An introduction to

Additive Manufacturing
Alokesh Pramanik
School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering
Curtin University
Office: 204.530
Ph: 9266 7981
Email: [email protected]

Contents adapted from Dr. Mobin Salasi and Dr Roger Dong with Courtesy
1
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2
 Overview of Today’s Lecture
1. Definition and classification of Rapid
Prototyping (RP) Methods
2. Subtractive RP Processes
3. Additive Manufacturing (or RP) Processes
4. Discussion on developments

3
 Prototyping
• Evaluation of design effectiveness
• Concept verification/troubleshooting
Purpose of • Visual evaluation
prototypes • Evaluation of manufacturability
• Testing

Before mid 1980s mid 1980s

Rapid
Traditional Prototyping
Prototyping Rapid
History  Conventional Prototyping
manufacturing  CAD model
Additive
 Long lead time  Short lead time Manufacturing
 High capital cost  ‘Toolless’
 Need for tooling Rapid Tooling

4
5
 RP Processes
Subtractive
• Material removal processes
• Involve a combination of CAD/CAM and CNC

Additive
• Material addition processes by adding layers
• Starting material: liquids, powders, solids

Virtual group
• Purely software-type of prototyping
• Parts examined in virtual-reality environment

6
Subtractive RP Processes
CAD
 3D virtual representation of part

1st half of CMP

Interpretation software
 Format usable in manufacturing

Manufacturing Software
 Planning manufacturing steps

CNC machinery
 Example: desktop milling
 Often soft materials (wax, polymer)
and simple geometries
7
3 Parts in Additive RP Processes
Pre-process
 Software (CAD, CAM)

Fabrication
 Method of layer fabrication
 Starting material form

Post-process (method dependent)

 Cleaning
 Support removal
 Sanding/smoothing/polishing
 Painting
 Sealing
 Heat treatment

8
 Main Steps in AM
Computer
CAD file of solid conversion of
model followed solid model (in
by triangulation STL format)
(STL file format) into thin slices
(slicing)

Set of tool
Support directions is
material is determined
planned by for each slice,
software (if i.e. curing path
needed) (e.g. SLI file,
[Ref 1]
G&M codes)
9
 Features of Products Made by AM
 Layer thickness represents vertical tolerances (resolution)
 Individual slices from tenths of mm down to microns thick
 Stepped external surface
 Finishing operations often used (e.g. sanding, polishing,
painting, infiltration)
 Support structures (e.g. for overhangs, undercuts, ceilings)
 Support often made from a different material; easy to remove (e.g.
water-soluble)

[Ref 1]

Common support structures used in AM

10
 Classification of AM/A-RP Processes
(main processes)
Based on the Form of the Starting Material

Liquid Powder Solid

 Stereolithography  3D printing with binder  Fused deposition
 PolyJet modelling
 Selective laser sintering
technology  Laser metal
 Selective laser melting deposition – wire
 Electron beam melting  Bound metal
 Laser-engineered net deposition
shaping (LENS)  Laminated object
manufacturing

11
 Stereolithography (STL or SLA)
or Additive Prototyping by Photopolymerisation
Advantages
 Precision
 Accuracy
 Smooth finish

Disadvantages
• Limited colours
• Expensive resins
• Post process
curing
• Support removal
• Mechanically
weak
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NM55ct5KwiI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Oa6RxjU4gI
12
 History of STL
Parallel patents were filed in
• 1977 Swainson patent; 1984 in Japan (Murutani), France
Producing three-dimensional
figure product (Andreet al.) and in the US
(Masters in July and Hull in
• 1981 Kodama; Fabricating a 3d August)
plastic model with photo
hardening polymer
• 1982 Herbet; Solid object
generation (layer by layer)
• 1986 Hull; Apparatus for
production of three-
dimensional objects by
stereolithography; US Patent
4575330
3D System Inc. Founded 1986
https://www.3dsystems.com/our-story
13
 Photopolymerisation
• Photopolymer resins
developed late 1960s
• Most photopolymers
react to radiation in
the ultraviolet (UV)
range of wavelengths
• In STL Laser radiation
at around 320 nm Adapted from Polym. Chem., 2014,5, 4195-4210
wave length is
commonly used
14
 Photopolymerisation in SLA (STL)
• UV laser
• Free-radical
photopolymerization –
acrylate
• Cationic
photopolymerization –
epoxy and vinylether

