RADIOLOGISTS -ARE BOARD-CERTIFIED PHYSICIANS WHO PRACTICE RADIOLOGY

RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGISTS -ARE PROFESSIONALS WHOARE SKILLED IN THE USE OF X-

RAYS AND RADIATION FOR THE PRODUCTION OF IMAGES OF THE HUMAN BODY

RADIOGRAPH - IS THE IMAGE PRODUCED USING X-RADIATION

• EXPOSURE FACTORS ARE ADEQUATE

• THERE HAS BEEN ADEQUATE PENETRATION OF THE PART OF INTEREST
• SUFFICIENT RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY AND CONTRAST ARE PRESENT
• FIELD SIZE SELECTION IS APPROPRIATE
• MOTION IS ELIMINATED DURING EXPOSURE THE ANATOMIC PART IS PROPERLY
POSITIONED
• PROPER ACCESSORIES HAVE BEEN SELECTED

Field size is inversely proportional to the collimation

• increase collimation=decrease field size=increase contrast =decrease density

RADIOGRAPHY IS THE USE OF IONIZING RADIATION TO PRODUCE/A RECORDED IMAGE.

X-RAY TUBE
• DIODE TUBE (CATHODE & ANODE)
• LOCATED INSIDE THE TUBE HOUSING
• ENCLOSED IN A GLASS ENVELOPE

CATHODE
• NEGATIVELY CHARGED ELECTRODE
• CONSISTS OF LARGE FILAMENT, SMALL FILAMENT AND FiLAMENT/FOCUSING CUP
• THERMIONIC EMISSION

ANODE
• POSITIVELY CHARGED ELECTRODE
• CONSISTS OF ROTATING TARGET, STEM, AND ROTOR
• LINE-FOCUS PRINCIPLE

X-RAY PRODUCTION
• ACTIVATING ROTOR SWITCH permits full current to flow through the cathode filament, causing it to
become hot - thermionic emission
• ACTIVATION OF EXPOSURE SWITCH allows the current to flow from cathode to anode by the
application of voltage or potential difference between cathode and anode.
• 99% Heat, 1% X-ray

CHARACTERISTICS OF X-RADIATION
- A FORM OF EMR
- similar to visible light, except that they travel at shorter wavelength and with greater energy
- travels in wave-like motion
- travels at speed of light
- travels in a straight line
X-RAY INTERACTION WITH MATTER

COHERENT/CLASSICAL/UNMODIFIED SCATTERING/RAYLEIGH or THOMSON SCATTERING

• 10 keV
-incident interacts with the target atom, causing it to become EXCITED
• target atom immediately releases the excess energy as SCATTERED X-RAY
• LITTLE IMPORTANCE to diagnostic radiology
• contribute slightly to FILM FOG
• less than 5% of radiation undergoes coherent scattering

COMPTON SCATTERING
• diagnostic range
• Incident interacts with the outer shell electron
• compton/secondary/recoil electron
• reduces contrast on the image
• 20% of radiation undergoes compton scattering

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT/TOTAL X-RAY ABSORPTION

• diagnostic range
• incident interacts with the inner shell electron
• characteristic x-rays
• 75% of radiation undergoes photoelectric effect

PAIR PRODUCTION
• >1.02 MeV
• incident interacts within the nuclear field
• positron and electron (5.11MeV)
• Positron Emission Tomography

PHOTODISINTEGRATION
- >10 MeV
• absorbed directly by the nucleus, and is raised to an excited state and instantly emits nucleon or other nuclear
fragments.

DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION
3 Types of x-rays are important to the making of a radiograph:
• Compton Scatter (image fog)
• Photoelectric absorption (radiopaque) -white -increased absorption
• transmitted without interaction (radiolucent) -black -

*reduced kV = increased differential absorption

DARKROOM
-designed for handling and storage of x-ray film
-processing of latent image takes place
- “processing room”

LOCATION, SIZE, CONSTRUCTION, COLORS OF WALL, LOADING BENCH, FLOOR

LOCATION
-Usually located next to radiographic imaging rooms.
SIZE
A place that requires the radiographer to walk as few steps as possible.
• 15x9.5 ft

CONSTRUCTION
It must be radiation-proof.
• Concrete - greater than 6" o
• hollow blocks - filled with cement
• Wood- with 1.5mm Pb

COLORS OF WALL, LOADING BENCH, FLOOR

• Light/Bright Color
• Matte finish not glossy
• enamel and epoxy

TYPE OF DARKROOM ENTRANCE:

(Light tight entrance)

1. SINGLE DOOR DARKROOM

- simplest type
• PASSBOOK / FILM CASSETTE TRANSFER CABINET
-light proof container
-allows the film to transfer without
-entering the darkroom
-has an interlocking system/alarm

2. LIGHT-LOCK DOOR / Double door

• has an interlocking system (# door 1 is open, door 2 is closed)
- requires a darkroom personnel
*Door A is perpendicular to the Door B.
*reflection is absorbed by the wall.

