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Interactions and mergers of galaxies

Article in Resonance · March 2007

DOI: 10.1007/s12045-007-0016-3

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 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

Interactions and Mergers of Galaxies

S M Alladin and S N Hasan

W h e n tw o g a la x ie s a p p ro a c h e a ch o th e r, w e c a n
w itn e ss th e e ® e c ts o f th e tid a l fo rc e s o n a g ig a n -
tic sc a le . P e c u lia r fe a tu re s lik e g a la c tic b rid g e s
a n d g a la c tic ta ils m a y fo rm , o r th e tw o g a la x ie s
m a y e v e n m e rg e in to e a ch o th e r a n d fo rm a sin -
g le sy ste m . M e rg e r o f tw o sp ira l g a la x ie s le a d s to
th e fo rm a tio n o f a n e llip tic a l g a la x y . T h e in te r- S M Alladin is a retired
a c tio n o f g a s d u rin g su c h g a la x y e n c o u n te rs trig - Professor of Astronomy,
Osmania University,
g e rs sta r fo rm a tio n a n d a c tiv ity o f th e n u c le u s.
Hyderabad. He specialized
It is g e n e ra lly b e in g a c c e p te d th a t g a la x y in te r- in dynamical astronomy
a c tio n s a n d m e rg e rs p la y a v ita l ro le in g a la c tic and did research on
e v o lu tio n . dynamics of colliding and
merging galaxies. He is
In tro d u c tio n also interested in interac-
tion between religion and
G a la x ies are larg e a ggrega tes of m a tter con tain in g ab ou t science.
a h u n d red b illion stars. M ost of th em h ave regu lar
sh a p es a n d can b e b ro ad ly classi¯ ed in to tw o m ain ca t-
egories: ellip ticals a n d sp irals. T h e fo rm er a re ellip tica l
in sh ap e w h ile th e la tter con sist of a cen tra l b u lge, a
d isk an d a h a lo . T h e d istrib u tion o f m atter in th e d isk
ex h ib its a sp ira l stru ctu re. T h e m otion o f th e stars is S N Hasan is an Assistant
p red om in a n tly ra n d om in an ellip tica l ga la x y an d n ea rly Professor of Astronomy,
Osmania University,
circu la r cop lan a r in th e d isk s of sp ira l galax ies.
Hyderabad. His field of
specialization is celestial
In th e early 192 0's a su b ject of v igoro u s con troversy in
mechanics. His research
astron om y w as w h eth er th ere ex isted ga la x ies o th er th an interests include the three
ou r ow n . A h isto rical d eb ate to o k p la ce b etw een H eb er body problem, stellar and
D C u rtis a n d H a rlow S h a p ley in w h ich C u rtis felt th at galactic dynamics.
so m e o f th e n eb u la e w ere ex tern al g alax ies w h ile S h ap ley
arg u ed th a t all n eb u lae w ere p arts of ou r ga la x y. T h e
ob serva tio n s a t th a t tim e w ere in ad eq u ate fo r a d e¯ n ite
con clu sio n to b e d raw n . T h e co n troversy w a s ¯ n ally Keywords
settled in 19 24 w h en H u b b le resolved th e ou ter p arts of Galaxy interactions, galaxy
th e A n d rom ed a n eb u la in to stars. It w a s th en rea lized mergers, galaxy evolution.

RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007 13

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

Figure 1. The Hubble tun- th a t th ere a re a lso o th er g a la x ies in th e u n iv erse. W e

ing fork diagram. n ow k n ow th a t th ere a re b illio n s o f g a la x ies.
Courtesy: NASA/STScI
H u b b le's cla ssi¯ ca tio n o f g a la x ies is w ell k n ow n (F ig-
u re 1 ). H u b b le cla ssi¯ ed g a la x ies in to ellip tica ls, sp ira ls
a n d irreg u la rs. E llip tica ls w ere fu rth er cla ssi¯ ed in to
E 0 { E 7 in in crea sin g o rd er o f ° a tn ess, a n d sp ira ls in to
n o rm a l a n d b a rred sp ira ls, ea ch o f w h ich w a s fu rth er
su b d iv id ed in to ty p es a ;b;c in in crea sin g o rd er o f im -
p o rta n ce o f th e sp ira l a rm s in rela tio n to th e n u cleu s.
T h e d isk -lik e S 0 g a la x ies o r len ticu la rs m a rk th e tra n si-
tio n b etw een ellip tica ls a n d sp ira ls. T h e ellip tica ls ra n g e
fro m sm a ll d w a rf ellip tica ls o f 1 0 8 M S u n (m a ss o f th e
S u n M S u n ¼ 2 £ 1 0 3 3 g ) to m a ssiv e su p er g ia n t g a la x -
ies o f m a ss 1 0 1 2 M S u n : T h e sp ira ls h av e co n sid era b ly
sm a ller va ria tio n in m a ss.
O u r g a la x y, k n ow n a s th e M ilk y W ay, is a sp ira l g a la x y.
T h e S u n rev o lv es a ro u n d th e g a la ctic cen tre a t a d ista n ce
o f a b o u t 1 0 k ilo p a rsecs (1 p a rsec = 3 £ 1 0 1 8 cm ) in a
n ea rly circu la r, co p la n a r o rb it co m p letin g o n e rev o lu tio n
in 2 £ 1 0 8 y ea rs. T h e d ia m eter o f th e d isk o f sta rs a n d
g a s is a b o u t 3 0 k ilo p a rsecs. T h e h a lo a lso co n ta in s a
la rg e a m o u n t o f d a rk m a tter w h ich ca n n o t b e o b serv ed
b y electro m a g n etic ra d ia tio n b u t ca n b e in ferred fro m its
g rav ita tio n a l e® ects. T h e cen tre o f o u r g a la x y co n ta in s
a b la ck h o le o f m a ss m o re th a n 3 £ 1 0 6 M S u n .