15
Examples of prototypes/parts made by STL

http://sci-proto.com/Stereolithography+(SLA)/default.aspx http://redrockspd.com/stereolithography-printers/

http://www.answers.com/topic/3d-printing

http://rossnicholls.net/rapid-prototyping-services/stereolithography-sla/ http://redrockspd.com/stereolithography-printers/

16
 Examples of STL applications
• http://www.blizzident.com

17
 Example of Customized Medical Product
Invisalign® Orthodontic Aligners
 Customized Aligner manufactured by a combination of
indirect rapid tooling and thermoforming
 STL process is used to make patterns representing the
desired incremental positions of the teeth

Polymeric impression

Transparent Aligner vs
aligner traditional braces

CAD model Final Aligners made [Ref 1]

by thermoforming
18
PolyJet Technology (PolyJet )

Main advantages
 Variety of colours
 Easy to remove support
 No post-process curing
 Smooth surface
 Very thin layers 16 µm

http://www.answers.com/topic/3d-printing

19
 Examples of parts made by PolyJetTM

http://www.engineershandbook.c http://www.stratasys.com/3d-
om/RapidPrototyping/polyjet.htm printers/production-series/stratasys-j750

Other processes based on inkjet

printing (without photopolymers)
• 612 Modeller (thermoplastics);
ThermoJet Modeller (wax models);
http://www.answers.com/topic/3d-printing

Model of a human spine made

by Objet’s PolyJet technology
20
 Three-dimensional Printing (3DP® binder)
Also called Binder Jetting or ColorJet Printing technology
Multiple print Advantages
heads possible  Very fast
 No heat
 No support
 Large parts
possible
 Full colour
 Non-toxic
materials
Disadvantages
• Mechanically
weak (plaster)
• Average
[Ref 1]
resolution
• Porous
21
 3DP binder History
 1989 developed by a group of MIT researchers
- Sachs EM, Cima MJ, Williams P, Brancazio D, Cornie J (1992)
Three dimensional printing:rapid tooling and prototypes directly
from a CAD model. J Eng Ind 114(4):481–488
 Commercialised by Zcorp (plaster based powders
and inexpensive glue)
 Soligen developed Direct Shell Production
Casting, shells for casting of metal parts

22
 Examples of Parts made by 3DP®(binder)
 Colour binders can generate full-colour 3DP parts
 Very large models/parts printed fast
 Environmentally-friendly materials
 DVD example: Z810 modeller (starch-cellulose or plaster powders with
binders)
 ProJet® Printers from 3D Systems

http://www.3dsystems.com/sites/www.3dsyst http://www.answers.com/topic/3d-printing
ems.com/files/projet-x60-series-us_0.pdf

23
 3DP®(binder) of Dense Metal Parts
 3DP® (binder) of metal powders can be combined with sintering and metal
infiltration to produce fully dense metal parts
 Example from DVD: Pro Metal System (steel powders with polymer binders)
 Now available from ExOne (stainless steel infiltrated with bronze)
 Also see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6Px6RSL9Ac

[Ref 1]

3DP process Sintering Infiltration

24
 Sintering Mechanisms
(more on sintering in powder metallurgy lecture)
3 main sintering
mechanisms are:
 Diffusion (solid-state
bonding)
 Vapour-phase
transport (vapour
phase resolidifies at
convergence points)
[Ref 1]

 Liquid-phase Diffusion or solid-state

Vapour-phase transport
sintering (mixture of bonding (Chemically induced)
two powders with
different Tm, e.g. Fe-
Cu)
25
 Solid State Sintering
(more on sintering in powder metallurgy lecture)

Es = γs × Sa
Sa : is the particle surface area
γs : surface energy per unit area
26
 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Advantages
CO2  No support
 Non-toxic
materials
 Good
mechanical
properties