3. LABYRINTH /Mazed
-zigzag type
-light intensity is reduced to a harmless level
*matte black = 3x absobed
*safe light lamp
*it allows an instant access to the dark room and it allows AIR.

4. REVOLVING DOOR
-fast access type
*no light leak

VENTILATION
• darkrooms require ventilation to prevent build up of fumes from chemicals used in the processor system
• standard method may be to vent the warm air to space immediately above the ceiling

• A minimum of 8-10 air changes per hour (thru exhaust fan /ventilation)
• relative humidity = 40-60%
• storage temp = 10-21 degree celsius
• darkroom temp = 18-24 degree celsius
DARKROOM ILLUMINATION
• the use of radiographic film requires certain precautions in the darkroom
• low or dim lighting is used with special filters to prevent exposure to x-ray film

2 TYPES OF ILLUMINATION:

1) WHITE LIGHT ILLUMINATION

• Overhead lighting that is used for
• maintenance
• emergency
• Cleaning

2) SAFELIGHT
• special illumination system that is used in the darkroom
• no safelight is sate for indefinite periods of exposure
• incandescent lamps with a color filter
• DISTANCE: 3-4 ft. above the loading bench
WATTAGE: 7.5 - 15 watts

Safelight fog - greater than 0.05 OD

Acceptable safelight - 0.04 OD

WRATTEN 6B Filter
• USED FOR MONOCHROMATIC FILM (blue sensitive film)
• BEST PROCESSING ROOM ILLUMINATION (MAXIMUM REFLECTION)
• FILTERS INTENSITY
• TRANSMITS LIGHT THAT HAS WAVELENTGHS LONGER THAN APPROX SSOnm
• LIGHT TRANSMITTED: YELLOW - YELLOW RED
• ALTERNATIVE: AMBER FILTER & KODAK MOR-LITE

*Insensitive wavelength to red, orange wavelength.

GBX 2 filter
• USED FOR ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM (blue-green sensitive)
• MULTIPURPOSE FILTER
• TRANSMITS LIGHT ABOVE 600mm
• (DARK) RED COLOR
*if green sensitive it will produce fog.
*2 to 3 ft

DIRECT SAFELIGHT
• fixture type of safelight
• light is distributed directly

INDIRECT SAFELIGHT
• Ceiling type
• light goes up and then reflected
*Bulb-sodium vapor
SAFELIGHT TEST
• semi-annual
• always check the DISTANCE, WATTAGES and FILTERS used
• safelight fog, 0.05 OD
• acceptable: 0.04 OD
*beyond 0.05 is nor acceptable

Densitometer used to determine the OD during safelight test

DARKROOM CLEANLINESS
-Avoid SMOKING EATING and DRINKING

SAFETY when mixing solutions, cleaning processor

• wear proper mask that reduces inhalation of fumes
• wear nitrile gloves -when mixing the solution and cleaning the tanks.
• wear protective glasses

DARKROOM CHEMICAL SENSITIVITY

CONTACT WITH HIGH-LEVELS OF CHEMICALS:

* ACUTE PROBLEMS
• burns
• dermatitis
• dizziness
• vomiting
• asphyxation

* CHRONIC PROBLEMS
• allergic reaction
• headaches
• lung ailments
• cancer

THE FILM SCREEN CONSTRUCTION:

*RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
- It displays the radiographic image and consists of emulsion of silver halide which when exposed to light,
produces a silver ion and an electron

DIRECT EXPOSURE/NON-SCREEN FILM

• Thicker emulsion
• contains higher concentration of silver halide crystals to improve direct x-ray interaction
*higher concentrations of silver halide crystals than the indirect exposure because they interacts directly with x-
rays
*Reciprocity law -the amounts of electrons and the type of exposures it will produce density
Ex: Intra-oral : occlusal, peri-apical, biting, thin parts of the body.

