DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINERING

CD 326 : VERY LARGE SCALE

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
(7.5 CREDITS)
Lecture 1:
Topic: Fundamentals of Television
and Display
Sub-Topic: Factors of TV Systems
By
Dr. Johevajile K. Mazima
 Introduction
• Television systems are the combination of equipment,
• protocols and
• transmission lines that are used to obtain media from
content providers and distribute the media or programs to
content viewers
• Some of the key types of television systems include:
• Cable TV
• Satellite TV
• Broadcast TV
• Mobile TV
• IPTV
• Internet TV
 Introduction…
• A still picture-
• arrangement of many dark and light areas.
• Each small area of light or shade is
• a picture element.
• All the elements contain
• the visual information in the scene.
• Transmitted and reproduced in the same degree of
light or shade as original and in proper position to
• to reproduce the picture
Introduction…
Introduction…
Factors of TV Systems
• Gross Structure
• Image Continuity
• Scanning
• Picture Resolution
Gross Structure
• The frame in all television structure is rectangular

• Width to height is referred as Aspect Ratio

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
• 𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• Most of the TV have the Aspect Ratio of 4:3 (4/3)
Raster
Gross Structure…
• The reasons for having rectangular frame with
aspect ratio of 4:3 are:
• This is the basic standard aspect ratio
• In Human affairs the motion occurs in the
horizontal plane, therefore a larger width is
desirable
• For basic standard TV aspect ratio of 4:3, makes
direct television transmission of
• film programmes without wastage of any
portion area
• NB: Later on the standard has changed in HDTV
that is now 16:9
Gross Structure…
• Not necessary the size of the picture produced on
the receiver screen to be the same as
• that being televised but it is essential that the
aspect ratio of the two be the same,
• otherwise screen detail will look to thin or
wide.
• This is done by setting the magnitude of the current
in the deflection coils to correct values both
• at the receiving picture tube and TV camera
Image Continuity
• TV picture element of the frame produced by a scan
process so that illusion of continuity is created
• Human eye’s can see video with continuity, if 16 frames
per second is scanned (Persistence of vision)
• Human eye’s can not separate two frames, if frames are
scanned with (1/16)th second per frame

• The process is very fast that the human eye can’t see
what is happening
Image Continuity…
Scanning
• Types of scanning
• Horizontal Scanning
• Vertical Scanning
• Flicker
• Interlaced Scanning
Horizontal Scanning
• The electron beam is deflected across the screen
with a continuous, uniform motion for the trace
• from left to right due to the linear increase of
current delivered to the horizontal deflection
coils.
• The sawtooth wave direction swiftly reduces to
its starting value at the top of the ascent.
• The retrace or fly back is the result of these
quick reversals.
• At the left border of the raster, the horizontal
trace begins.
• The finish is on the right edge, where the flyback
causes a retrace to the left.
Horizontal Scanning…
• The idea behind an electron gun is to create
electrons and then accelerate them to a very high
speed.
• Cathode ray tube (CRT)
• the electrons get aimed at the screen, where they
light up the phosphor on the screen to create the
image.
• When the electrons leave the accelerating anode,
they are traveling at a reasonable fraction of
the speed of light, and this gives them a lot of
energy.
• When they hit the phosphor coating on the back
of the front glass, the phosphor converts the
electron beam's energy to photons and lights up.
Horizontal Scanning…
• The electron gun starts with a small heater, which
is a lot like the hot, bright filament of a regular light
bulb.
• It heats a cathode, which emits a cloud of
electrons.
• Two anodes turn the cloud into an electron beam
• The accelerating anode attracts the electrons and
accelerates them toward the screen.
• The focusing anode turns the stream of electrons
into a very fine beam
Horizontal Scanning…
Horizontal Scanning…
Horizontal Scanning…
• The trace and retrace of several horizontal lines. The
linear rise of current in the horizontal deflection coils
deflects the beam across the screen with a continuous,
uniform motion for the trace from left to right.
• At the peak of the rise, the sawtooth wave reverses
direction and decreases rapidly to its initial value.
• This fast reversal produces the retrace or flyback.
• The start of the horizontal trace is at the left edge of
raster.
• The finish is at the right edge, where the flyback
produces retrace back to the left edge.
Horizontal Scanning…
• 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 ×
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
 Vertical Scanning
• Vertical scanning is the process in which the electron
beam is moving from top to bottom and again bottom to
top to convert the picture element into electrical signals.
• Similar to horizontal scanning, here sawtooth current are
used to deflect the electron beam from top to bottom and
bottom to top.
Vertical Scanning…

