ELECTRODYNAMICS,

MAXWELL EQUATIONS &

ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 1

 Scalar and Vector Field
 A field is a spatial distribution of a quantity; in general, it can be
either scalar or vector in nature.

 Region in space, every point of which is characterized by a scalar quantity

is known as scalar field.
 An example of a scalar field in electromagnetism is the electric potential.
Other examples include temperature field, pressure field , gravitational
potential etc.

 Region in space, each point of which is characterized by a vector quantity is

known as vector field.
 Examples of vector field are electric field, gravitation field,
magnetic field , magnetic potential etc.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 2

 Del Operator

 The operators are mathematical tools or prescriptions. The

operators have no direct physical meaning. However, they
acquire significance when operated upon another function.
 The del operator is the vector differential operator,


 Represented by

Note: DEL operator is not a vector quantity in itself, but it may

operate on various scalar or vector fields.
Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 3
 Gradient

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 4

Physical Significance of Gradient
The gradient is a fancy word for derivative, or the
rate of change of a function. It’s a vector that points
in the direction of greatest increase of a function

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 5

 Physical Significance ???
Thus the rate of change of Φ in the direction of a unit vector a
is the component of grad Φ in the direction of a (i.e. the
projection of grad Φ onto a ). The maximum value of the
directional derivative occurs when the directional vector a
coincides with the direction of grad Φ. Thus the directional
derivative achieves its maximum in the direction of the normal
to the level surface Φ(x, y, z) = c at P.

Then small change in scalar field as we alter all three

variables by small amount dx, dy and dz is given by
fundamental theorem of partial derivative, i.e.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 6

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 7
 Divergence

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 8

 Physical Significance

 Divergence represents the volume density of the

outward flux of a vector field from an infinitesimal
volume around a given point

 The divergence of vector field A is defined as the net

outward flux per unit volume over a closed surface S.

 The div. A at a point is measure of how much the vector A

spread outs.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 9

If Divergence of vector field is zero , then it is also termed
Solenoidal Field (Magnetic Field) Means its divergence
vanishes at all the points
Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 10
 Curl
Physical Significance of Curl:
The maximum value of the
circulation density evaluated at a
point in the vector field is known
as curl of vector field

The rotation with maximum value is known as curl and is a vector quantity. Thus
curl of vector field signifies the whirling nature or circulation of the vector field (A)
around any point O.

The direction of the curl is the axis of

rotation, as determined by the right-
hand rule, and the magnitude of the curl
is the magnitude of rotation

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 11

 Conservative Fields

 For a conservative vector field ,

CURL IS ZERO
Because a conservative vector field is defined as the
gradient of a function, which is called as a scaler
potential.
Curlf=0 Means no rotation aspects to vector field.
Then it means Divergence of curl of a vector is also
zero.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 12

 The curl of a vector field is defined as the vector field
having magnitude equal to the maximum "circulation" at
each point and to be oriented perpendicularly to this plane
of circulation for each point.
 The magnitude of Curl is the limiting value of circulation
per unit area.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 13

 Curl is simply the circulation per unit area,
circulation density, or rate of rotation (amount of
twisting at a single point).
 To be technical, curl is a vector, which means it has a
both a magnitude and a direction. The magnitude is
simply the amount of twisting force at a point.
 The direction is a little more tricky: it's the orientation
of the axis of your paddlewheel in order to get
maximum rotation. In other words, it is the direction
which will give you the most "free work" from the
field. Imagine putting your paddlewheel sideways in
the whirlpool - it wouldn't turn at all. If you put it in
the proper direction, it begins turning.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 14

Gauss Divergence Theorem
 This Theorem helps to transform a surface integral into
volume integral.
 It states that the surface integral of any vector field
through a closed surface is equal to volume integral of the
divergence of vector field taken over the volume enclosed
by the closed surface.
Mathematically,

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 15

 Numerical

Given that r⃗ is a position vector.

Using Gauss’s divergence
theorem find the value of ∯ 𝑟⃗.
𝑑𝑠⃗.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 16

 Stoke’s Theorem

 It states that line integral of the tangential component of a

vector field A over a closed path is equal to the surface
integral of the normal component of the curl A on the
surface enclosed by path.