INDIRECT EXPOSURE/SCREEN FILM

• used with intensifying screens
• there are characteristics that must be considered
 -contrast
- speed
- crossover
- spectral matching
- safelight

*MULTIPLE CONTRAST LEVEL

• depends on the size and distribution of the SHC
• HIGH CONTRAST = SMALLER silver halide grains with a relatively uniform grain size
• LOW CONTRAST = LARGER grains that have a wider range of sizes

*SPEED
-sensitivity of the screen-film combination to x-rays and light
-for DIRECT EXPOSURE film, speed is principally a function of the CONCENTRATION and TOTAL
NUMBER of SHC
-for SCREEN-FILM, SHC grain SIZE, SHAPE and CONCENTRATION are the principal determinants of film
speed
• duplitized film - optimizes film speed

CROSSOVER LAYER
- Exposuree of an emulsion caused by light from the opposite radiographic intensifying screen
- addition of light-absorbing dye in a crossover control layer reduces crossover to near zero
- absorbs most of crossover light
- does not diffuse into the emulsion but remains a separate layer
- completely removed during processing

SPECTRAL MATCHING
• most important consideration in the selection of modern screen film
• RARE EARTH SCREEN - ultraviolet, blue, green and red (monochromatic)
• CALCIUM TUNGSTATE SCREEN - blue and blue- violet (orthochromatic)
- green-emitting screens should be matched with orthochromatic films
- blue-emitting screens should be matched with monochromatic films

SAFELIGHTS
• Wrotten 6B - Monochromatic
• G&X 2 - Orthochromatic
*Panchromatic-sensitive to all light ; total darkness

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM PARTS:

• OVERCOAT/TOPCOAT/SUPERCOAT
gelatin that protects emulsion fromscratches, pressure andcontamination
• EMULSION-
• BASE-rigid support
• ADHESIVE/SUBSTRATUM - to maintain proper contact of emulsion and base
-thin coating located between base and emulsion.
-allows emulsion and base to maintain proper contact and integrity

BASE
• FOUNDATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
• PROVIDE A SUPPORT FOR THE FRAGILE PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSION
• 175/200/150-300micrometer (.007in) THICK, SEMIRIGID AND MADE OF POLYESTER
• CHARACTERISTICS OF BASE THAT MUST BE CONSIDERED:
 • UNIFORM LUCENCY (TINTED WITH BLUE DYE) - to reduce eye restrain
• FLEXIBILITY & FRACTURE RESISTANT
• DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
• Z=7

HISTORY:

*BEFORE WWI
GLASS PLATE
• single emulsion onset of WWI cut off the supply and created a demand for a less fragile x ray film for use by
the Army

*1914
CELLULOSE NITRATE -flammable
• standard base

*1924
CELLULOSE TRIACETATE
• safety base
• easily torn
• 8 mils

*1960
POLYESTER
-film base of choice
-ethylene glycol and dimetyhl terepthalate
-7 mils
-improved dimensional stability

EMULSION
- Heart of the radiographic film,
- 3-5/10-20 um (not more than 0.5 mils)
- 2 most important parts of emulsion;
- gelatin
*provide mechanical support for silver halide crystals
*holds the silver halide crystal uniformly disposed in place
*clear and sufficiently porous
*Z=7
• silver halide crystals - the active ingredient of the radiographic emulsion

SILVER HALIDE CRYSTALS

• recording medium
• high atomic number
• shapes of silver halide crystals:
• tabular -increase film speed
• cubic
• octahedral
• polyhedral
• irregular
• 98% or 90-99% AgBr
• 2% or 1-10% Agl
The number of sensitivity centers per crystal, the concentration of crystals in the emulsion, and the size and
distribution of crystals affect the performance characteristics of radiographic film

*Sensitivity speck/center:
-an imperfection within the crystal lattice cause by a contaminant called silver sulfide.
*silver sulfide - is produced during the production of silver halide crystals formation

FACTORS AFFECTING FILM SPEED

• # of SHC
• concentration of crystals
• Increased film speed = increased sensitivity (interaction when there’s a light/ xray) =increased density
solution: decreased mAs = decreased patient dose

FILM CONTRAST
• ability of the radiographic film to provide a certain level of image contrast
• difference in OD between 2 areas in the image
*HIGH CONTRAST = smaller SH grains with relatively uniform size
*LOW CONTRAST = larger grains that have wider range of sizes

RECORDED DETAIL/SPATIAL RESOLUTION

• Refers to how small an object can be imaged

HIGH SPEED SCREENS = LOW SPATIAL RESOLUTION

FINE-DE TAIL SCREENS = HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION

CHARACTERISTIC CURVE/H&D CURVE/DlogE CURVE/ RESPONSE CURVE/SENSITOMETRIC

CURVE
• Two principal measurements involved in sensitometry are the exposure to the film and the percentage of light
transmitted through the processed film
• Ferdinand Hurter and Vero Charles Driffield(1980)

