Pre-Medical : Physics

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Common Lecture Notes Nurture Course (11th Appearing)
Topic : Unit and Dimension Lectures / Hours allotted : 6L/9H

LECTURE # 01
1. UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
1.1 Physical Quantities
All the quantities which are used to describe the laws of physics are known as physical quantities.
Classification : Physical quantities can be classified on the following basis :
1. Based on their directional properties
I. Scalars : The physical quantities which have only magnitude but no direction are called scalar quantities.
e.g. mass, density, volume, time, etc.
II. Vectors : The physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction and obey laws of vector
algebra are called vector quantities.
e.g. displacement, force, velocity, etc.
2. Based on their dependency
I. Fundamental or base quantities : The quantities which do not depend upon other quantities for their
complete definition are known as fundamental or base quantities.
e.g. length, mass, time, etc.
II. Derived quantities : The quantities which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities are
known as derived quantities .
e.g. Speed (=distance/time), volume, accelaration, force, pressure, etc.
1.2 Units of Physical Quantities
The chosen reference standard of measurement in multiples of which, a physical quantity is expressed is called
the unit of that quantity.
System of Units :
(i) FPS or British Engineering system – In this system length, mass and time are taken as fundamental
quantities and their base units are foot (ft), pound (lb) and second (s) respectively.
(ii) CGS or Gaussian system : In this system the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time and
their respective units are centimetre (cm), gram (g) and second (s).
(iii) MKS system : In this system also the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time and their
fundamental units are metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s) respectively.
(iv) International system (SI) of units : This system is modification of the MKS system and so it is also
known as Rationalised MKS system. Besides the three base units of MKS system four fundamental and
two supplementary units are also included in this system.
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SI BASE QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

S. No. Physical quantity Unit Symbol
1 Length metre m
2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second s
4 Temperature kelvin K
5 Electric current ampere A
6 Luminous intensity candela cd
7 Amount of substance mole mol

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While defining a base unit or standard for a physical quantity the following characteristics must be
considered :
(i) Well defined (ii) Invariability (constancy)
(iii) Accessibility (easy availability) (iv) Reproducibility (v) Convenience in use
1.3 Classification of Units
The units of physical quantities can be classified as follows :
(i) Fundamental or base units : The units of fundamental quantities are called base units. In SI there are
seven base units.
(ii) Derived units : The units of derived quantities or the units that can be expressed in terms of the base
units are called derived units.
unit of distance metre
e.g. unit of speed= = =m/s
unit of time second
Some derived units are named in honour of great scientists.
e.g. unit of force - newton (N), unit of frequency - hertz (Hz), etc.
(iii) Supplementary units : In International System (SI) of units two supplementary units are also defined viz.
radian (rad) for plane angle and steradian (sr) for solid angle.
l radian : 1 radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius
of the circle.
l steradian : 1 steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere, by that surface of the
sphere which is equal in area to the square of the radius of the sphere.
(iv) Practical units : Due to the fixed sizes of SI units, some practical units are also defined for both
fundamental and derived quantities. e.g. light year (ly) is a practical unit of distance (a fundamental
quantity) and horse power (hp) is a practical unit of power (a derived quantity).
Practical units may or may not belong to a particular system of units but can be expressed in any system of units.
e.g. 1 mile = 1.6 km = 1.6 × 103 m = 1.6 × 105 cm.
(v) Improper units : These are the units which are not of the same nature as that of the physical quantities for
which they are used. e.g. kg - wt is an improper unit of weight. Here kg is a unit of mass but it is used to
measure the weight (force).
UNITS OF SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES IN DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

Type of Physical CGS MKS FPS

Physical Quantity (Originated in (Originated in (Originated in
Quantity France) France) Britain)
Length cm m ft
Fundamental Mass g kg lb
Time s s s
Force dyne newton (N) poundal
Work or erg joule (J) ft - poundal
Derived
Energy
Power erg/s watt (W) ft - poundal/s
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HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

