I.

Nature of Statistics (Module 1)

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Describe the nature of statistics, with your knowledge of

statistics learned in this module, how do you apply it in life
situation?
Answer:
Statistics can be used to support anything-especially statiscians,
according to Franklin P. Jones. It can be applied to the real world
and day-to-day activities of people going about their daily lives. It
keeps us informed about, what is happening in the world around
us. Like when we read a newspaper article or watch a television
news program, we are given sample information. With this
information, we can make a decision about the correctness of a
statement, claim or fact.

2. What is statistics?
Answer:
Statistics is described as a scientific method of collecting, org-
summarizing, and analyzing data. Such analysis must lead to draw
conclusions and making rational managerial decisions. Adamu and
Johnson (1995) defines statistics as a discipline.

3. Summarize the historical origin of statistics.

Answer:
Statistics may be said to have its origin in census counts taken
thousands of years ago; as a distinct scientific discipline, however,
it was developed in the early 19th century as the study of
populations, economies, and moral actions and later in that century
as the mathematical tool for analyzing such numbers.

B. Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer.

1. In the historical development of statistics, which of the following

countries recorded as the first government to gather extensive data
wealth of the territories?
a. Jewish
b. Roman
c. Israelites

2. Which of the following is considered to be s distinct mathematical

science rather than a branch of Mathematics?
a. Mathematics
b. Science
c. Statistics

3. In statistics, which of the following theories increased the scope of

statistical applications?
a. Theory of Probability
 b. Theory of Error
c. Theory of Motivation

POPULATION AS DIFFERENTIATED FROM SAMPLE

A. Answer the following questions.
1. What is population? Define.
A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions
about. Population consists of all elements, individuals, items or
objects whose characteristics are being studied. The population
being studied is called the target population.

2. Differentiate Population from Sample

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions
about. A sample is the specific group that you will collect data
from. The size of the sample is always less than the total size of the
population. In research, a population doesn't always refer to people.

B. Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer.

1. A portion of the population is referred to as a
a. Sample
b. Population
c. Element

2. It consists of all elements. Individuals, items or objects.

a. Sample
b. Population
c. Element
3. A sample that closely represents the characteristics of the sample
a. Representative sample
b. Population
c. Sample
4. The selection of a few element
a. Sample
b. Population
c. Sampling
5. The population being studied.
a. Sampling
b. Sample size
c. Target population

II. Variable (Module 2)

A. Answer the following question.
1. What is meant by variable?
A variable is a characteristic under the study that assumes different
values for different elements. In contrast to a variable, the value of a
constant is fixed.
2. Differentiate qualitative from quantitative variables, discrete from
continuous variables.
 Quantitative Variables: Sometimes referred to as “numeric”
variables, these are variables that represent a measurable quantity.
Examples include:
Number of students in a class, Number of square feet in a house,
Population size of a city, Age of an individual and Height of an
individual.
Qualitative Variables: Sometimes referred to as “categorical”
variables, these are variables that take on names or labels and can fit
into categories.
Examples include:
Eye color (e.g. “blue”, “green”, “brown”), Gender (e.g. “male”,
“female”), Breed of dog (e.g. “lab”, “bulldog”, “poodle”), Level of
education (e.g. “high school”, “Associate’s degree”, “Bachelor’s
degree”) and Marital status (e.g. “married”, “single”, “divorced”)
Discrete variables represent counts (e.g. the number of objects in a
collection). Continuous variables represent measurable amounts (e.g.
water volume or weight).

3. Discuss the classification of variables.

The classification of variables are according to continuity of
values, according to scales of measurements, and according to
functional relationship.
 According to continuity of Values
Continuous variables. These are variables that can take the form of
decimals.
Discrete or Discontinuous variables. These are variables cannot take
form of decimals.
 According to Scales of Measurement
 Nominal Variable. This property allows one to make statement
of similarities or differences.
 Ordinal Variables. These variables refer to a property whereby
members of a group are ranked.
 Interval Variable. This property allows one to make statement of
equality of intervals.
 Ratio Variable. This property permits making statements of
quality of ratios.
 According to Functional Relationship
 Independent Variables. This is sometimes called criterion
variables.
 Dependent Variables. This is sometimes called an I. Q.. I.Q. is
dependent variable and academic achievement is the dependent
variable.

