down d − 13 e ​

Charm c + 23 e ​

Strange s − 13 e ​

Top t + 23 e ​

Bottom b − 13 e ​

Quark Models:

Proton Neutron

Hadrons: made up of quarks

Leptons: fundamental particles
Baryons: made up of 3 quarks of 3 antiquarks
Mesons: made up of 1 quark & 1 antiquark
2 Up & 1 Down 1 Up & 2 Down
+ 23 e + 23 e − 13 e = +e
​ ​ ​ + 23 e − 13 e − 13 e = 0
​ ​ ​

All particles have their corresponding antiparticle (same

mass, opposite charge)
Table of Antiquarks:

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CAIE AS LEVEL
Physics

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