BB-1 ; Q. 1, 2

Ex-1 ; Q. 1, 6, 4, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

BB-1 ; Q. 1, 2

Ex-1 ; Q. 1, 6, 4, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
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LECTURE # 02
1.4 Dimensions : Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the base quantities
are raised to express that quantity.
Dimensional formula : The dimensional formula of any physical quantity is that expression which represents how and
which of the base quantities are included in that quantity.
It is written by enclosing the symbols for base quantities with appropriate powers in square brackets i.e. [ ]
e. g. Dimensional formula of mass is [M1L0 T0 ] and that of speed (= distance/time) is [M0L1T–1]
Dimensional equation : The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is
called a dimensional equation. e.g. [v] = [M0L1T–1]
For example [F] = [MLT–2] is a dimensional equation, [MLT–2] is the dimensional formula of the force and the
dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and –2 in time
1. Find correct statement.
(1) A dimensionless quantity may have units
(2) A unitless quantity may have dimensions
(3) A dimensionless quantity must be unitless
(4) A unitless quantity must be dimensionless
2. IMPORTANT CONCEPTS :-
(1) Only same physical quantities can be added or subtracted
eg. x + y
[x] = [y]
(2) If physical quantities are multiplied or divided then a new physical quantity is formed.
eg. F = ma
x
xy y
(3) Dimensionless Quantities
(i) Ratio of physical quantities with same dimentions.
C
eg. µ= = DL
V
(ii) All mathematical constants.
eg. p(3.14), e(2.7), 4, 11, 94 etc.
(iii) All standard mathematical functions and their inputs (exponential, logarithmic, inverse trigonometric
& trigonometric). (ELLT)
æ 1 ö
log ( 2ay ) sin -1 ç
2 ÷
( )
ex , , , sinsin(ax + b)
è 1- x ø

(4) Principle of homogenity :-

Each term of both sides in an equation has same dimensions.
xy + pq = z
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[xy] = [pq] = [z]

Ex. Find dimension of a, b, c, where x is position and t is time.
a
(1) F = + bt
x
éa ù
[F] = ê ú = [bt]
ëx û
éaù
[MLT–2] = ê ú = [bt]
ëxû
a = ML T 2 –2

[bt] = [F] Þ [b] = [MLT–2]/T

Þ MLT–3
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b
Ex. V = ax +
c-t

é b ù
[V] = [ax] = ê
ë c - t úû

é b ù
êë c - t úû = [V] [ax] = [V]

[c] = [t] = [T] a = T–1

ébù
êë T úû = [V]
[b] = [LT–1] × T
[b] = [L]
Ex. V = ae–bt
[a] = [V] = [LT–1]
Input = –bt = DL
bt = DL
[bt] = [M0L0T0]
[b] [T] = [M0L0T0] Þ [b] = [M0L0T–1]

æbö æbö
Ex. F = a log ç ÷ log ç ÷ = DL
èxø èxø

b
F=a = [M0L0T0] = DL
x
b
M1L1T–2 = a = M 0 L0 T 0
L
[b] = [L]
Ex. x = a sin (bt – cx)
[a] = [x] = [L]
Input = bt – cx = DL Cx = DL
[Cx] = 1
bt = DL [C] [L] = 1
[bt] = 1 [C] = [L–1]
[b] [T] = 1
[b] = [T–1]
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æ a ö
Ex. ç P + 2 ÷ (v – b) = RT
è v ø

éaù
êë v 2 úû = [P] [b] = [v]

[b] = [L3]
a
= [ ML-1T -2 ]
[ L6 ]
[a] = ML–1T–2 × L6
= ML5T–2

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1.5 Applications of dimensional analysis :
(i) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to the other :

This is based on the fact that magnitude of a physical quantity remains same whatever system is used for
measurement i.e. magnitude = numeric value (n) × unit (u) = constant or n 1u1 = n2u2

a b c
æ u1 ö æ M1 ö æ L 1 ö æ T1 ö
So if a quantity is represented by [M L T ] then n2 = n1 ç ÷ = n1 ç
a b c
u
è 2ø è M2 ÷ø çè L 2 ÷ø çè T2 ÷ø

Here n1 = numerical value in I system n2 = numerical value in II system

M1 = unit of mass in I system M2 = unit of mass in II system

L1 = unit of length in I system L2 = unit of length in II system

T1 = unit of time in I system T2 = unit of time in II system

Illustrations
Ex. Convert 1 newton (SI unit of force) into dyne (CGS unit of force). Convert 105 J/m2 into dyne/cm2

Solution

The dimensional equation of force is [F] = [M1 L1 T–2]

Therefore if n1, u1, and n2, u2 corresponds to SI & CGS units respectively, then

1 1 -2 -2
é M1 ù é L1 ù é T1 ù é kg ù é m ù é s ù
n2 = n1 ê ú ê ú ê ú =1 ê úê ú ê ú = 1 × 1000 × 100 × 1= 105 \ 1 newton = 105 dyne.
ë M2 û ë L 2 û ë T2 û ë g û ë cm û ë s û