4. Discuss the uses of statistics.

The uses of statistics are important as it gives a precise
description of data, it can predict the behavior of individuals, and it
can be used to test a hypothesis. Statistics is a branch of
Mathematics that can be used for many purposes.
1. It can give precise description of data.
 2. It can predict the behavior of individuals, in school, the grades of
students can be predicted through scholastic aptitude test.
3. It can be used to test hypothesis.

5. Match column A with column B.

Column A Column B

E 1. A characteristic under study that assumes a. Discrete Variable

Different values for different element.
C 2. A variable that can be measured b. Continuous Variable
Numerically.
A 3. A variable whose values are countable. c. Quantitative Variables
B 4. A variable that can assume any numerical d. Qualitative Variables
Value over a certain interval or intervals.
D 5. A variable that cannot assume a numerical e. Variable
Value but can be classified into two or more
Non-numerical categories. F. Classified Variable

B. Exercise
1. Following the guidelines, construct a table for the school year
2013-2014 enrolment of high school. Classify it by sex and year
level.

ANSWER:
ENROLMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL SY: 2013-2014
YEAR LEVEL FEMALE enrollees MALE enrollees
First year 214 215
Second year 193 182
Third year 172 168
Fourth year 167 159
Total 746 724

2. Cut-out a table of values about any type of data from a magazine,

journal, or other reading material. Comment on the layout and
discuss the content.
Answer:
 In this example, the table includes columns for Date, Product name,
quantity sold, unit price and total sales. Each row represents a specific
date and product with corresponding data for the number of units sold
and generated the total sales earned. This table layout allows for easy
comparison of sales performance across different dates and products.

III. DATA PRESENTATION (Module 3)

A. Study the graph below and answer the following questions that
follows.

Questions:
1. In what year(s) was there a marked increase in enrolment?
Answer: year 2008
2. In what year(s) was there a marked decrease in enrolment?
Answer: year 2003
3. Can you speculate on the possible reasons for the increase and
decrease in enrolment?
Answer: One of the possible reasons why the enrolment decrease is
because of the poverty, other people can’t afford tuition fee.
Regarding in increasing maybe the location and the school have a
strong education.

4. Predict the enrolment for school year 2010-2011.

Answer: From my point of view, according to the graph shows the
enrolment for school year 2010-2011 continually increasing due to the
high demands, quality of education in that school.
B.
1. How will you present and arrange gathered data in a tabular
form?
Answer: In the tabular form, you get a systematic arrangement of
rows and columns. The first column is used to indicate the titles and
the first row is also used to indicate the same. It is very accurate as
well as an easy method to display the data. Although this is a simple
method, it can be time-consuming as well.
What are the concepts needed in a tabular presentation?
Answer: The term “tabular” refers to data that is displayed in columns
or tables, which can be created by most BI tools. These tools find
relationships between data entries in one or more database, then use
those relationships to display the information in a table.
 2. What is the graphic presentation? Give an example.
Answer: It is a way of analyzing numerical data. It is a sort of chart
which shows statistical data in the form of lines or curves which are
plotted on the surface. It enables studying the cause and effect
relationships between two variables.
Examples are photographs, drawings, line art, mathematical graphs,
line graphs, charts, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols,
geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images.
Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color.

3. Based in a given sample, construct a textual presentation of data.

Answer: For Example: There are 138 barangays in Tacloban city.
The largest barangay in terms of population size in Barangay 88 was
the most populous with a population size making up 4.4 percent of the
total population of the city. Barangay 109-A was second with 3.7
percent share, followed by Barangay 74 with 3.3 percent, Barangay 91
(Abucay) with 3.0 percent, Barangay 84 (San Jose) with 2.7 percent,
Barangay 96 (Calanipawan) with 2.6 percent, Barangay 71 and
Barangay 109 (V & G Subd.) with 2.5 percent each, Barangay 99
(Diit) with 2.3 percent, Barangay 110 (Utap) with 2.2 percent, and
Barangay 62-A with 2.1 percent. The rest of the barangays contributed
less than 2.0 percent each.