14 RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

M a n y o f th e g a la x ies a re m em b ers o f g ro u p s a n d clu sters.

In g ro u p s a n d clu sters, g a la x ies m ov e in a ll d irectio n s. In
th e co u rse o f its m o tio n , a g a la x y m ay co m e to o clo se to
a n o th er a n d ev en in terp en etra te it. S ta rs in a g a la x y a re
sep a ra ted fro m o n e a n o th er b y d ista n ces w h ich a re v ery
la rg e co m p a red to th eir d im en sio n s. H en ce th e p ro b a b il-
ity o f tw o sta rs u n d erg o in g a h ea d -o n co llisio n w ith ea ch
o th er is ex ceed in g ly sm a ll, ev en in ca ses o f p en etra tin g
co llisio n s o f g a la x ies.
G a la c tic B r id g e s a n d T a ils
A cco rd in g to N ew to n 's law o f g rav ita tio n , tw o b o d ies
a ttra ct ea ch o th er b y a fo rce w h ich va ries a s th e p ro d -
u ct o f th eir m a sses a n d in v erse sq u a re o f th eir sep a ra tio n
d ista n ce. W h en th e tw o b o d ies a re v ery clo se to ea ch
o th er, th e va ria tio n o f th is fo rce ov er th e sp a tia l ex ten t
o f th e b o d y, w h ich va ries a s th e in v erse cu b e o f th e d is-
ta n ce, ca n b e v ery im p o rta n t. T h is is b est illu stra ted
b y th e fo rm a tio n o f tid es in th e o cea n s o f th e E a rth .
T id es o ccu r in th e o cea n s b eca u se o f th e d i® eren ce in
g rav ita tio n a l fo rce b etw een th e cen tre o f th e E a rth a n d
its su rfa ce. T h e S u n is a b o u t 3 ,3 0 ,0 0 0 tim es m o re m a s-
siv e th a n th e E a rth w h ile th e M o o n is 8 1 tim es sm a ller
in m a ss th a n th e E a rth . T h e S u n 's d ista n ce fro m th e
E a rth is a b o u t 4 0 0 tim es g rea ter th a n th e M o o n 's d is-
ta n ce. H en ce (M a ss)/ (D ista n ce)3 fo r th e S u n is less th a n
th a t fo r th e M o o n b y a fa cto r o f 2 . T h erefo re th e M o o n ,
b eca u se o f its p rox im ity, tu rn s o u t to b e m o re p ow erfu l
th a n th e S u n in ra isin g tid es in th e o cea n . A n im p o r-
ta n t fea tu re o f th e e® ect o f th e tid a l fo rce is th a t tid es
a re ra ised n o t o n ly o n th e sid e o f th e E a rth fa cin g th e The Moon,
M o o n b u t a lso o n th e o p p o site sid e o f th e E a rth . because of its
W h en g a la x ies co m e clo se to o n e a n o th er w e o b serv e th a t proximity, turns out
tid a l fo rces a re in a ctio n o n a g ig a n tic sca le. T h e o rb its to be more
o f sta rs in th e o u ter p a rts o f th e g a la x ies a re g rea tly powerful than the
p ertu rb ed . T h is lea d s to th e fo rm a tio n o f a b ew ild erin g Sun in raising tides
va riety o f m o rp h o lo g ica l fea tu res in g a la x ies. S o m etim es in the ocean.

RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007 15

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

Figure 2 (left). The Anten- tw o g a la x ies a re co n n ected b y a lu m in o u s b rid g e, so m e-

nae (NGC 4038/4039) . tim es ta ils strea m o u t fro m th e g a la x ies fro m th e sid e
Courtesy: NASA/STScI aw ay fro m th e co m p a n io n .
Figure 3 (right). Whirlpool
Nebula (M51/NGC 5195). A tla s o f P ecu lia r G a la x ies b y V o ro n tso v -V ely a m in ov
Courtesy: NASA/STScI (1 9 5 9 ) a n d A rp (1 9 6 6 ) a re w ell k n ow n . T h e A n ten n a e
(N G C 4 0 3 8 / 4 0 3 9 ) (F igu re 2 ) a n d th e W h irlp o o l N eb u la
(M 5 1 / N G C 5 1 9 5 ) (F igu re 3 ) a re fa m o u s ex a m p les o f
in tera ctin g g a la x ies.
In 1 9 7 2 , A la n T o o m re a n d J u ri T o o m re sh ow ed th a t
tid a l in tera ctio n b etw een g a la x ies co u ld in d eed p ro d u ce
fea tu res su ch a s ta ils a n d b rid g es. S trik in g b rid g es a n d
ta ils ca n b e p ro d u ced if th e fo llow in g co n d itio n s a re sa t-
is¯ ed :

1 . T h e tw o g a la x ies sh o u ld a p p ro a ch ea ch o th er in
n ea rly p a ra b o lic o r h ig h ly eccen tric ellip tic o rb its.
In a fa st h y p erb o lic en co u n ter, th e en co u n ter tim e
is sm a ll a n d h en ce th e tid a l fo rce d o es n o t g et su f-
¯ cien t tim e to m a k e a p p recia b le stru ctu ra l ch a n g e
in th e g a la x ies.

2 . T h e rela tiv e m o tio n o f th e g a la x ies sh o u ld b e in th e

sa m e sen se a s th a t o f th e rev o lu tio n o f th e sta rs
in th e g a la x ies sin ce th is w ill in crea se th e tim e o f
tid a l in tera ctio n .

3 . T h e g a la x ies m u st p en etra te ea ch o th er b u t n o t
to o d eep ly.

16 RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

H ea d -o n co llisio n s o f g a la x ies d o n o t lea d to th e fo rm a -

tio n o f b rid g es a n d ta ils. S u ch co llisio n s h ow ev er co n v ert
a sp ira l g a la x y in to a rin g g a la x y. M a n y rin g g a la x ies
h av e b een d iscov ered w ith a co m p a n io n clo se b y. T h e
C a rtw h eel G a la x y (F igu re 4 ) is a n ex a m p le o f a rin g
g a la x y.
C h a n g e s in E n e r g ie s o f G a la x ie s in G a la c tic Figure 4.Cartwheel galaxy.
E n c o u n te r s Courtesy: NASA/STScI

A stu d y o f th e m o tio n o f sta rs in g a la ctic en co u n ters

is essen tia lly a n N -b o d y p ro b lem w h ere N is o f th e o r-
d er o f 1 0 1 1 . D u rin g th e en co u n ter, a sta r g a in s o r lo ses
en erg y d ep en d in g u p o n its p o sitio n a n d v elo city in th e
g a la x y. T h o se sta rs w h ich g a in en erg y m ov e o u tw a rd
a n d th o se w h ich lo se en erg y m ov e in w a rd tow a rd s th e
g a la ctic cen tre. W h a t h a p p en s to th e g a la x y a s a w h o le
d ep en d s u p o n th e cu m u la tiv e e® ects o f a ll its sta rs. N -
b o d y sim u la tio n s o f g a la ctic en co u n ters h av e b een ex -
ten siv ely p erfo rm ed w ith m o d ern co m p u ters.
S o m e va lu a b le in sig h t in to th e b a sic p h y sics ca n h ow -
ev er b e o b ta in ed a n a ly tica lly b y estim a tin g th e v elo city
ch a n g es b y in teg ra tin g th e tid a l a ccelera tio n ov er tim e
u n d er th e a ssu m p tio n ca lled th e `Im p u lse A p p rox im a -
tio n '. It w a s ¯ rst u sed b y S p itzer in 1 9 5 8 to estim a te
th e en erg y ch a n g e o f a g a la ctic sta r clu ster d u e to th e
tid a l e® ects o f in terstella r clo u d s.
C o n sid er a g a la x y o f m a ss M 1 en co u n terin g a g a la x y o f
m a ss M a n d let m b e th e m a ss o f a sta r in M . S u p -
p o se th e g a la x ies d o n o t p en etra te ea ch o th er d u rin g
th eir m o tio n . T h e sta r o f m a ss m m ay b e co n sid ered
a s fo rm in g a b in a ry w ith th e g a la x y o f m a ss M . H ere
m < < M . T h e en erg y tra n sfer fro m th e o rb ita l m o -
tio n o f th e g a la x y to th e m o tio n o f th e co n stitu en t sta rs A head-on collision
w ill d ep en d u p o n th e cu m u la tiv e e® ect o f a ll th e b in a ry -
converts a spiral
sin g le b o d y en co u n ters.
galaxy into a ring
L et ~v i a n d ~v f b e th e in itia l a n d ¯ n a l v elo cities o f a sta r galaxy.

RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007 17

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

o f m a ss m in th e p a ren t g a la x y o f m a ss M . L et ~v f =
~v i + ¢ ~v i w h ere ¢ ~v i is th e ch a n g e in v elo city o f th e sta r
in th e g a la ctic en co u n ter d u e to th e tid a l e® ect o f M 1 .
T h u s th e ch a n g e in k in etic en erg y o f th e sta r d u rin g th e
en co u n ter is g iv en b y
1 1 h i
m (~v f2 ¡ ~v i2 ) = m ~v i2 + 2~v i:¢ ~v i + (¢ ~v i)2 ¡ ~v i2
2 2
1 h i
= m 2~v i¢ ~v i + (¢ ~v i)2 :
2
T h e ¯ rst term o n th e rig h t h a n d sid e w ill g en era lly b e
m u ch la rg er th a n th e seco n d term . T h e ch a n g e in th e
v elo city o f a n in d iv id u a l sta r w ill th erefo re b e ch ie° y
g ov ern ed b y th e ¯ rst term . B u t th e ¯ rst term ca n b e
p o sitiv e o r n eg a tiv e. If ~v i a n d ¢ ~v i a re u n co rrela ted its
av era g e va lu e w o u ld b e zero . T h e seco n d term , th o u g h
m u ch sm a ller th a n th e ¯ rst term , is a lw ay s p o sitiv e.
H en ce it w ill a d d u p fo r a ll th e sta rs, w ith th e resu lt
th a t th e to ta l k in e tic e n e r g y , T , o f th e g a la x y w ill
in c re a se d u r in g th e e n c o u n te r. In th e im p u lse a p -
p rox im a tio n , w e a ssu m e th a t th e rela tiv e v elo city o f th e
g a la x ies is la rg e co m p a red to th e stella r v elo city, a n d
h en ce w e n eg lect th e ch a n g e in th e p o ten tia l en erg y − .
H en ce th e ch a n g e in th e to ta l en erg y o f th e g a la x y
1X
¢ U = ¢ T = m i(¢ ~v i)2 ;
2
w h ere th e su m m a tio n is ov er a ll th e sta rs in th e g a la x y.
F o r a sta b le g a la x y, w e o b ta in fro m V iria l T h eo rem (see
B ox 1 )
− G M 2
U = = ¡ ;
2 4 R¹
w h ere R¹ is th e d y n a m ica l ra d iu s.
W e a ssu m e R¹ ¼ R r m s , w h ere R r m s is th e ro o t m ea n
sq u a re ra d iu s o f th e p a ren t g a la x y o f m a ss M . F o r a
sta b le g a la x y, th e to ta l en erg y U is n eg a tiv e. T h e ra -
tio ¢ U = jU j p rov id es a co n v en ien t estim a te o f th e in -
ten sity o f th e d isru p tiv e e® ects o f th e tid a l fo rce. If

18 RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

B o x 1 . T h e E n e rg y o f a S te lla r S y ste m
Consider a stellar system, such as a galaxy of mass M containing N stars each of mass
m i.
It's total kinetic energy is given by
N
1X 1
T = m i v i2 = M ¾ 2 ; (a)
2 2
i= 1

where v i is the magnitude of the velocity of star of mass m i and ¾ is the magnitude of
the root-mean-square velocity, i.e. ¾ 2 is the average of v i2 .
The potential energy of the system is given by
X G m im j
−=¡ ; (b)
p a ir s i;j
r ij

where r ij is the distance between m i and m j and the summation is over all the pairs. If
m is the average mass of a star, then
X 1
2
−=¡G m : (c)
r ij
p a ir s i;j

The total number of pairs is (1= 2) N (N ¡ 1). Since N is very large, this gives N 2 = 2.
Therefore ¿ À
G m 2N 2 1
−=¡ : (d)
2 r ij
We denote the average h1= r ij i by h1= R¹ i where R¹ is called the dynamical radius. Also
M 2 = m 2 N 2 . Hence
G M 2
−=¡ : (e)
2 R¹
For stability, the potential energy should exceed the kinetic energy. Hence the total
energy U of the system should be negative.
If the system is not only stable but is also in a steady state, the Virial Theorem should
be satis¯ed, that is
2T + − = 0: (f)
Since the total energy U = T + −, it follows that for a stellar system in a steady state
− G M 2
U =¡ =¡ : (g)
2 4R¹
It also follows from equations (a), (e) and (g) that for a stellar system in a steady state
G M
¾2 = : (h)
2 R¹

RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007 19

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

B ox 2.
Consider the impulse given to a member star in the galaxy of mass M by the approaching
galaxy of mass M 1 . One estimates that the change in its velocity is approximately
G M 1 G M 1 R rm s
¢v » f ¢ ¢t » f ¢ ;
p2 p2 V
where p and V are the distance and velocity at closest approach, and ¢t is the approxi-
mate duration of the gravitational interaction between the galaxies. Here, f is a constant
that takes into account the detailed geometry of interaction.
The change in the kinetic energy of the galaxy of mass M is approximately
µ ¶2
f G M 1 R rm s
¢K E » M ¢ » ¢U :
2 p2 V

So, the ratio

¢U 2f G M 12 R 3r m s
» ¢ :
U M p4 V 2
Detailed calculations give f » 8= 3 which yields the result mentioned in the text.

¢ U = jU j > 1 , U w ill b eco m e p o sitiv e a fter th e en co u n ter,

a n d h en ce th e g a la x y w ill n o t b e sta b le. F o r a fa st n o n -
in terp en etra tin g en co u n ter it ca n b e sh ow n th a t (see B ox
2)
¢ U 1 6 G M 12 R 3r m s
= ;
U 3 M p4V 2
w h ere p a n d V a re th e d ista n ce a n d v elo city a t clo sest
a p p ro a ch a n d G is th e co n sta n t o f g rav ita tio n .
T h is sh ow s th a t th e d isru p tiv e e® ects a re n o t la rg e fo r
la rg e `p ', o r g ra zin g co llisio n s. H ea d -o n co llisio n s, w ith
sm a ll va lu es o f `p ', ca n h ow ev er lea d to la rg e d isru p tiv e
e® ects.
G a la x y M e r g e r s
S in ce th e en erg y o f th e stella r co n ten t o f b o th th e g a la x -
ies in crea ses d u rin g th e en co u n ter, it fo llow s fro m th e
law o f co n serva tio n o f en erg y th a t th e en erg y E o f th e
o rb ita l m o tio n o f th e tw o g a la x ies d ecrea ses d u rin g th e

20 RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

en co u n ter. T h u s a n in itia l h y p erb o lic o rb it o f a p a ir

o f g a la x ies ca n b e co n v erted in to a b o u n d o rb it. F u r-
th er, tid a l a ctio n w ill d ecrea se th e sep a ra tio n o f th e tw o
g a la x ies a n d lea d to th eir m erg er.
F ro m th e law o f co n serva tio n o f en erg y

j¢ E j = ¢ U + ¢ U 1 :

j¢ E j= E > 1 g iv es th e criterio n fo³r tid a ´ l ca p tu re a n d

1 M M 1
su b seq u en t m erg er, w h ere E = 2 M + M 1 V 2 , V b ein g
th e in itia l v elo city in a h y p erb o lic en co u n ter. If w e d e-
n o te b y V ca p th e in itia l v elo city b elow w h ich th e tw o
g a la x ies w o u ld m erg e, th en
1 M M 1
V ca2 p = ¢ U + ¢ U 1 :
2M + M 1
F o r id en tica l g a la x ies o n e o b ta in s fro m d eta iled ca lcu -
la tio n s, V ca p = 0 :6 4¾ fo r a g ra zin g co llisio n a n d V ca p =
2:3 5 ¾ fo r a h ea d -o n co llisio n , w h ere ¾ is th e ro o t-m ea n -
sq u a re v elo city o f a sta r in a g a la x y.
T h e a d v en t o f la rg e co m p u ters h a s en a b led u s to ca l-
cu la te th e m erg er tim e o f in tera ctin g g a la x ies. T h ese
ca lcu la tio n s h a v e sh ow n th e v eh em en ce o f th e tid a l ef-
fects. T y p ica l in tera ctin g g a la x ies m erg e in tim e o f th e
o rd er o f 1 0 8 { 1 0 9 y ea rs. T h e m erg er rem n a n ts a re b ig g er
in size th a n th e in itia l g a la x ies b u t th e m erg in g p ro cess
is n o t h o m o lo g o u s. It resu lts in a ¯ n a l co lla p sed o b ject
h av in g a h ig h er cen tra l co n cen tra tio n a n d a m o re ex ten -
siv e en v elo p e th a n its p ro g en ito rs. H ea d -o n co llisio n s o f
in itia lly sp h erica l g a la x ies lea d to p ro la te m erg er rem -
n a n ts elo n g a ted a lo n g th e d irectio n o f m o tio n , w h ile o ®
cen tre co llisio n s lea d to o b la te rem n a n ts ° a tten ed a lo n g
th e in itia l o rb ita l p la n e. F o r in term ed ia te co llisio n s th e
sh a p es a re tria x ia l. Typical interacting
galaxies merge in
C o m p u ter stu d ies h av e a lso d em o n stra ted th a t th e m er- time of the order of
g er o f tw o d isk (sp ira l) g a la x ies lea d s to th e fo rm a tio n 108 – 109 years.

RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007 21

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

A number of o f a n ellip tica l g a la x y. A n u m b er o f ellip tica l g a la x -

elliptical galaxies ies h av e a lso b een d isco v ered w h o se o b serv ed p ro p erties
have also been in d ica te th a t th ey h av e b een fo rm ed b y th e m erg er o f
discovered whose
sp ira l g a la x ies. T h is d iscov ery is o f g rea t im p o rta n ce in
observed
g a la ctic ev o lu tio n sin ce it sh ow s th a t th e m o rp h o lo g y o f
a g a la x y ca n b e d ra stica lly a ltered in th e m erg er p ro cess.
properties indicate
that they have M a n y ellip tica l g a la x ies w ith sh ell-lik e fea tu res h av e a lso
been formed by b een d iscov ered . T h ese h av e b een in terp reted to h av e
the merger of fo rm ed w h en a sm a ll sp ira l g a la x y co llid es w ith a g ia n t
spiral galaxies. ellip tica l g a la x y. In su ch a co llisio n th e sp ira l g a la x y
lo ses its id en tity a n d its sta rs a re sca ttered in th e g ra v i-
ta tio n a l ¯ eld o f th e ellip tica l g a la x y in th e fo rm o f sh ells.
D en se clu sters o f g a la x ies o ften co n ta in a h u g e g a la x y
a t th eir cen tre. It h a s m u ltip le n u clei a n d a h ig h ly ex -
ten d ed en v elo p e. S u ch a g a la x y is fo rm ed w h en g a la x ies
in a co m p a ct g ro u p o f g a la x ies u n d erg o m erg ers a n d th e
g ro u p o f g a la x ies ev o lv es in to a sin g le b ig g a la x y.
G a la x y In te r a c tio n s in O u r N e ig h b o u rh o o d
O u r g a la x y, th e M ilk y W ay, is a m em b er o f th e L o ca l
G ro u p o f g a la x ies co n ta in in g a b o u t 3 0 m em b ers in a
v o lu m e o f ra d iu s a b o u t 1 m eg a p a rsec. T h e A n d ro m ed a
g a la x y (M 3 1 ) a n d o u r G a la x y a re th e m o st lu m in o u s
a n d b ig g est m em b ers. T h ey a re sep a ra ted b y a d ista n ce
o f a b o u t 7 0 0 k ilo p a rsecs. E a ch o f th ese is su rro u n d ed b y
less m a ssiv e g a la x ies m a n y o f w h ich a re d w a rf ellip tica ls.
O u r clo sest n eig h b o u rs a re th e L a rg e M a g ella n ic C lo u d
a n d th e S m a ll M a g ella n ic C lo u d a t a d ista n ce o f a b o u t
5 0 k ilo p a rsecs. In terg a la ctic ¯ la m en ts co n n ect th e tw o
M a g ella n ic C lo u d s. T h e tid a l in tera ctio n b etw een o u r
g a la x y a n d th e M a g ella n ic C lo u d s h a s led to th e fo rm a -
tio n o f a lo n g g a seo u s strea m k n ow n a s th e M a g ella n ic
S trea m . It ex ten d s fro m th e M a g ella n ic C lo u d s to th e
S o u th G a la ctic P o le a n d b ey o n d cov erin g a n a rc o f 1 8 0 o
in th e sk y. It fo rm s a rin g in th e p la n e p erp en d icu -
la r to th e d isk o f o u r g a la x y. S ev era l sm a ll g a la x ies lie

