Traffic Engineering

(CENG …)
MSc: Road and Transport Engineering

Dr.-Ing. Alamirew M. Tola

Assistant Professor September 2023
 CHAPTER 2
Traffic Stream Models 1

▪ Flow (q), Speed (u) and Density (k)

▪ Shock Wave Analysis
▪ Shock wave Classification
▪ Shock wave Equation
▪ Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
▪ Microscopic Density Characteristics
▪ Car-following theories
 Traffic flow theory is a complex matter
2

❑ Cooperation between:

• Vehicle
Driver
• Road

• Driver

❑ Every vehicle is controlled by a driver who

makes individual choices how to control the
vehicle

❑ The driver is the main reason why traffic flow is

such a complex matter
 Flow (q), Speed (u) and Density (k)
3

NB: A flow rate of “0 veh/h” occurs under two very different conditions
1. When there are no vehicles on the highway, density is “0 veh/km”
2. When there are many vehicles on the road that all motion stops (at a very high density,
called the “jam density,”)
 Flow (q), Speed (u) and Density (k)
4

When the flow is very low, there is little interaction between individual vehicles.

The absolute maximum speed is obtained as the flow tends to zero, and it is known
as the mean free flow speed (Uf). slopes of lines OB, OC, and OE in Figure (a)
represents the space mean speeds at densities kb, kc, and ke, respectively.

The slope of line OA is the speed as the density tends to zero and little interaction
exists between vehicles. The slope of this line is therefore the mean free flow
speed (Uf)
 Flow (q), Speed (u) and Density (k)
5

Flow = Concentration * Speed

• q=k*u
• u =q /k
• k =q /u
Traffic Flow Fundamentals
6
 Some classical speed-density relationships
7

❖ Linear
o Greenshields 1934: Green shields carried out one of the earliest recorded
works, in which he studied the relationship between speed and density. He
hypothesized that a linear relationship existed between speed and density

❖ Logarithmic
o Greenberg 1959: Use the analogy of fluid flow to develop macroscopic
relationships for traffic flow. He hypothesized that a natural logarithmic
relationship existed between speed and density.
 Exercise 8

• For a speed-density relationship as follow:-

U = 57.5(1- 0.008K)

Determine:
a. The free flow speed, Uf
b. Jam density, Kj
c. The speed-flow relationship (draw the graph)
d. The flow-density relationship (draw the graph)
e. Capacity, qmax
Assume a linear speed-density hypothesis
 Exercise… 9

q vs u
q vs k
 Shock Wave Analysis 10

• Flow, speed and density change over space and time

o This is more or less a continuous process

• When flow, speed and density change from one state to another, the
boundary of this change is called a shock wave
• Examples:
✓ high speed vehicles approach a queue of slow moving vehicles
✓ signalized intersection
✓ vehicles with low speed make a queue
✓ different types of bottlenecks
 Terminologies Shock Wave (Cont’d)
11

➢ Shock wave movements:

i. Forward – discontinuity propagating downstream in the same

direction of moving traffic

ii. Stationary – shockwave remains at the same position in space

iii. Backward – discontinuity propagating upstream in the opposite

direction of moving traffic
Terminologies Shock Wave (Cont’d)
12

➢ “Forming” shockwave – propagation of shockwave is resulting in

the increase of the congested portion over time

➢ “Recovery” shockwave - propagation of shockwave is resulting in

the decrease of the congested portion over time

➢ “Frontal/Rear” – the shockwave is at the downstream/upstream

edge of the congested region
Some Examples Shock Wave (Cont’d)
13

Example 1: Single-lane
approach to a pre-timed
signal-controlled intersection
 Example 1 Shock Wave (Cont’d)
14

Assumptions:
✓ Demand is light and arrival at constant flow rate
✓ Capacity of signal exceeds demand, but discharge only on green
✓ Free-flow conditions some distance upstream and immediately downstream
of signal (Densities < 60 vehicles per lane-mile)
Discontinuities:
✓ As vehicles join rear of queue (backward forming shockwave) and
✓ As vehicles are discharged on green (Backward recovery shockwave)
✓ At the stop line during the red phase (Frontal stationary shock wave)
• Case where demand is constant and capacity varies over time, an isolated
single restriction (Bottleneck) with no entrances and exit in the congested
region
Example 2 Shock Wave (Cont’d)
15