• PC, Disadvantages
acrylic- • Average
styrene, resolution
nylon • Occasional
[Ref 1]

porosity
Developed at the University of Texas at Austin, USA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9E5MfBAV_tA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nlCLNZq3vC4
27
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

A functional bracket made from SLS nylon

(3Dhubs.com)

 Process of building layer: fusion (for metals), full

melting for polymers

28
 Direct metal fabrication (DMF)
 Popularity of using metallic powders without binders in additive
RP has increased in recent years
 Suitable for various metallic materials
 Powders are melted and solidified (partial melting in DMLS)
 Important in rapid (direct) manufacturing and rapid tooling
 Selected DMF commercial systems available to fabricate near net
shape metallic objects fall into two groups:

Powder bed Powder fed

• Selective laser melting (SLM) (Coaxial powder (melt pool))
• Electron beam melting (EBM) • Laser engineered net shaping
• Direct metal laser sintering (LENSTM)
(DMLS) • Direct metal deposition (DMDTM)

29
 Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
Developed in Germany (Fraunhofer Institute) in 1995

30
 Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
 High powered laser (200W) melts
and fuses metallic powders
 Workpiece produced in inert gas
 Stainless steel, alloys of Al, Ti, Co-
Cr, Ni
 Density between 98-100%
 Heat treatment and finish
machining often required
 Applications: medical, aerospace,
automotive
 Commercially available from e.g. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 221 (2015) 112–
SLM Solutions and EOS 120

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t
e9OaSZ0kf8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
Mjf6oaMVWr8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z
qWOrwBzOjU
31
 Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
Importance of SLM
Ti–6Al–4V
operational settings
II

I III
Fully dense” (Zone I),
“over melting” (Zone II),
“incomplete melting” (Zone III),
and “over heating” (Zone OH)

Additive Manufacturing 1–4 (2014) 87–98

32
SLM

As one of the first valve

manufacturers in the
world – in cooperation
with AIM
Sweden Ramen valves
now supply additively
manufactured / 3D
printed control valves in
titanium grade 5
material.

33
 Additively manufactured
316L Stainless Steel

Samples printed using EOS M280 machine. Samples etched at Mech Eng, Curtin University
34
Laser-engineered Net Shaping (LENSTM)

http://www.rpmandassociates.com/RPMILaserDepositionTec
http://www.additive3d.com/lens.gif hnologyAdvancesAdditiveManufacturingAndRepair.aspx

Advantages Disadvantages
 Fully dense metallic parts with  Slow
good mechanical properties  Poor surface finish
 Repair of critical components  HAZ
 Freeform fabrication
35
 Laser-engineered Net Shaping (LENSTM)
CoCrMo deposit on CoCrMo

Side View Top View

LENS-deposited Ti/TiC metal

matrix composite structure

Gibson, Rosen and Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies, 2015

36
 Electron-beam Melting (EBM)
• Developed by Chalmers University of
Technology, Sweden Commercialised by
Arcam AB Sweden, 1997
 Uses the energy source from electron
beam to melt powders
 Workpiece produced in vacuum
 High temperature
 Able to melt titanium or cobalt-chrome
alloys powders to make fully dense
metal prototypes or parts
 Finish machining often required
 Also being developed for stainless
steels, aluminium and copper alloys
 Applications: medical, aerospace

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7--ZWPVVdQ http://www.answers.com/topic/3d-printing
37
 EBM vs. SLM

CoCrMo Ti6Al4V
SLM EBM

Gibson, Rosen and Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies, 2015

38
Powder bed Additive RP - Summary

3DP®(binder)
Non-laser
Use of binder

Starch
Plaster
Metal
Sand
http://amcrc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/ADDITIVE-MANUFACTURING-CATEGORIES-PROCESSES.pdf

39
 Fused-deposition Modelling (FDM)
Initial FDM patent
was awarded to
Stratasys founder Advantages
Scott Crump in 1992  Inexpensive
material
 Good
mechanical
properties

Disadvantages
 Support
needed
 Slow
http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/images/rapid-prototyping/fdm.png

