Salim Sir 9874422674

2
Complex Functions & Analytic Functions
2.1. Introduction. In this chapter and afterwards, we shall use some terms
in dealing with sets of complex number in Argand Diagram.
Hence it is very much essential to define such mathematical terms and
notations.
2.2. Some Basic Definitions
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏. Open Ball or Open Disk
Let 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, Then 𝐵 𝑧 , 𝑟 = {𝑧 ∈ ℂ: |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝑟} is called an open ball or an
open disk with centre at 𝑧 and radius 𝑟, this disk is also called a
𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑟ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑑 of 𝑧 . It is also denoted by 𝑆 (𝑧 ). The set {𝑧 ∈ ℂ: 0 <
|𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝑟} is called deleted neighbourhood of 𝑧 and it is denoted
by 𝐵 (𝑧 , 𝑟) ∖ {𝑧 }
2.2.2. Interior point
A point 𝑧 ∈ D ⊆ ℂ is said to be an interior point of D, if ∃ a r>0 such that
𝐵 𝑧 , 𝑟 ⊆D. where 𝐵 𝑧 , 𝑟 = {𝑧 ∈ ℂ: |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝑟}
2.2.3. Open Sets
A subset S of ℂ is said to be an open set if each point of S is an interior point
of S

𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟑. 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐒𝐞𝐭:
A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is said to be connected set if 𝑆 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵; where 𝐴, 𝐵 being any
two non empty disjoint sets implies that at least one of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 contains a
limit point of the other.
2.2.4. 𝑨𝒓𝒄𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒕:
A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is said to be arc wise connected set 𝑖𝑓𝑓 each pair of points
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 can be joined by a simple arc (i.e., continuous curve) lying in 𝑆.
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2.2.5. 𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏:

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Salim Sir 9874422674

An open connected set is called a domain. when the domain is a subset of

ℂ, we also use the term “region” to describe it. The closure of a region is
called closed region.
2.2.6. 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒍𝒂:
Let 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 ∈ ℂ be any fixed number. We define the annula
as-
𝑎𝑛𝑛 (𝛼, 𝑟 , 𝑟 ) = {𝑧: 𝑟 < |𝑧 − 𝛼| < 𝑟 } is called open
annulus,𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑛 (𝛼, 𝑟 , 𝑟 ) = {𝑧: 𝑟 ≤ |𝑧 − 𝛼| ≤ 𝑟 }is called closed annulus.
2.2.7. 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆: −
Let 𝐴 ⊆ ℂ, 𝐵 ⊆ ℂ be non-empty. Then 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a complex function for
each 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 where 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴. Let 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, where 𝑢, 𝑣 being real
number, if 𝑧 known, 𝑤 is known. i.e., if 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are known in advance, then
𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are also known. Hence 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are two real functions of two real
variables 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
If we use polar Co-ordinates, we have-
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃 ) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃)
2.2.8 𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔: −
A function 𝑓 with domain 𝐷 is said to be bounded on 𝐷 if ∃ a number 𝑀 >
0 such that |𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀 ∀ 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷.
2.2.9. 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
Let 𝐷 be an infinite set, 𝑧 be a limit point of 𝐷 and 𝑓 be defined on 𝐷. Then
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙 if for any given 𝜀 > 0, ∃ 𝑎 𝛿 > 0 depending on 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 such
→
that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| < 𝜀 for all 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷 satisfying 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿 .
Here 𝑧 can approach to 𝑧 in any manner in the complex point.
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟗. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐷. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 .
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦).
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Salim Sir 9874422674

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑙 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 (𝑠𝑎𝑦) 𝑖𝑓𝑓 lim

→
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) =
→
→
𝑎 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim
→
𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑏.
→

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
Since lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑙, then for each 𝜀 > 0, ∃ 𝑎 𝛿 > 0, such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| <
→
𝜀 ∀ 𝑧 satisfying
|𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿 … … … … . . (1)
Now,
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎| ≤ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)|
= |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| … … (2)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏| ≤ |𝑓(𝑧) − (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)|
𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥 − 𝑥 | ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧 |, |𝑦 − 𝑦 | ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧 |
Using (1), the inequality (2) becomes-
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎| < 𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏| < 𝜀
Hold for all |𝑥 − 𝑥 | < 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑦 − 𝑦 | < 𝛿
This shows that
lim
→
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎
→

𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim
→
𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑏
→

 Conversely
𝐿𝑒𝑡 lim
→
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim
→
𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑏 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
→ →

Then for each 𝜀 > 0, ∃ two positive numbers 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 such that
𝜀
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎| < , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜 < |(𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + 𝑖(𝑦 − 𝑦 )| < 𝛿
2
𝜀
𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏| < , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 < |(𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + 𝑖(𝑦 − 𝑦 )| < 𝛿
2
Now,
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|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| = |{𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎} + 𝑖 {𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏}|

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≤ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑎| + |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑏|