Ex. Convert 0.5 gm/cm2 to SI system

gm/cm3 = M/L3 = [ML–3]

a=1 b = –3 c=0

a b
æ M1 ö æ L1 ö
n2 = n1 ç ÷ ç ÷
è M2 ø è L2 ø
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1 -3
æ gm ö æ cm ö
= 0.5 ç ÷ ç ÷
è kg ø è m ø

1 -3
æ gm ö æ cm ö
= 0.5 ç ÷ ç ÷
è 1000gm ø è 100cm ø

= 0.5 × 10–3 × (10–2)–3

= 0.5 × 10–3 × 106

= 500

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Ex. Convert (1) 1 J energy to a system where

unit of mass = 100 gm

length = 10 cm system (2)
time = 5 sec
Energy = M L2 T–2
a=1 b=2 c = –2
a b c
æ M1 ö æ L1 ö æ T1 ö
n2 = n1 ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
è M 2 ø è L 2 ø è T2 ø

1 2 -2
æ kg ö æ m ö æ s ö
= (1) ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
è 100 gm ø è 10 cm ø è 5 s ø

-2
æ 1000 gm ö æ 100 cm ö æ 1 ö
2

= ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
è 100 gm ø è 10 cm ø è 5 ø

-2
æ1ö
= (10) (10) ç ÷
2
Þ (10) × (100) × (5)2 = 25000
è5ø
(ii) To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation :
If in a given relation, the terms on both the sides have the same dimensions, then the relation is dimensionally
correct. This is known as the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
4. (1) To check dimensional correctness.
p = rgh
LHS RHS
p (ML–3) (LT–2) (L)
ML–1T–2 [ML–1T–2]
[LHS] = [RHS]
Dimensionally correct

k
(2) T = 2 p
m
T ® Time period
m ® mass
k ® spring constant
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LHS RHS

1
æ k ö2
T ç ÷
èmø

1
æ M T -2 ö 2
[T] ç ÷
è M ø

(T–2)1/2 Þ [T–1]
LHS ¹ RHS

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(3) K.E. = mv2
LHS RHS
ML T 2 –2
M(LT–1)2
ML2T–2
[LHS] = [RHS]
Dimensionally correct.
Mathematically incorrect.
Note :- Mathematical correctness cannot be checked by this method.

MC
Overall correct
Dimensionally correct
Overall incorrect
MI
Dimensionally incorrect Þ Overall incorrect
Ex. Find dimensions :-
(i) Gravitational const (G)

G m 1m 2
F=
r2
(ii) Specific resistance (r)

rl
R=
A

Gm 1m 2
Ans. (i) F=
r2

F . r2
G=
m 1m 2

MLT -2 ´ L2
=
MM
= M–1 L3 T–2

rl
Ans. (ii) R = Q V = IR
A

RA V A
r= = .
l I l
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Þ ML3T–3A–2

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

BB-1 ; Complete

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

BB-1 ; Complete

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LECTURE # 03
(iii) To derive relationship between different physical quantities :

Using the same principle of homogeneity of dimensions new relations among physical quantities can be derived
if the dependent quantities are known.

Illustrations
Ex. It is known that the time of revolution T of a satellite around the earth depends on the universal gravitational
constant G, the mass of the earth M, and the radius of the circular orbit R. Obtain an expression for T using
dimensional analysis.

Sol. We have [T] µ [G]a [M]b [R]c

Þ [M]0 [L]0 [T]1 = [M]–a [L]3a [T]–2a × [M]b × [L]c = [M]b–a [L]c+3a [T]–2a

Comparing the exponents

1 1
For [T] : 1 = –2a Þ a = – For [M] : 0 = b – a Þ b = a = –
2 2

3
For [L] : 0 = c + 3a Þ c = –3a =
2

R3
Putting the values we get T µ G–1/2 M–1/2 R3/2 Þ T µ
GM

R3
The actual expression is T = 2p
GM

Ex. Position (x) of a particle depends on acceleration (a) and time (t). Find its relation.