Example 2: Freeway
Bottleneck (lane drop)
during a peak period
 Example 2 Shock Wave (Cont’d)
16

Assumptions:
✓ Capacity of lane drop constant over time
✓ Demand increases, exceeds capacity, and decreases until peak period is over
✓ Assume: demand flow equivalent to 1.5, 2.5, 2.0, and 1.5 lanes of capacity
over time (Bottleneck capacity = 2 lanes)
Discontinuities:
✓ First period (Demand = 1.5 lanes) – No shock wave
✓ Demand = 2.5 lanes – Backward-forming shock wave
✓ Demand = 2.0 lanes (input = output) – Rear-stationary shockwave
✓ Demand = 1.5 lanes – Forward-recovery shockwave
✓ Frontal stationary shockwave – occurs as long as bottleneck operates at
capacity
Shock wave Classification
17
Shock wave Classification
18

1. Frontal Stationary: always present at bottleneck locations (Demand exceed

capacity)
▪ Cause:
o Recurrent situations: peak period demand exceeding capacity at specific
locations
o Non-recurrent: normal demand exceeds reduced capacity (accident or
incident)
2. Backward Forming: always present if congestion occurs
▪ Area in time-space domain where excess demand is being stored
▪ Time-space domain to the left of this shockwave has lower densities, and higher
to the right
 Shock wave Classification
19

3. Rear stationary:
▪ May occur when arriving traffic demand is equal to flow in the congested region for
some period of time
▪ Higher densities downstream and lower densities further upstream of the
shockwave location

4. Backward Recovery:
▪ Encountered when congestion has occurred but then due to increased bottleneck
capacity the discharge rate exceeds the flow rate within the congested region
▪ The congested region is to the left of the shockwave and free-flow conditions are
to the right
 Shock wave Classification
20

5. Forward Forming: Not too common !!

▪ Congestion is gradually extending to sections farther and farther downstream

▪ Example: as trucks proceed along an upgrade, their speeds are inhibited and a
forward forming shockwave results

▪ Time-space domain to the left of this shockwave has lower densities, and higher
to the right

Note: Shock waves demark ALL discontinuities in flow-density conditions not just at
a density discontinuity of a specific density level such as 60 vehicles per lane-mile.
Shock Wave Equation
21
Shock Wave Equation
22

➢ State-A: Steady-state free-flow

condition (qA, kA, uA)

➢ State-B: less input flow (qB, kB, uB)

Note: uA < uB
Shock Wave Equation
23

Forward moving
shockwave

Note: uA < uB
Shock Wave Equation
24

• State-A: Steady-state free-flow condition (qA, kA, uA)

• State-B: less input flow (qB, kB, uB)
Note: uA < uB
• From continuity: NB = NA
▪ Shock wave speed: wAB
▪ Speed of B relative to shockwave: uB - wAB
▪ Speed of A relative to shockwave: uA – wAB
▪ Number of vehicles leaving state B (NB) = qBt = (uB - wAB)kBt
▪ Number of vehicles entering state A (NA) = qAt = (uA - wAB)kAt
(uB - wAB)kBt = (uA - wAB)kAt

wAB = (qA – qB)/(kA – kB) = ∆q/ ∆k

Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
25
Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
26
Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
27
Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
28

❖ Time t0 to t1 (Green) – Flow state (qA, kA, uA)

❖ Time t1 (Red phase starts):

▪ Upstream of stop line changes to flow state-B

▪ Downstream of stop line changes to flow state-D

➢ Three shock waves form at time t1 :

▪ wDA – forward-moving shock wave;

▪ wDB – frontal stationary shock wave;

▪ wAB – backward-moving shock wave

Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
29

➢ Shock wave speeds:

wDA = (qD – qA)/(kD – kA) = +uA

wDB = (qD – qB)/(kD – kB) = 0

wAB = (qA – qB)/(kA – kB) = - (qA)/(kB – kA)

 Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
30

❖ Time t2 (Red to Green) – New flow state C at the stop line

➢ Flow at the stop line changes from 0 to saturation flow

➢ This causes two new shock waves (wDC & wBC) and terminates wDB

➢ Shock wave speeds:

wDC = (qD – qC)/(kD – kC) = +uC

wBC = (qB – qC)/(kB – kC) = - (qC)/(kB – kC)

Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
31

➢ Flow states D, C, B and A continue until wAB and wBC intercept

at time t3

➢ Time interval between t2 and t3:

t3 – t2 = r [wAB/(wBC – wAB)]; r = effective red phase duration

➢ Location of the queue dissipation at t3:

QM = (r/3600)[wBC – wAB]/[wBC – wAB]

Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
32

❖ Time t3 – New forward moving shock wave wAC formed

wAC = (qA – qC)/(kA – kC)

➢ Backward-moving shock waves wAB & wBC are terminated

❖ Time t4 :
➢ Forward-moving shock wave wAC crosses the stop line
➢ Flow at the stop line goes from max. flow (qC) to the arrival flow qA

➢ Time interval between t2 and t4:

t4 – t2 = [r(wAB)/(wBC – wAB)] * [(wBC/wAC) + 1]
Shock Waves @ Signalized Intersection
33

❖ Time t5 – Beginning of red phase

➢ Shock wave pattern upstream of the signal begins to repeat itself

➢ Downstream of the signal shock wave wAD forms and travels downstream
until it intercepts wAC

❖ Time t6 :
➢ Shock waves wAC and wAD terminate and new shock wave wCD is created

➢ The shock wave pattern will repeat itself as long as the traffic demand and
signal timing remain unchanged
 Microscopic Density Characteristics 34

▪ Describe behavior of individual vehicle or pairs of vehicles in a

stream
– Speed of individual vehicles
– Headway
– Spacing
▪ Minimum space must be available in front of every vehicle so that
o The driver can control his/her vehicle without colliding with the
vehicle ahead
o Avoid collision with fixed objects
Distance Headway Microscopic Density… (Cont’d)
35

➢Distance headway is defined as the distance from a selected

point on the lead vehicle to the same point on the following
vehicle
➢Usually the front edge or bumpers are selected since they
are often detected in the automatic detection system.
➢Hence distance headway includes the length of the lead
vehicle and the gap length between the lead and following
vehicle
Distance Headway 36

• Longitudinal Spacing of vehicles affect:

– Safety: Minimum space to avoid collision

– Capacity: if spacing drops below critical, gain in potential capacity

is offset by loss in capacity due to lower speeds.

– Level of service: decreased spacing below critical causes lower

speeds and hence lower level of service (critical case: stopped

vehicles in a queue)
Distance Headway 37

dn+1(t) = Ln + gn+1(t)

where dn+1(t) = distance headway of vehicle n+1 at time t

Ln = physical length of vehicle n
gn+1(t) = gap length between vehicle n and n+1 at time t

➢ Often distance gap is used as the primary microscopic

characteristics of density because of its more direct
relationship to time headway and density
Distance Headway 38

Distance gap is defined as the gap length between the rear edge of the lead
vehicle and the front edge of the following vehicle
 39

Time Headway

d n +1 = hn +1 xn

where dn+1 = distance headway of vehicle n+1

hn+1 = time headway of vehicle n+1

x n = speed of vehicle n during the time period hn+1
Car-following theories
40

• Description of how one vehicle follows another

• The back vehicle changes its speed as a function of
the front vehicle
• Several theories:
– Pipe’s Theory
– Forbes’ Theory
– General Motors’ Theories
Notations and Definitions Car-following (Cont’d)
41
Notations and Definitions Car-following (Cont’d)
42

𝑛 → 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
n+1 -> Following vehicle
𝐿𝑛 ->Length of the lead vehicle (ft)
𝐿𝑛+1 → Length of the following vehicle (ft)
𝑥𝑛 ->Position of the lead vehicle (ft)
𝑥𝑛+1 -> Position of the following vehicle (ft)
-> Speed of the lead vehicle (ft/sec)
-> Speed of the following vehicle (ft/sec)
-> Acceleration/Decceleration rate of the following vehicle (ft/sec2)
T ->At time t
𝑡 + ∆𝑡 -> ∆𝑡 time after t
Notations and Definitions Car-following (Cont’d) 43
Reading Car-following (Cont’d) 44

Theories:
• Pipe’s Theory
• Forbes’ Theory
• General Motors’ Theories
THANK YOU!
Do you have any questions?

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