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WHO6G67GJbM
40
 Example: Super Soaker™ squirt gun
made by FDM
 Prototype of a water gun produced on a fused-deposition
modelling machine from a 3D CAD model
 Each component produced separately and then assembled
 Interference and assembly issues can be assessed and corrected
 After design evaluation, the associated tooling is produced
 Alternative: more expensive CNC machining

[Ref 1]

Fully functional gun prototype 3D CAD model

41
 Laser Metal Deposition-Wire (LMD-W)
 Flat metal wire is used as the starting material
 Wire delivered from a side nozzle
 Laser used to heat (melt) and bond the wire material to substrate
 Higher deposition rate than LENS

http://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/155362.pdf

42
 Bound metal deposition
 An extrusion based additive manufacturing method
developed by desktop metal
 Metal components are constructed by extrusion of a
powder-filled thermoplastic media
 Bound metal rods—metal powder held together by
wax and polymer binder—are heated and extruded
onto the build plate, shaping a part layer-by-layer.
 Once printed, the binder is removed via the debind
process, and then sintered—causing the metal
particles to densify.

Green part Debinding Sintering Support removal

https://www.desktopmetal.com/
43
 Microstructure comparison
Wrought As SLM printed

John Sander’s
FYP-Curtin

Solution annealed

Desktop metal

44
 Laminated-Object Manufacturing (LOM)
typically 25 or 50W CO2

LOM
system
with laser

[Ref 1]

Advantages Disadvantages Bonding methods

 Glue
 Support
 Inexpensive  Thermal
needed  Clamping
material  Ultrasonic welding
 Sealing edges

Turbine prototype
45
Laminated-Object Manufacturing (LOM)
using vinyl cutter

Layers obtained Layers manually

from vinyl cutter stacked to form a part

[Ref 1]

Completed assembly Final part prototype

46
 Combined additive and subtractive
 Ultrasonic Consolidation UC
 Layers of Al foil strip are ultrasonically welded to a substrate
 A tool, Sonotrode, emits ultrasonic vibration which disrupts the surface
layers and metallurgically bonds the atoms (additive part)
 Each bonded layer is then milled (machined) to a shape defined by a CAD
file (subtractive)
 Similar and dissimilar metals can be bonded, or even ceramics to metals

http://www.rapidreadytech.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Fabrisonic-UAM-Process.jpg
47
 Use of Term ‘3D Printing’
 Initially the term ‘3D Printing’ referred to:
 3DP® with binder (printing heads inject binders into layers of
powders; adopted in this lecture and related questions)
 PolyJetTM technology process (printing heads deposit layers of
photopolymers; layers cured by UV bulbs)

 Increasingly, the term refers to any process/machine that

uses a method of additive manufacturing

 The preferred term instead of ‘3D Printing’ now

 Additive manufacturing

48
 Additive Manufacturing
 Main advantages:
 Product on demand or one-of-a kind
 Customized product (dental crowns, hearing aids, medical implants)
 Faster and less costly for low-volume production run
 Complicated shapes without assembly
 Efficient use of materials and energy
 Scrap material can be usually recycled
 No need for tooling, preforms or moulds
 Main limitations:
 High raw-material costs
 Limited materials with limited properties
 Large production runs not economical (long time to make individual parts)
 Performance may decrease due to fatigue, wear, and life cycle
 Limitations to accuracy and surface quality
49
 Rapid Tooling (RT)
 Direct (dies, moulds) and indirect (patterns) approach
 Advantages:
 High cost of labour and short supply of skilled patternmakers can be
overcome
 Reduction in lead time
 Limitations of traditional subtractive methods reduced or eliminated
 Lightweight castings can be produced (hollow designs of moulds)
 Chill- and cooling-channel placement in moulds can be optimized
 Shrinkage can be compensated for
 Disadvantages:
 Often shorter life than tools made by conventional methods
(machining) using hard materials (e.g. tool or die steels)
 Expensive metallic powders; limited chemical compositions