• During the linear increase of current , the electron

beam is scanning from top to bottom
• This is called as vertical trace
• After the peak point, the current is reducing at a fast
rate and the electron beam now moves from bottom
to top of the frame.
• This is called as vertical retrace
Vertical Scanning…
Vertical Scanning…
 Progressive (Sequential Scanning) Scanning

• In sequential scanning both horizontal and vertical

scanning takes place at the same time
• Horizontal and vertical deflection coils are fed with
saw tooth current simultaneously
• So the electron beam is now deflected left to right
and at the same time deflected top to bottom
• The scanning is done line by line, after the first line,
the second line is scanned and so on.
• Now it is obvious that each frame is scanned 25
times per second
 Advantages and Applications of Interlaced
scanning
Advantages-
• reduces the video bandwidth .
• avoids the problem of flicker
Applications
• used in broadcast TV system
 Progressive (Sequential Scanning) Scanning…

• Horizontal and vertical saw tooth frequency can be

calculated:
• 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 ×
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
• 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 625 × 25
• 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 15,625 𝐻𝑧
• 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
• 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 25 𝐻𝑧
Scanning Process
Scanning Process…
 Number of Scanning Lines
• Most scenes (pictures) have brightness gradations in the vertical
direction
• Greater the number of lines into which the picture is divided in
vertical plane, the better will be the resolution
• By alternate black and white lines, it is possible to estimate
necessary number of lines in vertical direction
Number of Scanning Lines…
• Resolving capability is
• the ability of an eye to see the alternate black and
white bars distinctly
• Minimum viewing distance is
• the distance from which the eye can clearly
integrate all picture elements of the transmitted
scene
• Close to the screen or less the viewing distance than
viewing distance,
• then individual picture elements can be viewed
separately
Number of Scanning Lines…

• The maximum number of alternate dark and white

lines can be resolved by eye given as:
1
• 𝑁𝑣 = (Nv- Number of picture element (bar) in
𝛼𝜌
vertical direction)
Number of Scanning Lines…

• Whereby α is the angle subtended by an eye.

Approximate resolution is 1 minute
1 ° 1 𝜋
• 𝛼 = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = × 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≃ 180
60 60 180
𝐷
• 𝜌 = = 4, For comfortable view of video or
𝐻
greater than this (viewing distance/picture height)
• Ρ - Ratio of viewing distance to picture height
 Number of Scanning Lines…
• Practically the picture elements of the scene are not alternate
black and white bars
• The nature of picture element depends on the scene and its
brightness characteristics

• About 70% of the total bars or lines get separately scanned in

the vertical direction
• The beam spot sometimes falls equally on two adjacent lines
as shown in the figure
Number of Scanning Lines…
• SO 30% of the picture elements cannot be able to scan
separately.
• 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 ሽ =
𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁𝑣 × 𝐾
• Where K = Resolution factor 0.65 to 0.75
Number of Scanning Lines…

• Assuming a value of K = 0.7

• 𝑁𝑟 = 860 × 0.7 = 602
• The sharpness of the reproduced picture improves,
wherever the number of scanning lines in vertical
direction is increased.
• However, the scanning lines are limited by reasons
Number of Scanning Lines…