SENSITOMETRY
• it is the study of relationship between the intensity of exposure of the film and the blackness after processing
• the basis of sensitometry is the DENSITY. Has a log valve of 0-4.
• Inherent B+F Density = 0.18 OD
(0.1-0.3)

Inherent Base density =0.14

PENETROMETER/ALUMINUM STEP-WEDGE
• Device made of aluminum with copper base that is shaped like a step-wedge, precisely calibrated to produce
an exact and regular increase or decrease in exposure.

SENSITOMETER
• optical step-wedge
• exposure device which prints a pre-exposed negative directly onto a film
• recommended for daily evaluations of the processing sensitometer

DENSITOMETER
• A device that has a light source focused through a pinhole
• measures the percentage of light transmittance
• Base Density (Manufacturer's) = 0.14 OD
OPTICAL DENSITY
- Logarithmic function
• OD ranges 0-4 (clear to black respectively)
• unexposed film
• base density (0.1)
• fog density (0.1)
• useful range of OD:
-0.25-25 00

Io= incident optical intensity

I= transmitted optical intensity

Y axis -optical density

-represents density reading obtained by the use of densitometer

X axis
-radiation exposure or log exposure
• represents the amount of exposure the film received to produce a density
• exposure is expressed as a logarithm of relative exposure (LRE)

TOE
• represents an area of under exposure on the film
• provides little information
• Dmin
• first measurement, slightly higher than B+F
• phenidone-produces gray tones rapidly; reducing agent

SHOULDER
-Identifies the maximum density levels on the film and represents an area of overexposure
-Dmax
-hydroquinone- blacktones slowly

STRAIGHT LINE
• Represents increase in density as the relative exposure increases
• begins at the level of approx. 0.4 to about 2.5 density above base fog

REGIONAL SOLARIZATION
-Density on the film begins to decrease with increases in exposure

FILM GAMMA
-maximum slope of the curve
-measured at the steepest point on the straight line portion
• use to measure the gradient
• Ave. Film Gamma = 20-35 (exposed film)

GRADIENT
- Slope at any point on the curve and represents the contrast of the fm at a specific density level
• AVERAGE GRADIENT
• measures film contrast
• slope of straight-line between 0.25-20
B+F = 0.18
• the more vertical this line, the greater the film contrast
AVERAGE GRADIENT = OD2-ODV/LRE2-LRE1

Kvp- controlling factor of contrast

mAs-controlling factor of density

HIGH KVP-increased penetrability

Long scale of contrast (white, gray, black)
More shades of gray
Decreased contrast
Low contrast
Less contrast
Wide latitude

LOW KVP-less penetrability

Short scale of contrast (white and black)
Few shades of gray
Increased contrast
High contrast
More contrast
Narrow latitude -mas malapit sa Y axis

FILM CONTRAST IS RELATED TO THE SLOPE OF THE STRAIGHT-LINE PORTION OF THE

CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
• Radiographic contrast OD Variations
• High contrast - marked differences in OD
• Low contrast - OD differences are small and are not distinct
• slope of characteristic curve = 1 (angled at 45 deg) = very low contrast
• contrast = 3 = high contrast

THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF AN IMAGE RECEPTOR IS ALSO USEFUL IN

IDENTIFYING SPEED.
- Characteristic curve of a fast image receptor is positioned to the left closer to the y-axis.

LATITUDE REFERS TO THE RANGE OF EXPOSURES OVER WHICH THE IMAGE RECEPTOR
RESPONDS WITH ODs IN THE DIAGNOSTICALLY USEFUL RANGE.
-With wider latitude, mAs can vary more and still produce a diagnostic image.
-latitude and contrast are inversely proportional
• wide latitude = long gray scale
• narrow latitude = short gray scale

FILM HANDLING AND STORAGE

• Radiographic Film is a sensitive radiation detector and must benhandled accordingly
• clean hands are a must and hand lotions should be avoided
• Radiographic film should be stored at temperatures lower than approx. 20 degree Celsius (10-21) /68 degree
Fahrenheit (50-70)
• humidity level should be 40-60%
• Radiographic film must be stored and handled in the dark
• to control light, there should be a well- sealed darkroom and a light-proof storage bin for films that have an
electrical interlock system.
• DARKROOMS USUALLY ARE LOCATED NEXT TO RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGING ROOMS AND
ARE LINED WITH LEAD

