COLLEGE OF HOSPITALITY AND MANAGEMENT

MATH IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 3

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

For thousand years, mathematicians had developed spoken and written natural languages that are highly
effective for expressing mathematical language. This mathematical language has developed and provides a
highly efficient and powerful tool for mathematical expression, exploration, reconstruction after exploration,
and communication. Its power comes from simultaneously being precise and yet concise. But the mathematical
language is being used poorly because of poor understanding of the language. The mathematical language and
logical reasoning using that language form the everyday working experience of mathematics.

Notably, mathematics has its own language, much of which we are already familiar with e.g. the digits 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; whether we refer to 0 as "zero," or "nothing" we understand its meaning. There are many
symbols in mathematics and most are used as a precise form of shorthand. It is quite important that we
familiarize ourselves using these symbols and we understand their meaning. Mathematical language can easily
be understood by context and convention. Context is what we are working or the particular topics being studied,
while convention is where mathematicians and scientists have decided that particular symbols will have
particular meaning.

The mathematical language is the system used to communicate mathematical ideas. This language consists of
some natural language using technical terms (mathematical terms) and grammatical conventions that are
uncommon to mathematical discourse, supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation for
mathematical formulas. The mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar and shared by
mathematicians anywhere in the globe.

The characteristic of mathematical language is being precise, concise, and powerful. Precision in mathematics is
like a culture of being correct all the time. Definition and limits should be distinction. Mathematical ideas are
being developed informally and being done more formally, with necessary and sufficient conditions stated up
front and restricting the discussion to a particular class of objects. Mathematical culture of precision has
developed a precise, highly symbolic language, and a dialectic manner that allows for the adaptation,
adjustment and cumulative refinement of concepts based on experiences, and mathematical reasoning is
expected to be correct.

Mathematical language must be concise or shows simplicity. Being concise is a strong part of the culture in
mathematical language. The mathematician desires the simplest possible single exposition at the price of
additional terminology and machinery to allow all of the various particularities to be subsumed into the
exposition at the highest possible level. Mathematical language must also be powerful. It is a way of expressing
complex thoughts with relative ease. The abstraction in mathematics is the desire to unify diverse instances
under a single conceptual framework and allows easier penetration of the subject and the development of more
powerful methods.

According to Galileo Galilei "Mathematics is the language in which God has written the universe". It can be
attributed that mathematics is a universal language because the principles and foundations of mathematics are
the same everywhere around the world. Five plus five equals ten if we write it as Arabic numerals 5+5 10. The
concept of 10 items is the same anywhere in the world

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 1

Expression versus Sentences

An expression (or mathematical expression) is a finite combination of symbols that is well-defined according
to rules that depend on the context. The symbols can designate numbers, variables, operations, functions,
brackets, punctuations, and groupings to help determine order of operations, and other aspects of mathematical
syntax. An expression is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent the object of interest,
it does not contain a complete thought, and it cannot be determined if it is true or false. Some types of
expressions are numbers, sets, and functions.

On the other hand, a sentence (or mathematical sentence) makes a statement about two expressions, either
using numbers, variables, or a combination of both. A mathematical sentence can also use symbols or words
like equals, greater than, or less than. A mathematical sentence is a correct arrangement of mathematical
symbols that states a complete thought and can be determined whether it's true, false, sometimes true/sometimes
false.

Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Mathematical languages have conventions and it helps individual distinguish between different types of
mathematical expressions. A mathematical convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is generally
agreed upon by mathematicians. Let say for example, one evaluates multiplication before addition following the
principle of PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction.
Mathematicians abide by conventions to be able to understand what they write without constantly having to
redefine basic terms. Almost all mathematical names and symbols are conventional.

Like any other discipline, mathematics also has its own brand of technical terms. In some cases, a word in
general usage has a different and specific meaning within mathematics-some examples are group, ring, field,
term, factor, etc. In other cases, special terms have been introduced - some examples are tensor, fractal, functor,
etc. Mathematical statements also have its own taxonomy like axiom, conjecture, theorems, lemma and
corollaries. There are also some mathematical phrases (or mathematical jargon) used with specific meanings,
such as "if and only if", “necessary and sufficient" and “without loss of generality".