22 RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

in th is p la n e. It a p p ea rs th a t th ese sm a ll g a la x ies o w e
th eir o rig in to th e sa m e tid a l in tera ctio n th a t p ro d u ced
th e M a g ella n ic S trea m . T h e in ten sity o f th e tid a l in -
tera ctio n s su g g ests th a t th e m a ss o f o u r g a la x y is m u ch
m o re th a n w h a t w e ca n in fer fro m th e lu m in o u s m a t-
ter. T h u s, a g rea t d ea l o f m a tter o f o u r g a la x y is in th e
fo rm o f d a rk m a tter. V a rio u s tid a l m o d els h a v e b een
p ro p o sed to ex p la in th e M a g ella n ic S trea m .
W e ca n en v isa g e th e fu tu re o f o u r g a la x y th ro u g h in ter-
a ctio n w ith its n eig h b o u rs a s fo llow s. E n erg y tra n sfer
fro m o rb ita l to stella r m o tio n s w ill m a k e th e sa tellite
g a la x ies co m e clo ser to th eir p rim a ries. In tim e o f th e
o rd er o f 1 0 9 y ea rs, o u r G a la x y a n d M 3 1 w o u ld h av e g o b -
b led th eir n eig h b o u rs. M 3 1 is a p p ro a ch in g o u r g a la x y
w ith a sp eed o f a b o u t 1 0 0 k m / sec. In less th a n 1 0 1 0
y ea rs th e m erg er o f o u r g a la x y w ith M 3 1 w ill ta k e p la ce.
T h e en tire L o ca l G ro u p w ill th en b eco m e a sin g le la rg e
ellip tica l g a la x y.
R o le o f G a s in G a la x y In te r a c tio n s
In m a n y in tera ctin g g a la x ies a b o u t 1 0 % o f th e lu m in o u s
m a ss is in th e fo rm o f g a s. T h is in terstella r g a s is m o re
sen sitiv e to tid a l p ertu rb a tio n s th a n th e sta rs, a n d in
clo se g a la ctic en co u n ters v io len t sh o ck s ca n d ev elo p in
th e g a s. T h ese sh o ck s ca n d issip a te m u ch o f th e en erg y
o f th e g a s w ith th e resu lt th a t th e g a s fa lls tow a rd s th e
g a la ctic cen tre. A stu d y o f in tera ctin g g a la x ies in d ica tes
th a t th e in fa ll o f g a s trig g ers sta r fo rm a tio n . T h e m o st
in fra red -lu m in o u s g a la x ies a p p ea r to b e sta rb u rsts trig -
g ered b y m erg er o f tw o g a la x ies. Our galaxy has a
massive black hole
O u r g a la x y h a s a m a ssiv e b la ck h o le a t its cen tre a n d it
a p p ea rs th a t m a n y o th er g a la x ies a lso co n ta in m a ssiv e at its centre and it
b la ck h o les a t th eir cen tres. W h en th e in fa llin g g a s sp i- appears that many
ra ls in to th e b la ck h o le in a g a la ctic en co u n ter, it g row s other galaxies also
ex trem ely h o t a n d ra d ia tes p ow erfu lly b efo re it va n ish es contain massive
fro m sig h t a n d g o es in to th e b la ck h o le. T h is p ro d u ces black holes at their
centres.

RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007 23

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

B o x 3 . S e y fe r t G a la x ie s, R a d io G a la x ie s a n d Q u a sa rs
S e y fe rt g a la x ie s are spiral galaxies with unusually bright, tiny cores that °uctuate
in brightness. They do not have radio lobes. Most are powerful sources of infrared
radiation. In addition, some emit intensely in the radio, X-ray, and gamma ray regimes.
Approximately 2% of all spiral galaxies are Seyfert galaxies. This means either that about
2% of all spiral galaxies have active core or that most spiral galaxies have potentially
active cores which erupt 2% of the time.
R a d io g a la x ie s are usually elliptical and are very luminous at radio wavelengths (up
to 103 8 W between 10 MHz and 100 GHz) . The radio emission is due to the synchrotron
process. They often exhibit jet structure from a compact nucleus. They typically exhibit
two lobes of radio frequency emission that are often approximately aligned with the jets
observed in the visible spectrum and that may extend for millions of light years. The
observed structure in radio emission is explained by the interaction between twin jets
and the external medium.
Q u a sa r (acronym of QUASi-stellAR radio source) is an astronomical source of electro-
magnetic energy, including light, which outshines the energy output of the brightest stars.
A quasar releases energy equal to the combined output of hundreds of average galaxies.
In optical telescopes, a quasar looks like a star (i.e. it is a point source) with a high
redshift. The general consensus is that this high redshift is cosmological, the result of
Hubble's law, which implies that quasars must be very distant and hence very luminous.
The highest redshift (for redshift, see B o x 4) currently known for a quasar is 6.4.
The scienti¯c consensus is that quasars are powered by accretion of material onto super-
massive black holes in the nuclei of distant galaxies, making these luminous versions of
the general class of ob jects known as `active galaxies'.

th e a ctiv ity o f th e g a la ctic n u cleu s. T h is in feren ce is

su p p o rted b y th e o b serva tio n th a t m a n y a ctiv e g a la x ies
(su ch a s S ey fert g a la x ies, ra d io g a la x ies a n d q u a sa rs, see
B ox 3 ) h av e in tera ctin g g a la x ies a s th eir co m p a n io n s.
E v o lu tio n o f G a la x ie s
In 1 9 2 9 , H u b b le d iscov ered th a t clu sters o f g a la x ies a re
reced in g fro m ea ch o th er a n d g rea ter th eir sep a ra tio n ,
g rea ter is th eir recessio n . T h is is in ferred fro m th e red -
sh ifts o f th e sp ectra l lin es (see B ox 4 ). T h is d iscov ery
is o f sem in a l im p o rta n ce in co sm o lo g y. It a lso fo llow s
fro m th is d iscov ery th a t in th e ea rly u n iv erse clu sters o f
g a la x ies w ere clo ser to o n e a n o th er.