• Reasons for limiting the number of scanning lines

• The improvement in sharpness is
• not very significant when the scanning lines
are increased while viewing motion picture
• With increase in number of scanning lines line
Bandwidth also increases
• The cost of the system also increases
• Within the give VHF or UHF range, the number
of TV channels that can be
• accommodated is reduced (Due to the
increase in bandwidth)
Number of Scanning Lines…
• Once the TV channels are reduced, hence a
compromise between quality and cost is
• highly noted
• Monochrome TV has 625 lines
• American system Tv has 525 lines
Flicker
• Vertical scanning is done at the rate of 25 frames
per second
• Even though this is not enough to make illusion of
continuity, they are not rapid enough to
• allow the brightness of one picture or frame to
blend smoothly into the next between
• blanking time (time between frames)
• This results flicker of light that is very annoying to
the observer.
• By increasing the scanning rate in vertical direction,
flicker can be avoided
Flicker…
• This problem is solved in motion pictures by
showing each picture twice, so that
• 48 views of the scene are shown per second
although there are still the same
• 24 picture frames per second.
• As a result of the increased blanking rate, flicker
is eliminated.
Interlaced scanning
• Interlaced scanning is particularly done to reduce
flicker
• Vertical scanning is done 50 ties per second in the
television system
• However only 25 frames are scanned per second
• Total number of scanned lines is what is called one
frame
• This is achieved by increasing the down rate of
electron beam, so that the vertical rate of scanning is
increased twice
• Hence, every alternate line gets scanned instead of
every successive line
Interlaced scanning…
• When the beam reaches the bottom of the picture
frame, it quickly returns to the top to scan those
lines that were missed in the previous scanning
• Hence the total number of lines are divided into two
groups called fields
Interlaced scanning…
• Each group is scanned alternately
• Two group fields of Interlaced scanning are:
• Even and
• Odd fields
• Interlaced scanning reduces flicker to an acceptable
level since the area of the screen is covered at twice
the rate
• For successive Interlaced scanning in the 625 line
monochrome system, the 625 lines of each frame or
picture are divided into sets of 312.5 lines
Interlaced scanning…
 Interlaced scanning…
• Each set is scanned alternately to cover the entire picture
area
• Even field contain numbered lines
• Odd field contains odd number lines
• During the first scanning, line numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
……… are scanned
• During the next scan, line numbers 2, 4, 6, 8…….. Are
scanned
• The alternate lines are scanned every time
Interlaced scanning…
Interlaced scanning…
Interlaced scanning…
Interlaced scanning…
Interlaced scanning…
• To the alternate scanning, the horizontal sweep
oscillator is made to work at
• 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 312.5 × 50 = 15,625 𝐻𝑧
• This means to scan the same number of lines per
frame i.e
15,625 𝐻𝑧
• = 625 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
25 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
Interlaced scanning…

• But, the vertical sweep circuit is run at a frequency

of 50 instead of 25 Hz
• It is to be noted that the beam is now deflected from
top to bottom in half the time and the horizontal
oscillator is still operating at 15, 625 Hz, only the
total lines 625Τ2 = 312.5 get scanned during each
vertical sweep
Interlaced scanning…
• As the first field ends in a half line and the second
field commences at the middle of the top of
• the target plate or screen, the beam is able to
scan the remaining 312.5 alternate lines during
its
• downwards journey
• Then , the beam scans 625 lines per frame at the
same rate of 15,625 lines per second
• Hence, with interlaced scanning the flicker effect is
eliminated without increasing the speed of
• scanning and channel bandwidth
Interlaced scanning…
• It is to be noted that the frame repetition rate of 25
was selected to make the field frequency equal
• to the power line frequency of 50 Hz
• This helps in minimizing the undesirable effects of
hues due to pick up from the mains, since then such
• effects in the picture stay still, instead of drifting
up or down on the screen
Interlaced scanning…

• In American TV system, a field frequency of 60 Hz

is used because the supply frequency is 60 Hz in
USA.
• This makes the total number of lines scanned per
second to be:
• 525Τ2 × 60 = 15,750 lines which is same as in
the 625 line system
S/N Interlaced Scan Progressive Scan
1 Scanning takes place over dividing Scanning takes place through
frame all frame promptly

2 Less efficient More efficient

3 The less displaying video speed Quicker displaying video speed

4 There is present combining effect No present combining effect

5 The video quality is vulgarized Superior video quality

6 Less promoted More promoted
Scanning Periods
• Retrace times involved are due to physical
limitations of practical scanning systems and are
• not used for transmitting or receiving any video
• Here the signal obtained during the retrace period
are not used
• Useful video signal are obtained during the retrace
periods only
• So the tracing time is larger than the retrace time
 Scanning Periods…
• Horizontal Time Period (Horizontal Deflection Current)
• 𝒇 = 15,625 Hz
Scanning Periods…
• Horizontal frequency = 15,625 Hz
1
• 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
1
• 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = = 64𝑥10−6 𝑠
15,625
• 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 64𝜇𝑠
• Trace 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 52𝜇𝑠
• Retrace 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 12𝜇𝑠
Scanning Periods…
• Vertical Time Period (Vertical Deflection Current)
• 𝒇 = 15,625 Hz
Scanning Periods…
• Vertical frequency = 50 Hz
1
• 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
1
• 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = = 20𝑠
50
• 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 20𝑠
• Trace 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 18.72 𝑠
• Retrace 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 1.28 𝑠
• During vertical retrace also, horizontal scanning (trace
and retrace) take place
• Vertical retrace 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1.28 𝑠
• 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 64𝜇𝑠 (trace
and retrace)
 Scanning Periods…
• 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒
• 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑒
1.28 𝑚𝑠
𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 =
64 𝜇𝑠
Scanning Periods…