The vocabulary of mathematics also has visual elements. It is being used informally on blackboards, as well as
more formally in books and researches which serve to display schematic information more easily. The
mathematical notation has its own grammar and does not dependent on a specific natural language, but shared
internationally by mathematicians regardless of their country's spoken language. This includes the conventions
that the formulas are written predominantly left to right, even when the writing system of the substrate language
is right-to-left, and that the Latin alphabet is commonly used for simple variables and parameters.

As is the case for spoken mathematical language, in written or printed mathematical discourse, mathematical
expressions containing a symbolic verb, like = (equal), < (less-than), > (greater-than), + (addition), -
(subtraction),
× (multiplication), ÷ (division), ∈ (element), ∀ (for all), ∃ (there exists), ∞ (infinity), ⇒ (implies), ⇔ (if and
only if), ≈ (approximately), ∴ (therefore), ∨ (or), ∧ (and), etc. are generally treated as clauses in sentences or as
complete sentences and are punctuated as such by mathematicians.

Mathematical language consists of making use of mathematics symbolism. Understanding mathematics is

realizing what symbolism corresponds to the structure that has been abstracted. It is not enough for an
individual to understand mathematics, we must also know how to speak mathematics by knowing how to handle
symbols.

Typographical conventions in mathematical provide uniformity across mathematical texts and help individuals
to grasp new concepts quickly. Mathematical notation includes letters from various alphabets, as well as special
mathematical symbols. Letters in various fonts often have specific, fixed meanings in particular areas of
mathematics. In general, anything that represents a variable should be set in italic and this applies to characters
Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 2
from the Latin/English alphabet (a, b, c, ...; A, B, C, ...) as to letters from any other alphabet, most notably
Greek (α, β, γ. ...; Α, Β, Γ, ...). Usage of subscripts (e.g. xn) and superscripts (e.g. xn) is also an important
convention

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 3

Thus, xi would be suitable for the initial value, while xi would represent one instance from a set of x's (x1, x2, x3,
...), also note that numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) are not variables. Likewise, in some special cases symbols are used to
represent general constants, such as π used to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.

Four Basic Concepts

Language serves as a tool for teaching mathematical concepts. It can show how to make syntax and structure of
mathematical language clear and explicit to understand the fundamental mathematical concepts. Language
serves as a major pedagogical tool to understand how, what, and why things are said. We need to be
familiarized with the four basic concepts in mathematics before moving to more complicated mathematical
structures.

A. Language of Sets

Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets or the mathematical science of the infinite. The study
of sets has become a fundamental theory in mathematics in 1870s which was introduced by Georg Cantor
(1845- 1918), a German mathematician. A set is a well-defined collection of objects; the objects are called the
elements or members of the set. The symbol ∈ is used to denote that an object is an element of a set, and the
symbol ∉ denotes that an object is not an element of a set.

Example 1: Some example of sets

a. A = {x|x is a positive integer less than 10}
b. B = {x|x is a real number and x2 - 1 = 0}
c. C = {x|x is a letter in the word dirt}
d. D = {x|x is an integer, 1 < x < 8}
e. E = {x|x is a set of vowel letters}

There are two ways to represent sets either by roster method or by rule method. Roster method is when the
elements of the set are enumerated and separated by a comma, it is also called tabulation method. On the other
hand, rule method is used to describe the elements or members of the set it is also called set builder notation,
symbol is written as {x | P(x)}. For example, in the notation E = {a, e, i, o, u} is written in a roster method,
while E = {x|x is a collection of vowel letters} is written in a rule method.

A finite set is a set whose elements are limited or countable, and the last element can be identified. On the
contrary, an infinite set is a set whose elements are unlimited or uncountable, and the last element cannot be
specified.

Some examples of finite sets are A = {xļx is a positive integer less than 10} and C = {d, i, r, t}; while examples
of infinite sets are F = {..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...} and G = {x|x is a set of whole numbers}.

A unit set is a set with only one element, it is also called singleton. On contrary, the unique set with no
elements is called the empty set (or null set), it is denoted by the symbol Ø or { }. In addition, all sets under
investigation in any application of set theory are assumed to be contained in some large fixed set called the
universal set, denoted by the symbol U.