Module Test
1. Below are monthly data on sales of a department store. What type
of graph will best represent the data? Draw and explain the graph.
Month Sales (in thousand
pesos)
January 200
February 400
March 600
April 500
May 750
June 750
July 450
August 400
September 350
October 300
November 550
December 1,000
 Answer:

Monthly Sales (Department Store) 2023

1100
1000
900
800
700
600
Axis Title

500
400
300
200
100
y y ch il ay ne ly t r r r r
ar ar ar pr Ju Ju us be be be be
anu bru M A M ug tem cto em em
J Fe A p O ov ec
Se N D

Line Graph will the best and it is particularly useful for showing trends
over time. It shows how the sales of the department store have changed
over time (like daily, monthly or yearly) a line graph would be suitable.
Each point of the line would represent the sales at a particular month
and the line would show the trend in sales over time.

2. Get a sample population of ten families in a certain barangay.

Using the family as a unit, obtain the following data.
a. Number of people in a household (separate the adults from
dependent children of school age).
b. Total income per household.
c. Number of wage earner in a family.
d. Number of tv sets in a household.
e. Number of families who own or rent houses.
f. Number of families who own a car.
Answer:
Snapshot of Household Data
Survey Questions Insights
Number of people in a household
(separate the adults from dependent
children of school age).
a. Adults: 18 years old
b. Dependent Children of
School Age: 18 years old
below
Total income per household.
(medium income)
Number of wage earner in a family.

Number of tv sets in a household.

 Number of families who own or
rent houses.
Rent a house
Own a house

Number of families who own a car.

3. The per capita gross national product (GNP) is the key economic
indicator. Below is a set of data on per capita GNP of some selected
countries as of January 1989, Draw and interpret the graph that
will represent the data.
Compute the total GNP for each country.
Country Population (in millions) Per Capita GNP ( in
U.S Dollars)
Japan 122.9 23,533
Malaysia 17.1 1,800
Philippines 59.5 650
Singapore 2.6 9,675
Taiwan 20.0 7, 053
Thailand 55.1 881
U.S.A 246.8 19, 750
Answer:

Per Capita GNP as of Jan. 1989

25000

20000
Population in millions

15000

10000

5000

0
Japan Malaysia Philippines Singapore Taiwan Thailand U.S.A

Axis Title

Population (in millions) Per Capita GNP (in U.S Dollars)

4. The world watch production in 1988 was 560 million. The
percentage production of key regions and countries are found
below. Draw the graph that best represents the data.
Region/Country Percentage Production
China 9.2
Japan 6.8
West Europe 21.8
North America 21.6
Easter Europe and USSR 10.4
Sout and Southeast Asia 12.2
Latin America 7.2
Other 10.8

Answer:

Percentage Production
Otherschina
11% 9%
Japan
Latin America
7%
7%
South & Western
Southeast Asia Europe
12% 22%

Easter Europe and USSR

10%

North America
22%

china Japan Western Europe

North America Easter Europe and USSR South & Southeast Asia
Latin America Others

5. Below is the comparison of the number and type of nuclear

weapons between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
and the Warsaw Pact Countries as of 1987. Draw the graph that
represents the data.
Type of weapon Number of Weapons
NATO Countries Warsaw Pact
Countries
Short-range missile 88 661
Intermediate-range 18 289
missile
Artillery (nuclear 2,924 4, 598
capable)
Nuclear-capable 1,382 2,348
tactical aircraft)
 Answer:

Number of Weapons
NATO Countries vs Warsaw Pact Countries
5000

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Short-range missile Intermediate-range missile Artillary (nuclear capable) Nuclear-capable tactical
aircraft