50
 Example of direct Rapid Tooling
3DP® of Metallic Dies for Helicopter Fuselage Fitting
 Die designed using CAD of part
 Die made by 3DP® with stainless
steel powders and binders
 3DP® was followed by sintering
and infiltration
 Total time ~ 6 days CAD representation of fitting

[Ref 1]

Dies made by 3DP® (binder) Final forged part

51
 Example of direct Rapid Tooling
Sand Moulds for Casting of Plumbing Fixtures
 RT approach used in the development of new designs
 New water faucet, produced by casting from rapid-prototyped sand
moulds
 Sand moulds produced through 3DP ®

[Ref 1]

Brass casting faucets Sand moulds made by 3DP®

52
Example of indirect Rapid Tooling
RT of Patterns used in Investment Casting
STL (polymer) or ThermoJet modelling (wax) patterns

[Ref 1]

53
 Other Rapid Tooling Approaches Based on AM

 Room-temperature Pattern (indirect RT)

vulcanizing (RTV) and baseplate made
moulding/urethane casting by RP
 Pattern by AM (indirect RT)
Zn-Al alloy
 Sprayed-metal tooling
 Pattern by AM (indirect RT)
 Acetal clear epoxy solid
(ACES) injection moulding
 Moulds by STL (direct RT)
 Keltool process
 RTV is used to make a
rubber mould; the mould is [Ref 1]
then filled with steel
powders; green tool is
Sprayed-metal tooling to make moulds
sintered and infiltrated with
copper for injection moulding

54
 Virtual Prototyping
 Purely software form of prototyping that allows designers to
examine a part in virtual-reality environment
 Complex software and three-dimensional advanced graphics routines
 Virtual-reality headgear and gloves with sensors
 360 degree virtual reality ‘CAVE’
 Testing using computer simulation (FEM, Multi-body Systems, CFD, RE)
 Example: Boeing 777 (mechanical fits and interferences evaluated on CAD)
 Advantages:
 Instantaneous rendering of
parts for evaluation
 Disadvantages:
 Costly
 Software difficult to master
 Lack of physical prototype
www.gizmag.com/jaguar-and-land-rover-moving-to-virtual-3d-vehicle-prototyping/8721/
55
Other classification
VAT
Sheet Lamination
Photopolymerization

Material Jetting Binder Jetting

Material Extrusion Sheet Lamination

Direct Energy
Powder Bed Fusion
Deposition

56
ASTM F42 on Additive Manufacturing

57
ISO/ASTM 52900:2015(E)

58
Additive Manufacturing in Australia
• Monash university spin out:
http://www.amaero.com.au/

59
Additive Manufacturing in Australia
• https://titomic.com/systems/tkf1000/

60
 Additive Manufacturing at Curtin
ZPrinter 450 (from Z Corporation)
 Process: 3DP® (binder)
 Now available from 3D Systems as ProJet®
CJP http://www.3dsystems.com/3d-printers
 YouTube video at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tyqMW
CEECRA

MakerBot Replicator 2X
 Process: fused-deposition modelling, FDM
 http://www.makerbot.com/

61
 Additive manufacturing at Curtin
• Desktop metal printer at Curtin’s John de
Laeter Centre

62
 Useful Websites and Web Videos

1. https://www.3dhubs.com/knowledge-base/
2. http://www.3dsystems.com/
http://www.exone.com/en/resources
http://www.ted.com/talks/avi_reichental_what_s_next_in_3d
_printing#t-62290
3. http://www.stratasys.com/

63
 Textbook Reading
Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering
and Technology, Robertson Library (670.42 KAL)
 7th edition (2014); Chapter 20, pp. 535-562 (1 copy Level 2, Reserve
(High Demand) 670.42 KAL; 2 copies Level 6, 670.42 KAL)
 6th edition (2010); Chapter 20, pp. 525-551 (Level 6)
 5th edition (2006); Chapter 20, pp. 580-601 (Level 6)

64
 References (in lecture slides)
1. S. Kalpakjian, S.R. Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology, 6th ed., Prentice Hall, 2010.
2. M.P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3rd
ed., Wiley, 2007

65