Examples of unit set are I = {x|x is a whole number greater than 1 but less than 3} and J = {w}; and examples
of empty set are L = {x|x is an integer less than 2 but greater than 1} since there is no integer between 1 and 2,
and M = {x|x is a number of panda bear in Manila Zoo} because there is no panda bear in Manila Zoo. In
addition, example of universal set are U = {xlx is a positive integer, x 2 = 4}; U = {1, 2, 3,..., 100}; and U= {xlx
is an animal in Manila Zoo}.

The cardinal number of a set is the number of elements or members in the set, the cardinality of set A is
denoted by n(A). For example, given set E = {a, e, i, o, u} the cardinal number of E is 5 or n(E) = 5 while the
set A = {x|x is a positive integer less than 10}, which can also be written as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} has a
Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 4
cardinal number of A is 9 or n(A) = 9.

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 5

If A and B are sets, A is called subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if and only if, every element of A is also an element of
B. Symbolically: A ⊆ B ↔ ∀x, x ∈ A → x ∈ B. A is a proper subset of B, written A ⊂ B, if and only if, every
element of A is in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in A. On contrary, the symbol ⊄ denotes
that it is not a proper subset. A equals B, written, A = B, if and only if, every element of A is in B and every
element of B is in A. Symbolically: A = B (A ⊆ B) ^ (B ⊆ A).

Example 2: Suppose A = {c, d, e}, B = {a, b, c, d, e}, and U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, then A ⊆ B, since all
elements of A is in B.

Example 3: Suppose A = {c, d, e}, B = {a, b, c, d, e}, C = {e, a, c, b, d}, and U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, then A and
C are both subsets of B; but A ⊂ B, whereas C ⊄ B. It can be observed that only A is a proper subset of B and
not C because B and C are with the same elements (notice that set A is inside sets B and C).

Example 4: Suppose A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {a, b, d, e, c}, and U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, then A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A,
therefore A = B. It can be noted that all elements of A are also elements of B (notice that set A is also set B).

Given a set S from universe U, the power set of S denoted by P(S), is the collection (or sets) of all subsets of S.
The power set of A = {e, f} is P(A) = 2n = 22 = 4, thus P(A) has 4 elements namely, A = {e, f}, the power set of
A is P(A) = {{e}, {f}, {e, f}, Ø }.

The operations on sets are union of sets, intersection of sets, complement of a set, difference of two sets, and
symmetric difference of sets. The union of A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all elements x in U such that x
is in A or x is in B. Symbolically: A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B). Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. The
intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is in A and x is in B.
Symbolically: A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B). Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. For example, A = {a, b,
c}; B = {c, d, e}; and U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, then A ∪ B = {a,b,c,d,e} and A ∩ B = {c}.

The complement of A (or absolute complement of A), denoted A', is the set of all elements x in U such that x is
not in A. Symbolically: A' = (x ∈ U | x ∉ A). Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. For example, A = {a, b,
c, d, e} and U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, then A'= {f, g}

The difference of A and B (or relative complement of B with respect to A), denoted A ~ B, is the set of all
elements x in U such that x is in A and x is not in B. Symbolically: A ~ B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} = A∩B'. Let A and
B be subsets of a universal set U. For example, A = {a, b, c} and B = {c, d, e} and U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} then A
~ B = {a, b}.

If set A and B are two sets, their symmetric difference as the set consisting of all elements that belong to A or to
B, but not to both A and B, denoted by A ⊕ B. Symbolically: A ⊕ B = {x|x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∧ x ∉ (A ∩ B)} = (A ∪ B)
∩ (A ∩ B)' or (A ∩ B) ~ (A ∩ B). For example, A = {a, b, c} and B = {c, d, e} and U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} then
A⊕B = {a, b, d, e}.

Two set are called disjoint (or non-intersecting) if and only if, they have no elements in common. Symbolically:
A and B are disjoint ⇔ A ∩ B = Ø. Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. For example, A = {a, b, c} and B
= {d, e}. Since A ∩ B = Ø, therefore A and B are disjoint sets.