NATO Countries Warsaw Pact Countries

IV. SCALES MEASUREMENT (Module 4)

Study Guide
1. Define and give the difference of nominal data, ordinal data, interval
data, and ratio data.
 Nominal Scale it’s used to label variables in different classifications
and does not imply a quantitative value or order.
 Ordinal Scale it’s used to represent non-mathematical ideas such as
frequency, satisfaction, happiness, a degree of pain, etc.
 Interval Scale it’s define as a numerical scale where the order of the
variables as well as the difference between these variables is known.
 Ration Scale it’s variables measurement scale that not only produces
the order of the variables, but also makes the difference between the
known variables along with the information about the value of the true
zero.
 Nominal: the data can only be categorized. Ordinal: the data can be
categorized and ranked. Interval: the data can be categorized and
ranked, and evenly spaced. Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked,
evenly spaced and has a natural zero.
2. Give example of each of the following scales measurement.
a. Nominal
 Example:
Gender
Political preferences
Place of residence

b. Ordinal
 Example:
a semantic differential scale question such as:
How satisfied are you with our services?

Very Unsatisfied – 1
Unsatisfied – 2
Neutral – 3
Satisfied – 4
Very Satisfied – 5
1. Here, the order of variables is of prime importance, and so is the
labeling. Very unsatisfied will always be worse than unsatisfied,
and satisfied will be worse than very satisfied.
2. This is where the ordinal scale is a step above the nominal scale –
the order is relevant to the results, and so is their naming.
3. Analyzing results based on the order along with the name
becomes a convenient process for the researcher.
4. If they intend to obtain more information than what they would
collect using a nominal scale, they can use the ordinal scale.

c. Interval
 Example:
Height
Weight
Temperature
Test Score
d. Ratio
 Example
The following questions fall under the Ratio Scale category:
  What is your daughter’s current height?
Less than 5 feet.
5 feet 1 inch – 5 feet 5 inches
 What is your weight in kilograms?
Less than 50 kilograms
51- 70 kilograms

3. Classify the types of data that will be obtained from the following
variables as real nominal, artificial nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio.

Nominal a. Breeds of cattle

Ratio b. Electrical power consumptions of household appliances.
Interval c. Competitive test results (pass/fail)
Nominal d. Types of beans
Ordinal e. Efficiency ratings of employees
Ordinal f. Popularity ratings of government officials.
Interval g. Scores of an entrance examination.
Ratio h. Highest of high school students
Interval i. Scores of basketball players
Ordinal j. Popularity ratings of basketball players.
Ordinal k. Ranks in the army.
Ordinal l. Levels of schooling (elementary,/secondary/tertiary/graduate)
Nominal m. Types of personality
Interval n. I.Q
Interval o. Aptitude
Ordinal p. Types of profession.
Ordinal q. Attitude toward the teaching profession.
Ordinal r. Grades in high school.

V. SELECTING APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES (Module

5)
Study Guide

1. What are the primary considerations you have to include the

choice of your statistical test?
 Selection of appropriate statistical method depends on the
following three things: Aim and objective of the study, Type and
distribution of the data used, and Nature of the observations
(paired/unpaired).

2. How can you tell if you are using an appropriate statistical

technique in your study? Explain your answer?
 I think is when I already, identify my research question and the
type of data you have (e.g., categorical, continuous, etc.). Consider
the specific characteristics of your data, such as whether it's paired
or independent, and whether it follows a normal distribution. Also
Determine the appropriate statistical test based on the nature of
your research question and data.
 3. Discuss briefly the primary and secondary considerations in the
choice of Statistical Test?
 The choice of statistical test for the analysis of your data requires
careful and deliberate judgement on your part. The following
primary considerations will prove to be useful:
1. The choice of statistical test is dictated by the questions for
which the research is designed; and
2. The level. Distribution and dispersion of data also suggest the
type of statistical test to be used.
 Secondary considerations
1. The extent of your knowledge of statistics; and
2. Availability of the resources in connection with computation
and interpretation of data.
 Your choice of statistical technique depends primary on your
research problem, and the raw data research observations.
Secondarily, your choice also depends on your training in statistics
and/or availability of resources in connection with your research.