• STORING/PLACING THE FILM VERTICALLY WILL PREVENT PRESSURE ARTIFACTS

vertical/edge/straight/upright

ARCHIVAL OF FILM: 5/10 YEARS

MAXIMUM STORAGE:
• 30-45 days - 70 deg. Fahrenheit/21 deg.Celsius
• 2 mos. - 75 deg. Fahrenheit
• 6 mos. - 65 deg. Fahrenheit
• 1 year. - 50 deg. Fahrenheit /10 deg. Celsius
• stop film aging process - 0 deg. Celsius

Expired films- will reduced the contrast

METAL FOIL BAG/ photoethylene bag-

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
• It displays the radiographic image and consists of emulsion of silver halide which when exposed to light,
produces a silver ion and an electron

• Radiographic film should be handled properly to prevent unnecessary exposure.

• FILM HOLDER is a light tight device that contains the film
*When opening the cassette to reload film should be 2-3 inches only to prevent dirts in IS that may cause
artifact.

CARDBOARD
• Film Holder used by DIRECT EXPOSURE FILMS
• Have a tube side (front) and the back has a lead sheet to prevent backscatter

CASSETTE
• Rigid film holder that contains the film and intensifying screens
• light tight holder made of hinged metal and bakelite frames

Cassette Front
-made of low atomic number material such as plastic
-thin yet sturdy, and designed for minimum attenuation of x-ray beam
• CARBON FIBER is used for cassette front

Contact felt-is a compression device

Compression device
• made of radiolucent plastic foam
• maintains close screen-film contact when cassette is closed and latched

Cassette back
-made up of magnesium
-made of heavy metal to minimize back scatter
*Primary marker- right upper side (name, age, examination, date of examinatiom, file no. Name of facility,
name of physicians)

Intensifying Screen
• a device that converts the energy of the x-ray beam into visible light
• it amplifies the effect of image forming x-rays that reach the screen-film
*15-20 less radiation dose to the patient

PROTECTIVE COATING
• layer closest to radiographic film
• makes the screen resistant to abrasion and damage caused by handling
• helps to eliminate the buildup of static electricity and provides a surface for routine cleaning without
disturbing the active phosphors transparent to x-ray
• 10-20um/0.7-0.8 mils

PHOSPHOR
• Active layer of intensifying screen
• emits light during stimulation by x-rays
• converts ×-ray beam into light
• 150-300um/4 mils (Parspeed); 1 or 2 mil (Highspeed)/60mg/cm^2

Calcium Tungstate
-active substance of most phosphors before about 1980
- developed by Thomas Edison
- Scheelit
- 430 nm
-emits blue, indigo, violet

Rare Earth Crystals

• faster than CaWO4
• speed: 1000-1200
- Z = 57-71
• approx. 540 nm

Barium Lead Sulfate

• for high kVp techniques
• decreased px dose

Zinc Sulfide
• for low kVp techniques
• high resolution image quality

Rare Earth Crystals

• Gadolinium (z=64) -tantalite TERBIUM activation
• Lanthanum (z=57) -oxysulfide TERBIUM activation
• Yttrium (z=39) x -oxybromide TERBIUM activation

*Increased atomic number will increase the absorption of phosphors which is the X-rays.
And will be converted to light

• TERBIUM activation is responsible for the shape and intensity of this emission spectrum
Phosphors Characteristics

• Detective Quantum Efficiency

-phosphors should have a high Z
• Conversion Efficiency
-phosphors should emit a large amount of light
• Spectral Matching
• Phosphor afterglow should be minimal
• Phosphor should not be affected by heat, humidity, or other environmental conditions

LUMINESCENCE- property to produce light

• Any material that emits light in response to some outside stimulation is called luminescent material/phosphor.
• Luminescence is the emitted visible light.

TYPES OF LUMINESCENCE:
• FLUOROSCENCE - visible light is emitted only while the phosphor is stimulated (within 10^-8s)
• PHOSPHORESCENCE - "afterglow", phosphor continues to emit light after stimulation (after 10^-8s)

REFLECTIVE LAYER (times 2 density of the radiograph)

• It is placed between the phosphor and base
• it enhances the efficiency of the radiographic intensifying screen, nearly doubling the number of light photons
that reach the film
• Magnesium oxide/Titanium dioxide
• approx 25um/1 mil

Intensifying Screen
-a device that converts the energy of the x-ray beam into visible light
- it amplifies the effect of image forming ×-rays that reach the screen-film