In the ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first component and b is called the second component. In general, (a, b)
≠ (b, a). For example, (2, 5) = (9 - 7, 2 + 3) while (2, 5) ≠ (5, 2).

The Cartesian product of sets A and B, written A × B, is A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}. For example, A =
{2, 3, 5} and B = {7, 8}. In able to get A × B, we pair each element of A with each element of B. The results as
ordered pairs, with each element of A written first and the element of B written second such as A × B = {(2, 7),
(2, 8), (3, 7), (3, 8), (5, 7), (5, 8)}

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 6

B. Language of Functions and Relations

A relation is a set of ordered pairs. If x and y are elements of these sets and if a relation exists between x and y,
then we say that x corresponds to y or that y depends on x and is represented as the ordered pair of (x, y). A
relation from set A to set B is defined to be any subset of A × B. If R is a relation from A to B and (a, b) ∈ R,
then we say that “a is related to b” and it is denoted as a R b.

For example, A = {a, b, c} be the set of car brands, and let B = {s, t, u, v} be the set of countries of the car
manufacturer. Then A×B gives all possible pairings of the elements of A and B, let the relation R from A to B be
given by R = {(a, s), (a, t), (a, u), (a, v), (b, s), (b, t), (b, u), (b, v), (c, s), (c, t), (c, u), (b, v), (d, s), (d, t), (d, u),
(d, v)}.

Let R be a relation from set A to the set B. The domain of R is the set dom R defined by dom R = {a ∈ A| (a, b) ∈
R for some b ∈ B}. The image (or range) of R is the set of im R defined by im R = {b ∈ B| (a, b) ∈ R for some a
∈ A}.

A special kind of relation is function, one of the most important concepts in the study of mathematics. An
understanding of the concept is necessary for those with an interest in the field of mathematics, physics,
engineering, economics, or any discipline dealing with quantitative relationships.

Functions help us visualize relationships in terms of graphs and make it easier to interpret different behavior of
variables. Functions are mathematical building blocks for financial applications, economics (profit, revenue,
and cost), medicine, engineering, different fields of sciences, and others. Some concrete applications of
functions are predicting natural disasters, calculating pH levels, measuring decibels for sound intensity, and
designing machineries among others.

A function is a relation in which, for each value of the first component of the ordered pairs, there is exactly one
value of the Domain Range second component. The set X is called the domain of the function. For each element
of x in X, the corresponding element y in Y is called the value of the function at x, or the image of x. The set of
all images of the elements of the domain is called the range of the function. A Function can also be expressed
as a correspondence or mapping from one set to another. The mapping below is a function that assigns to x to y.
The domain of the function is {a, b, c, d}, while the range is (s, t, u, v}.

x F(x)
Domain Range
a s
t
b u
v
c
Let us have another example by using set of ordered pairs of the relations. Now let us determine whether each of
the following relations is a function.

A = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6)}

B = {(-2, 7), (-1, 3), (0, 1), (1, 5), (2, 5)}
C = {(3, 0), (3, 2), (7, 4), (9, 1)}

A B C
x F(x) x F(x) x F(x)
1 3 -2 7 3 0
2 4 -1 3 2
3 5 0 1 7 4
4 6 1 5 9 1
2

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 7

Relations A and B are functions, because for each x-values, there is only one y-value. Notice that in B, the last
two ordered pairs have the same y-value. This does not violate the definition of a function, since each first
component (x-value) has only one second component (y-value). The above figure illustrates the relation of the
domain and range of the given ordered pairs. Relation C is not a function, because the first two ordered pairs
have the same x-value, but different in y-values. This violates the definition of a function.

C. Language of Binary Operations

The study of algebraic structures focuses on investigating sets associated by single operations that satisfy certain
reasonable axioms; that is, to define an operation on a set in a way that will generalize such familiar structures
as the integers together with the single operation of addition, or invertible 2×2 matrices together with the single
operation of matrix multiplication. The integers under addition and the 2x2 matrices under multiplication, are
examples of algebraic structures known as group.

We first define what binary operation is. Let G be a set. A binary operation on G is a function that assigns each
ordered pair of elements of G. Symbolically, a × b = G, for all a, b, c ∈ G.