VI. DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES (Module 6)

Study Guide
1. What are the two properties of Random Sampling?
 A simple random sample takes a small, random portion of the
entire population to represent the entire data set, where each
member has an equal probability of being chosen. Researchers can
create a simple random sample using methods like lotteries or
random draws.

2. What are the steps you have to follow in using the Table of
Random Numbers?
 1. Number each member of the population 1 to N.
2. Determine the population size and sample size.
3. Select a starting point on the random number table. (The best
way to do this is to close your eyes and point randomly onto the
page. Whichever number your finger is touching is the number you
start with.)
4. Choose a direction in which to read (up to down, left to right, or
right to left).
5. Select the first n numbers (however many numbers are in your
sample) whose last X digits are between 0 and N. For instance, if
N is a 3 digit number, then X would be 3. Put another way, if your
population contained 350 people, you would use numbers from the
table whose last 3 digits were between 0 and 350. If the number on
the table was 23957, you would not use it because the last 3 digits
(957) is greater than 350. You would skip this number and move to
the next one. If the number is 84301, you would use it and you
would select the person in the population who is assigned the
number 301.
 6. Continue this way through the table until you have selected your
entire sample, whatever your n is. The numbers you selected then
correspond to the numbers assigned to the members of your
population, and those selected become your sample.

3. What are the steps you need to follow in using the Lottery
Sampling Technique?
 1. Define the population.
2. Choose your sample size.
3. List the population.
4. Assign numbers to the units.
5. Select your sample.

4. When are you going to use Systematic Sampling Technique?

 Systematic sampling can be used whenever you want the benefits
of randomly sampling the population you're studying. It can be
especially useful in situations where you don't have details of the
entire population before you begin your study.

5. Give the process of Stratified Sampling Technique?

 1. Define the strata needed for your sample.
2. Define your sample size.
3. Randomly select from each stratum.
4. Review stratum results.
5. Combine all stratum samples into one representative sample.

6. How do you use Cluster Sampling Techniques?

 Cluster sampling is best used to study large, spread-out
populations, where aiming to interview each subject would be
costly, time-consuming, and perhaps impossible. Cluster sampling
allows for creating clusters with a smaller representation of the
population being assessed, with similar characteristics.

7. What are other types of Non-Random Sampling?

 1. Self-selection (volunteer) sampling
2. Snowball sampling.

8. Define the following sampling techniques.

a. Random Sampling
 This is the ideal choice as it is a “perfect” random method.
Using this method, individual are randomly selected from a
list of the population and very single individual has an equal
chance of selection.
b. Lottery Sampling
 A researcher randomly picks numbers, with each number
corresponding to a subject or item, in order to create the
sample. To create a sample this way, the researcher must
ensure that the numbers are well mixed before selecting the
sample population.
c. Systematic Sampling
 is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually
slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population
is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
d. Stratified Sampling
 Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows
you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
 To use this sampling method, you divide the population into
subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic
(e.g., gender, age range, income bracket, job role).
e. Cluster Sampling
 Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling
individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire
subgroups.
 If it is practically possible, you might include every
individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This
is called multistage sampling.
f. Purposive of Deliberate Sampling
 Purposive sampling, also known as judgement sampling,
involves the researcher using their expertise to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
 It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher
wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific
phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific. An effective
purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion.
g. Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling is a method where volunteers who meet
pre-selected criteria are sought as representatives of the
target population. Bias may be introduced here because the
sample members inherently have more time to participate. It
may also be biased based on the researcher's chosen criteria.
h. Convenience Sampling
 A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who
happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
 This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data,
but there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of
the population, so it can’t produce generalisable results.
VII. MEASURES OF CENTRALITY, LOCATION, AND VARIATIONS
(Module 7)
Solve the following problems:

1. The grades of student on 12 examinations were 90, 78, 85, 88, 75, 92,
86, 85, 94, 84, 91, 83. Find the mean of the grades.