• 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 20 lines
• So 20 horizontal lines are lost per field and total 40
horizontal lines are lost during scanning of each
frame.
• Thus, 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 𝑁𝑎 = 625 −
40 = 585 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
• 𝑁𝑎 = 585 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
 Interlaced scanning Structure

•a
Picture Resolution
• What is resolution?
• the number of pixels used to make up an image
• What is pixel?
• A pixel is the smallest unit of a digital image or
graphic that can be displayed and represented on a
digital display device
• A pixel is the basic logical unit in digital graphics.
Pixels are combined to form a complete image,
video, text, or any visible thing on a computer
display.
• A pixel is also known as a picture element (pix =
picture, el = element).
Picture Resolution…
• How big is a pixel?
• The physical size of a pixel depends on the set
resolution for the display screen.
• If the display is set to its maximum resolution, the physical
size of a pixel will equal the dot size, of the display
• What is picture resolution?
• The ability of the image reproducing system to resolve
the fine details of the picture distinctly in horizontal and
vertical direction
• By increasing of picture elements, the resolution is
increased and also the quality of the reproduced picture
is increased
• Hence it is always good to have high resolution
Pixels or Picture element
Vertical Resolution
• The ability to resolve fine details of the picture in
vertical direction
• If depends upon the number of scanning lines used
in vertical direction
• In 625 line system, vertical resolution is:
• 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑁𝑎 × 𝐾
• Na = Active number of lines = 585
• K = Resolution factor = 0.69
• 𝑉𝑟 = 585 × 0.69 = 400 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
Horizontal Resolution
• The ability to resolve fine details and maximum
number of picture elements along the horizontal
scanning line
• To find this value, consider the vertical bar pattern
in the figure
Horizontal Resolution…
• To have good performance, resolution in horizontal
and vertical direction should be the same.
• Number of alternate black and white bar =
4
𝑁𝑎 × 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 585 × = 780
3
• In real picture, it is not expected to have this type of
alternate black and white bars, so the resolution
factor is considered
• 𝐻𝑟 = 𝑁𝑎 × 𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 × 𝐾
4
• 𝐻𝑟 = 585 × × 0.69 = 533 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
3
 Video Signal Bandwidth
• Maximum video frequency or bandwidth is obtained by
combining horizontal and vertical bar pattern already
used in resolution
 Video Signal Bandwidth …
• When the signal is converted into electrical signal, no signal output
for white area
• So the video signal obtained after the scanning of these pattern are
in the form of square
• The effective number of vertical line is 533, on scanning a single
line, number of cyclic changes obtained as electrical signal output
533
• Cyclic changes obtained = ≃ 267
2
Video Signal Bandwidth …
• Now, Time for one square wave = 52 𝜇𝑠
• 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
52×10−6
• 𝑡= 𝑠𝑒𝑐
267
1 267
• So, 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = =
𝑡 52×10−6
5 × 106 = 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
• Therefore, the maximum frequency video signal
bandwidth used in TV system is 5 MHz (4 MHz in
American TV system)
• This is for monochrome
 Factors Affecting and Influencing Highest
Modulating Frequency
Colour Resolution and Bandwidth
Low Frequency Requirement
Influence of Number of Lines on Bandwidth
Effect of Interlaced Scanning
Effect of Field Frequency
 Colour Resolution and Bandwidth
• The maximum frequency video signal bandwidth used in
TV system is 5 MHz
• This is not needed for the colour video signals because
• Human eye’s colour response varies with the size of an
object
• For every small objects, the eye can perceive only the
brightness of the object
• Perception of colours by the eye is restricted to objects
which cause in a video frequency output up to 1.5 MHz
only
• Hence, the colour information requires less bandwidth
than monochrome details and can be
• easily accommodated in the channel bandwidth
allotted for monochrome
Low Frequency Requirement
• As the maximum video frequency is 5 MHz so the
pass bad is very important
• So the minimum and maximum frequency of the
video signal need to be known
• If the pattern of one black and one which bars is
scanned, it will produce a 50 Hz square wave
Low Frequency Requirement…
• The DC component of the composite video signal
gives the brightness information of the scene to be
telecast
• So it is necessary to pressure this DC component
also
• Thus to reproduce fine details along with proper
brightness information the frequency response from
DC to about 5 MHz is needed
 Influence of Number of Lines on Bandwidth
• A bandwidth up to 5 MHz has been found to be
reasonably adequate to develop most details of
• the picture being televised
• Hence, the highest approximate modulation frequency fh
that the 625 line television system should be capable of
• handling for successful transmission and reception of
the picture is:
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠×𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜×𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝑓ℎ =
2×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
585×4/3×0.69
• 𝑓ℎ = ≈ 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2×52×10−6
 Influence of Number of Lines on
Bandwidth…
• If the number of scanning lines are increased, then with
the vertical tracing period, more number of horizontal
lines are to be scanned
• This implies that the duration of active horizontal lines
should be reduced
• Let the number of active lines increased by three times
• Thus, the time duration for scanning active line will be
reduced by three times
3×𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒×𝐴𝑅×𝐾
• 𝑓ℎ 𝑛𝑒𝑤 =
2× 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 /3
• 𝑓ℎ 𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 3 2 × 𝑓ℎ
• Thus, the video frequency is increased at the rate of
square of the increase in number of scanning line
Effect of Interlaced Scanning
• If 625 lines per frame are scanned in progressive
manner, then that should be done by
• increasing the speed of horizontal scanning
• This will reduce the time duration of one active line
• From the equation of the maximum video
frequency, the bandwidth gets increased (doubled)
• Thus, interlaced scanning reduces flicker and save
the bandwidth
Effect of Field Frequency
• If the field frequency increases, then time for
scanning each field decreases
• This turn decreases the active line period
• Thus the bandwidth increases proportionately with
the increase in field frequency
Bandwidth Need for Sync Pulses
• The equalizing pulses are having a width of 2.3 µs
with the rise time of 0.2 µs
• For effective transmission of these pulses
1 106
• 𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2×𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒 2×0.2
Interlace Error
• If there is any problem in scanning sequence or in
its timing parameter, then there is a possibility that
many picture elements are not resolved
• Due to this definitely the picture quality is reduced
 Interlace Error…
• The second field must always start exactly at the middle
of the line and 32 µs away from the starting point of
• the first scanning line
• Interlaced error are
• errors that occur due to the time difference in starting
scanning the second field, from the usual 32 µs point
• For the delay of a 16 µs from the usual tie, some picture
elements are
• not scanned and the percentage of interlace error is:
48−32
• 𝐸𝑖 = × 100 = 50%
32
Interlace Error…
• For 32 µs delay it is found that the first and second
field overlap with each other
• Due to this the second field lines are not scanned at
all and more information are lost
• In this situation interlace error would be 100%
 Reason for Total Number of Lines to be Odd
• To achieve perfect interlaced scanning, it is found that the
starting point at the top must be separated by 32 µs from
the left end
• As shown in the figure below the first and last lines are
half lines and the other lines are full lines
Reason for Total Number of Lines to be Odd…