A group is a set of elements, with one operation, that satisfies the following properties: (i) the set is closed with
respect to the operation, (ii) the operation satisfies the associative property, (iii) there is an identity element, and
(iv) each element has an inverse.

In other word, a group is an ordered pair (G, *) where G is a set and * is a binary operation on G satisfying the
four properties.

1. Closure property. If any two elements are combined using the operation, the result must
be an element of the set. a * b = c ∈ G, for all a, b, c ∈ G.
2. Associative property. (a * b) * c = a * (b * c), for all a, b, c ∈ G.
3. Identity property. There exists an element e in G, such that for all a ∈ G, a * e = e * a.
4. Inverse property. For each a ∈ G there is an element a-1 of G, such that a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e.

Example 1: Determine whether the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a group.

Solution:
We will apply the four properties to test the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a group

Step 1: To test for closure property, we choose any two positive integers, for example 8 + 4 = 12 and 5 + 10 = 15
Notice that the sum of two numbers of the set, the result is always a number of the set. Thus, it is closed.

Step 2: To test for associative property, we choose three positive integers, for example
3+ (2 + 4) = 3 + 6 = 9
(3 + 2) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9
Thus, it also satisfies the associative property.

Step 3: To test for identity property, we choose any positive integer, for example
8 + 0 = 8; 9 + 0 = 9; 15 + 0 = 15
Thus, it also satisfies the identity property.

Step 4: To test for inverse property, we choose any positive integer, for
example 4+(-4)=0; 10 + (-10) = 0; 23+(-23) = 0
-1
Note that a = -a. Thus, it also satisfies the inverse property.

Thus, the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a group, since it satisfies the four properties.

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 8

Elementary Logic

Logic is technically defined as “the science or study of how to evaluate arguments and reasoning. Logic helps
us to differentiate correct reasoning from poor reasoning. It is important in the sense that it helps us to reason
correctly. Others defined logic as discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning. And logical reasoning is
used on mathematics to prove theorems, in computer science – to verify correctness of programs and to prove
theorems. A proposition (or statement) is a declarative sentence which is either true or false, but not both. The
truth value of the propositions is the truth and falsity of the proposition.

A propositional variable is a variable which is used to represent a proposition. A formal propositional variable
written using propositional logic notation, p, q, and r are used to represent propositions. Logical connectives are
used to combine simple propositions which are referred as compound propositions. A compound proposition is
a proposition composed of two or more simple propositions connected by logical connectives “and,” “or,” “if
then,” “not,” “if and only if,” and “exclusive-or.” A proposition which is not compound is said to be simple
(also called atomic).

There are three main logical connectives such as conjunction, disjunction, and negation. The following are
briefly discussed in this section. Note that T refers to true proposition and F refers to false proposition.

The conjunction of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “p and q.” Symbolically, p ∧ q, where
∧ is the symbol for “and.” If p is true and q is true, then p ∧ q is true; otherwise p ∧ q is false. Meaning, the
conjunction of two propositions is true only if each proposition is true.

The disjunction of the proposition p, q is the compound proposition “p or q.” Symbolically, p ∨ q, where ∨ is
the symbol for “or.” If p is true or q is true or if both p and q are true, then p ∨ q is true; otherwise p ∨ q is false.
Meaning, the disjunction of two propositions is false only if each proposition is false.

The negation of the proposition p is denoted by ~p, where ~ is the symbol for “not.” If p is true, ~p is false.
Meaning, the truth value of the negation of a proposition is always the reverse of the truth value of the original
proposition.

The conditional (or implication) of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “if p then q.”
Symbolically, p → q, where → is the symbol for “if then.” p is called hypothesis (or antecedent or premise)
and q is called conclusion (or consequent or consequence). The conditional proposition p → q is false only
when p is true and q is false; otherwise p → q is true. Meaning p → q states that a true proposition cannot imply
a false proposition. For example, the proposition “If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.” The antecedent is
“vinegar is sweet,” and the consequent is “sugar is sour.”

The biconditional of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “p if and only if q.” Symbolically, p
↔ q, where is the symbol for “if and only if.” If p and q are true or both false, then p ↔ q is true; if p and q
have opposite truth values, then p ↔ q is false.