24 RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

B o x 4 . R e d sh ift a n d th e H u b b le 's L a w
R e d sh ift is de¯ned as the change in the wavelength of the light divided by the rest
wavelength of the light, as
¸ o bs ¡ ¸ em
z = ;
¸ em
where ¸ e m is wavelength of emitted photon and ¸ o bs is wavelength of observed photon.
H u b b le 's L a w states that the redshift in light coming from distant galaxies is pro-
portional to their distance from the observer. The law was ¯rst formulated by Edwin
Hubble and Milton Humason in 1929 from observations. They observed that distant
galaxies were receding at velocities directly proportional to their distance d ,

v = H d;

where H is the constant of proportionality known as Hubble's constant.

The fact that more distant objects are receding more rapidly than closer ones is inter-
preted as implying expansion of the universe, and is the main observation which led to
the Big Bang theory. The age of the universe is of the order of H ¡ 1 (which is expressed
in units of time).
According to current models of the universe, the WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe) data released in March 2006 shows that the current value of the Hubble constant,
H 0 is 70 (km/s)/Mpc (1 Mpc = 106 parsec), +2:4= ¡ 3:2. Taking into account other
considerations, this implies that the age of universe is 13.7 billion § 200 million years.

W ith th e H u b b le S p a ce T elesco p e w e a re n ow a b le to
o b serv e co llisio n s b etw een g a la x ies a n d ev en co llisio n s
b etw een clu sters o f g a la x ies th a t o ccu rred in th e ea rly
u n iv erse. W e ¯ n d th a t th ere is a m u ch la rg er p ercen t-
a g e o f irreg u la rs, p ecu lia r a n d in tera ctin g g a la x ies a t
la rg e red sh ifts (see B ox 4 ), a n d ellip tica ls a re few er. T h e
g a la x ies a t la rg er red sh ifts a re a lso sm a ll in size. T h u s
it is b ein g in crea sin g ly rea lized th a t g a la x y co llisio n s
m ay h av e p lay ed a p ro m in en t ro le in g a la ctic ev o lu tio n .
T h e p resen t ev id en ce su g g ests th a t th e H u b b le seq u en ce
(F igu re 1 ) is a seq u en ce o f d ecrea sin g m erg er e® ects.
C o n c lu sio n
T h e stu d y o f g a la x y in tera ctio n s rev ea ls th e fa r-rea ch in g
e® ects o f th e tid a l fo rce. T h e fa m ilia r tid a l fo rce ex erted

RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007 25

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

b y th e M o o n a n d th e S u n w h ich ra ises tid es in th e w a -

ters o f th e o cea n s o f th e E a rth is a lso resp o n sib le fo r
co n v ertin g n o rm a l g a la x ies in to va rio u s p ecu lia r g a la x -
ies a n d in p ro d u cin g g a la x y m erg ers o n a va st sca le. It
h a s p lay ed a n im p o rta n t ro le in th e fo rm a tio n a n d ev o -
lu tio n o f g a la x ies in th e p a st.
Suggested Reading

[1] S M Alladin and K S V S Narasimhan, Gravitational Interactions between

Address for Correspondence Galaxies, Physics Reports, Vol.92 p.339, 1982.
S M Alladin and S N Hasan [2] J Barnes and L Hernquist, Dynamics of Interacting Galaxies, Annual
Department of Astronomy Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Vol.30, p.705, 1992.
Osmania University [3] Curtis Struck, Galaxy Collisions, Physics Reports, Vol.321, p.1, 1999.
Hyderabad [4] Galaxies: Interaction and Induced Star Formation, Lecture Notes 1996 of
Email: R C Kennicut Jr., F Schweizer and J E Barnes, Saas – Fee Advanced
[email protected] Course 26, edited by D Friedli, L Martinet and D Pfenniger, Swiss Society
for Astrophysics and Astronomy, Springer, 1998.

Errata
Resonance, Vol.12, No.1, January, 2007
Page 44: In the article, Pastuer – the Harbinger of Stereochemistry, the
correct Figure 2 is reproduced here.

We thank Prof. S P Kamat, Department of Chemistry, Goa University, Goa for pointing out
the error.

26 RESONANCE ⎜ March 2007

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