• So,
• 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
𝑥(𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑)
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 =
2𝑥 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
1
• 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 2𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑝 +
2
1
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
2
• 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 2𝑥 + 1(𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)
Reason for Total Number of Lines to be Odd…

• Thus, the total number of lines in a frame for proper

interlaced scanning is always odd.
• In 625 line system the number of full lines per field
is 312
• ∴ The total number of lines = 2 х 312 +1 = 625
lines
• If the total of lines are even number then there is no
possibility of having half line at the top and bottom
• So interlaced scanning will not take place
Reason for having 625 lines instead of 623 or 627
• At the transmitter side, automatic frequency control
circuit are used to maintain the horizontal frequency
without any variation, so that correct interlace
scanning takes place
• A crystal controlled oscillator generating frequency
of:
• 15625 𝐻𝑧 (312.5 × 50 𝐻𝑧) is used for this
purpose
• To control the correct generation of vertical sync
and equalizing purses, a frequency doubling circuit
generating a frequency of:
• 31250 𝐻𝑧 (2 × 15625 𝐻𝑧) is used
Reason for having 625 lines instead of 623 or
627…
• To derive the vertical scanning frequency of 50 Hz
from 31250 Hz, four frequency division (5:1)
circuits are employed
• i.e. 31250 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 50
• To achieve this type of frequency division, the
number of lines per frame should be a product of
small whole numbers
• 623 0r 627 line will not satisfy all the above
requirements,
• So, 625 lines are used instead of 623 or 627