The exclusive-or of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition “p exclusive-or q.” Symbolically, p ⊕
q, where is the symbol for “exclusive-or.” If p and q are true or both false, then p ⊕ q is false; if p and q have
opposite truth values, then p ⊕ q is true. It can be noted that the truth value of p ⊕ q is the negation of the truth
value of p ↔ q. Let say for example, the proposition “Sofia will take her lunch in Batangas or she will have it in
Singapore,” it can be noted from the statement that “Sofia cannot have her lunch in Batangas and at the same
time do it in Singapore,” thus it is considered false. If Sofia will have her lunch in Batangas or in Singapore,
meaning she can only have it in one location given a single schedule (the truth value is true). Lastly, if she ought
to decide to have her lunch elsewhere (neither in Batangas nor in Singapore), therefore the truth value is false.

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 9

Formality

A predicate (or open statements) is a statement whose truth depends on the value of one or more variables.
Predicates become propositions once every variable is bound by assigning a universe of discourse. Most of the
propositions are defined in terms of predicates. For example, “x is an even number” is a predicate whose truth
depends on the value of x. The predicate is true for x = 2 since 2 is an even number, but false for x = 3 since 3 is
an odd number.

The same with other statements, predicates are often represented by a letter. Moreover, a predicate can also be
denoted by a function-like notation. We can denote the given predicates: P(x) = “x is an even number.” Now
P(2) is true, and P(3) is false. If P is a predicate, then P(x) is either true or false, depending on the value of x.

A propositional function is a sentence P(x); it becomes a statement only when variable x is given particular
value. Propositional functions are denoted as P(x), Q(x), R(x), and so on. The independent variable of
propositional function must have a universe of discourse, which is a set from which the variable can take values.

Consider the sentence “If x is an odd number, then x is not a multiple of 2.” The given sentence has the logical
form P(x) Q(x) and truth value can be determined for a specific value of x. However, statements such as
There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even number.
For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x + 1 is an odd number.
cannot be represented using logical connectives because of the presence of the phrases “there exists” and “for
all.” These terms are known as existential and universal quantifiers. The universe of discourse for the variable x
is the set of positive real numbers for the proposition “There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even
number.”

Before we discuss quantifiers, we will first define some important terms. Binding variable is used on the
variable x, we can say that the occurrence of this variable is bound. On contrary, a variable is said to be free, if
an occurrence of a variable is not bound. To convert a propositional function into a proposition, all variables in
a proposition must be bound or a particular value must be designated to them. This is done by applying
combination of quantifiers (universal, existential) and value assignments. The scope of a quantifier is the part of
an assertion in which variables are bound by the quantifier. Therefore, a variable is free if it is outside the scope
of all quantifiers.

The statement “there exists an x such that P(x),” is symbolized by ∃x P(x). The symbol ∃ is called the
existential quantifier. The statement “∃x P(x)” is true if there is at least one value of x for which P(x) is true.
The statement “for all x, P(x),” is symbolized by ∀x P(x). The symbol is called the universal quantifier. The
statement “∀x P(x)” is true if only if P(x) is true for every value of x.

Common words associated with various Connectives

Quantifier Symbol Translation
There Exists; There is some; For some; For
Existential ∃
which; For at least one; Such that; Satisfying
Universal ∀ For all; For each; For every; For any; Given any

If the universe of discourse for P is P{p1, p2, ..., pn}, then ∀x P(x) ⇔ P(pl) ∧ P(p2) ∧...∧P(pn) and ∃x P(x) ⇔ P(p1)
∨ P(p2) ∨... ∨ P(pn). From this, we can easily determine the truth values of the quantifiers.

Truth values of Quantifiers with One Variable

Statement Is true when Is false when
∃x P(x) P(x) is true for every x There is at least one x for which P(x) if false
∀x P(x) There is at least one x for which P(x) is true For all; For each; For every; For any; Given any

Quantified Statements and their Negations

Statement Is true when
All A are B Some A are not B
No A are B Some A are B
Some A are not B All A are B
Some A are B No A are B

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page