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Salim Sir 9874422674

𝜀 𝜀
< + 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛿 = min{𝛿 , 𝛿 }
2 2
Therefore,
𝑓(𝑧) → 𝑙 𝑎𝑠 𝑧 → 𝑧 .
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏𝟎. 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒚: −
Let 𝐷𝑜𝑚 (𝑓 ) = 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷 be a limit point of 𝐷′. Then 𝑓 is said to be
continuous at 𝑧 if lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧 ) i.e., if for any given 𝜀 > 0, ∃ 𝑎 𝛿 > 0
→
such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧 )| < 𝜀 whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷.
If 𝑓 is continuous at every point of 𝐷. We say 𝑓 is continuous on 𝐷.
(𝒊𝒊)Using definition show that the function defined by 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛 +
𝒊(𝒛 + 𝒛) (𝒛 ∈ ℂ) is continuous at 𝒛 = 𝟏 + 𝒊
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: −
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 + 𝑖(𝑧 + 𝑧̅)
Now,
𝑓 (1 + 𝑖 ) = (1 + 𝑖 ) + 𝑖 (1 + 𝑖 + 1 − 𝑖 )
= 1 + 𝑖 + 2𝑖 = 1 + 3𝑖
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 + 𝑖(𝑧 + 𝑧̅)
= (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 𝑖 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)
= 𝑥 + 𝑖(2𝑥 + 𝑦)
Let 𝜀 > 0 be arbitrary.
Now,
|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(1 + 𝑖 )|
= |{𝑥 + 𝑖(2𝑥 + 𝑦)} − (1 + 3𝑖 )|
= |(𝑥 − 1) + 𝑖 (2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3)|
= |(𝑥 − 1) + 𝑖 {2(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑦 − 1)}|
≤ |(𝑥 − 1)| + |2(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑦 − 1)|
≤ |𝑥 − 1| + 2|𝑥 − 1| + |𝑦 − 1|
= 3|𝑥 − 1| + |𝑦 − 1|
𝜀 𝜀
< 3. +
6 2
=𝜀
Where,
𝜀 𝜀
|𝑥 − 1| < , |𝑦 − 1| <
6 6
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Or whenever
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Salim Sir 9874422674

𝜀 𝜀
(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑦 − 1) < 𝑚|𝑛 ,
6 2
i.e., whenever
𝜀
|𝑧 − (1 + 𝑖 )| <
6
i.e., whenever
𝜀
|𝑧 − (1 + 𝑖 )| < =𝛿
6
This shows that 𝑓 (𝑧) is continuous at 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖

𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌: −
(𝑖) If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷. Then |𝑓| is also continuous at 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷.
(𝑖𝑖)The function 𝑓 (𝑧) = |𝑧| is continuous at every point 𝑧 ∈ ℂ.
In fact, |𝑧| = 𝑥 + 𝑦 , ∴ 𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 are both
continuous everywhere.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)Any polynomial of the form 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑧 + ⋯ … … + 𝑎 𝑧 is continuous at
every point 𝑧 ∈ ℂ.
𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎: −
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦). 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 +
𝑖𝑦 . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ).
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇: −
Let 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 . Let 𝜀 > 0
Then for all 𝛿 > 0, s.t. |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧 )| < 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
⟹ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) + 𝑖 {𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥 , 𝑦 )}|
< 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) < 𝛿
⟹ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥 , 𝑦 | < 𝜀 & |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥 , 𝑦 )|
< 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) < 𝛿
⟹ 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥 , 𝑦 )
Conversely:
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Let 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 be continuous at (𝑥 , 𝑦 )

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Salim Sir 9874422674

Let,𝜀 > 0
Then ∃ 𝛿 > 0 S.t.
𝜀
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥 , 𝑦 )| <
2
𝜀
& |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥 , 𝑦 )| < 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) < 𝛿 .
2
∴ |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧 )|
= |{𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥 , 𝑦 )} + 𝑖{𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥 , 𝑦 )}|
𝜀 𝜀
≤ |𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢(𝑥 , 𝑦 )| + |𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣(𝑥 , 𝑦 )| < +
2 2
= 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) < 𝛿
∴ |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧 )| < 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿
⟹ 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 .
(𝑏)Let 𝑓: 𝑈 → 𝐶 be a function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)where𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 +
𝑖𝑦 be a point of the open subset 𝑈of 𝐶. Show that 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑓(𝑧 ) =
lim 𝑓 (𝑧 ) for every sequence {𝑧 } such that 𝑧 ∈ 𝑈 ∀ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and 𝑧 → 𝑧 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞.
→

𝟐. 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐. 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒔: −

A function 𝑓: 𝐷 → ℂ is said to be uniformly continuous on 𝐷 if for any given
𝜀 > 0, ∃ 𝑎 𝛿 > 0 depending only on 𝜀, such that |𝑓(𝑧 ) − 𝑓(𝑧 )| < 𝜀
whenever 𝑧 , 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑧 − 𝑧 | < 𝛿 clearly uniform continuity of 𝑓 𝑜𝑛 𝐷
imply continuity of 𝑓 𝑜𝑛 𝐷, but converse is not true. Continuity is a local
property where as uniform continuity has global property. 6
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