 Mathematically,

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 17

 Numerical

If r⃗ is a position vector of a
point in space, then prove that
∮ 𝑟⃗. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 18

 Numerical

 Prove that 𝐴⃗ = 𝑦𝑧𝑖ˆ +

𝑥𝑧𝑗ˆ + 𝑥𝑦𝑘ˆ is both
irrotational and solenoidal
 If F=3x^2 y-y^ 3 z^ 2 , find the
value of gradient of the function
F at point (1, -2, -1).
Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 19
Green’s Theorem
 Green's theorem gives the relationship between a line integral
around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the
plane region D bounded by C.
 If L and M are functions of (x, y) defined on an open region
containing D and having continuous partial derivatives there,
then
 Mathematically
M L
C Ldx  Mdy D ( x  y )dxdy

* Note: Here curve C has a positive orientation if it is traced out in a counter-

clockwise direction

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 20

Continuity Equation

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 21

 Maxwell’s equations
James Clerk Maxwell, one of the
world's greatest physicists, was
Professor of Natural Philosophy at
Maxwell's equations are a set of partial King's from 1860 to 1865. It was during
differential equations that, together with this period that he demonstrated that
the Lorentz force law, form the foundation magnetism, electricity and light were
of classical electrodynamics, classical different manifestations of the same
optics, and electric circuits. These fields in fundamental laws, and described all
turn underlie modern electrical and these, as well as radio waves, radar, and
communications technologies. Maxwell's radiant heat, through his unique and
equations describe how electric and elegant system of equations. These
magnetic fields are generated and altered calculations were crucial to Albert
by each other and by charges and currents. Einstein in his production of the theory
They are named after the physicist and of relativity 40 years later, and led
mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, who Einstein to comment that 'One scientific
published an early form of those equations epoch ended and another began with
between 1861 and 1862. James Clerk Maxwell'.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 22

 Maxwell’s equations
 Maxwell's four equations describe the electric and magnetic
fields arising from distributions of electric charges and currents,
and how those fields change in time.
 They were the mathematical distillation of decades of
experimental observations of the electric and magnetic effects of
charges and currents, plus the profound intuition of Michael
Faraday.
 Maxwell's own contribution to these equations is just the last
term of the last equation -- but the addition of that term had
dramatic consequences. It made evident for the first time that
varying electric and magnetic fields could feed off each other --
these fields could propagate indefinitely through space, far from
the varying charges and currents where they originated.
 Previously these fields had been envisioned as tethered to the
charges and currents giving rise to them. Maxwell's new term
(called the displacement current) freed them to move through
space in a self-sustaining fashion, and even predicted their
velocity -- it was the velocity of light!

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 23

Maxwell’s equations

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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
Maxwell 1st Equation:

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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
 Significance

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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
Maxwell 2nd Equation:

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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
Maxwell 3rd Equation:
According to Faraday’s law, is the Magnetic Flux within a
circuit, and EMF is the electro-
motive force

Significance of Maxwell’s
third equation
(i) It summarizes the Faraday’s
Also, law of electromagnetic
induction.
(ii) This equation relates the
space variation of electric field
with time variation of magnetic
field
(iii) It is time dependent
differential equation.
(iv) It proves that the electric
field can be generated by
change in magnetic field

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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
Maxwell 4th Equation:
According to Ampere’s Law

Maxwell realized that the definition of the total

current density is incomplete and suggested to
add another term

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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
 Significance of Maxwell’s fourth equation
(i) It summarizes the modified form of
Ampere’s ciruital law.
(ii) It is time dependent differential equation.
(iii) Maxwell’s fourth equation relates the space
variation of magnetic
field with time variation of electric field
(iv) It also proves that magnetic field can be
generated by changing electric field

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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVE IN FREE SPACE
The Maxwell’s equation for free space (=0 and J=0) can be written as

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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
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Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg
 What , why & How??????
 Define : Curl, Divergence &  Derive differential Maxwell
Gradient equations. Also write their
 Explain the physical physical significances.
significance: Curl, Divergence &  Derive the equations for
Gradient electromagnetic wave
propagation in free space
 Write the expression for Del- using Maxwell equations, and
operator hence calculate the value of c
 Write continuity equation and its (velocity of light).
physical significance  Write Stoke’s and Divergence’
 Derive an equation which theorems.
express conservation of charge  What are the conditions for
in a localized volume. irrotational, solenoidal and
conservative fields, resp.?
 Write Maxwell equations in both
differential and integral form

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 34

 References

• B01: Engineering physics by H. K. Malik and A.

K. Singh, McGraw Hill Education.
• B02: Engineering Physics by Chitkara
Publication 2nd Edition.

Modern and Computational Physics (22AS015)---Dr. Nidhi Bansal Garg 35