Answer:
90, 78, 85, 88, 75, 92, 86, 85, 94, 84, 91, 83
= 1, 031/12
= 85

2. Find the mean of the number of hamburgers sold in 7 days: 25, 28,
23, 28, 25, 27, 24.

Answer:
25, 28, 23, 28, 25, 27, 24
= 180/7
= 25

3. If one hour of fishing, nine fisherman caught the following number

of tilapia.
7 4 8 6 5 8 10 7 8
Find the two measures of central tendency, mean and median.

Answer:
Mean
4,5,6,7,7,8,8,8,10
= 63/9
=7

Median
4,5,6,7,7,8,8,8,10
=7

4. The grades of student on 12 examinations were 90, 78, 85, 88, 75, 92,
86, 85, 94, 84, 91, 83. Find the mean, median and mode of the grades.

Answer:
MEAN
90,78,85,88,75,92,86,85,94,84,91,83
=1,031
 =1,031/12
= 85
MEDIAN
75,78,83,84,85,85,86,88,90,91,92,94
=85+86 =171
=171/12
=85
MODE
75,78,83,84,85,85,86,88,90,91,92,94
Since 85 is the mode because it shows up the most in this data set, it
shows up twice.

5. Find the mean, median and mode of the number of hamburgers sold
in 7 days: 25, 28, 23, 28, 25, 27, 24.

Answer:
Mean
25, 28, 23, 28, 25, 27, 24
=180/7
=25
Median
23,24,25,25,27,28,28
=25
Mode
23, 24, 25, 25, 27, 28, 28
=25 and 28

Study Guide:
1. How do we compute for the mean group and ungroup data?
 Ungrouped and group methods. For ungrouped data, the mean is
simply the sum of all values divided by the number of cases. For
grouped data, the sum of all values is obtained by multiplying the
frequency or percentage of occurrence by the value of the variable

2. When do we need to compute for the median? How do we compute

for the median?
 The median is the middle score in the set. To find the median, start
by arranging all of the data points from smallest to largest. In an
odd-numbered set, the median will be the number in the very
middle of the list. In an even-numbered set, you will need to
calculate the average of the two middle numbers.

3. How do we compute for the standard deviation?

 Find the mean.
 For each data point, find the square of its distance to the mean.
 Sum the values from Step 2.
 Divide by the number of data points.
  Take the square root.

4. How do we determine the degree of relationship between attributes?

 To calculate the degree of relationship, you count the number of
steps between the two people up to the nearest common ancestor
and then back down to the other person. The total number of steps
is the degree of relationship. For example, a cousin is in the fourth
degree of relationship.

5. What is the important implication given by the measures of central

tendency?
 Central tendency is very useful in psychology. It lets us know what
is normal or 'average' for a set of data. It also condenses the data
set down to one representative value, which is useful when you are
working with large amounts of data.

VIII. STATISTICAL TEST AND THEIR USES (Module 8)

Study Guide
1. What statistical analysis should you use when we are conducting a
research?
Answer:
Most common and convenient statistical analysis is descriptive
statistics, which summarizes data using indexes such as mean and median
and another is inferential statistics, which draw conclusions from data
using statistical tests such as student's t-test. Because the F-test and the t-
tests are the most basic tests they will be discussed first.

2. How do we compute for the Z-Test of One Sample Mean?

Answer:
The z test statistic is calculated as:
z = (x – μ) / (σ√n) z = (103.05 – 100) / (15/√20)
 Compute the arithmetic mean of your sample.
 From this mean subtract the mean postulated in null hypothesis.
 Multiply by the square root of size sample.
 Divide by the population standard deviation.
 That's it, you've just computed the Z test statistic!

3. How do you know what kind of test to use?

Answer:
There are wide range of statistical test. The decision of which
statistical test to use depends on the research design, the distribution of
the data is normally distributed, you will choose from the parametric
tests. If the data is non-normal, you choose from the set of non-
parametric tests.