Sol. Acceleration = [M0LT–2]

Time = [M0L0T]

x µ aa tb

x = c . aa t b ...... (1)
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[M0LT0] = (LT–2)a (Tb)

[M0LT0] = La T–2a Tb

[M0LT0] = [M0LaT–2a + b]

a=1 –2a + b = 0

–2(1) + b = 0

b=2

x = c at 2

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Ex. Time period of an oscillating water bubble depends on pressure (P), density (d) and Energy (E). Derive formula
T µ Pa db Eg
T = C Pa db Eg
M0L0T = (ML–1T–2)a (ML–3)b (ML2T–2)g
= MaL–aT–2a Mb L–3b Mg L2g T–2g
M0L0T = Ma + b + g L–a – 3b + 2g T–2a – 2g
a+b+g=0 ..... (1)
–a – 3b + 2g = 0 ..... (2)
–2a – 2g = 1 ..... (3)

1
a+g= -
2

1
b=
2

æ 1 ö æ1ö
- ç - - g ÷ - 3ç ÷ + 2g = 0
è 2 ø è2ø

1 3
+ g - + 2g = 0
2 2

1 1 3 - 2 -5
3g = 1 a= - - = =
2 3 6 6

1
g=
3
Ex. If Force (F), Velocity (V) and Time (t) are taken as fundamental quantities. Find dimensions of energy.
[E] = [Fa Vb Tg] ...... (1)
E=CF V T a b g

M L2 T–2 = (M L T–2)a (M0 L T–1)b Tg

= Ma La T–2a Lb T–b Tg
[M L2 T–2] = [Ma La + b T–2a – b + g]
a=1 a+b=2 –2a – b + g = –2
b=1 –2(1) – (1) + g = –2
g=1
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[E] = [F V T]
Ex. If pressure (P), velocity (V) and time are taken as base quantity. Find dimension of force.
[F] = [Pa Vb Tg] ...... (1)
[M L T–2] = (M L–1 T–2)a (L T–1)b (T)g
= Ma L–a T–2a Lb T–b Tg
[M L T–2] = [Ma L–a + b T–2a – b + g]
a=1 –a + b = 1 –2a – b + g = –2
b=2 –2(1) –2 + g = –2
g=2
[F] = [P V2 T2]

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1.6 Dimensions of Some Mathematical Functions
Dimensions of differential coefficients and integrals

é dn y ù é y ù
In General ê ú= and [ò ydx] = [ yx ]
ë dx n û êë x n úû

Illustrations
Ex. Find dimensional formula :

dx d2 x
(i)
dt
(ii) m
dt2
(iii) ò vdt (iv) ò adt

where x® displacement, t® time, v ® velocity and a® acceleration

Sol.

é dx ù é x ù é L ù é d 2 x ù é x ù é ML ù
(i) ê ú = ê ú = ê ú = [ M L T ] (ii) ê m 2 ú = êm 2 ú = ê 2 ú = [ M L T ]
0 1 -1 1 1 -2

ë dt û ë t û ë T û ë dt û ë t û ë T û

(iii) éë ò vdt ùû = [ vt ] = [ LT -1 ×T ] = [ M 0 L1 T 0 ] (iv) éë ò adt ùû = [ at ] = [ LT -2 ×T ] = [ M 0 L1 T -1 ]

2.7 Limitations of this method

· In Mechanics the formula for a physical quantity depending on more than three physical quantities cannot be
derived. It can only be checked.
· This method can be used only if the dependency is of multiplication type. The formulae containing exponential,
trigonometrical and logarithmic functions cannot be derived using this method. Formulae containing more than
one term which are added or subtracted like s = ut + 12 at 2 also cannot be derived.

· The relation derived from this method gives no information about the dimensionless constants.
· If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as many physical quantities have the same
dimensions.
· It gives no information whether a physical quantity is a scalar or a vector.

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

BB-2 ; Complete
Ex-1 ; Q. 25, 27, 31
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Ex-2 ; Q. 6, 12, 17, 18, 19, 22, 25

Ex-3 ; Q. 7

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

BB-2 ; Complete
Ex-1 ; Q. 25, 27, 31
Ex-2 ; Q. 6, 12, 17, 18, 19, 22, 25
Ex-3 ; Q. 7

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LECTURE # 04
3. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Significant Figures or Digits

Significant figures (SF) in a measurement are the figures or digits that are known with certainity plus one that is
uncertain (i.e. Last digit).

Significant figures in a measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in which we have confidence.
Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is its accuracy and vice versa.

Rules to find out the number of significant figures

I Rule : All the non-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SF.

II Rule : All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 10806 has 5 SF.

III Rule : All the zeros to the left of first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g.00108 has 3 SF.

IV Rule : If the number is less than 1, zeros on the right of the decimal point but to the left of the first non-
zero digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4 SF.

V Rule : The trailing zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit) in a number with a decimal point
are significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF.

VI Rule : The trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point may not be significant e.g. 010100 has
3 SF.

VII Rule : When the number is expressed in exponential form, the exponential term does not affect the
number of S.F. For example in x = 12.3 = 1.23 × 101 = 0.123 × 102

= 0.0123 × 103 = 123 × 10 – 1 each term has 3 SF only.

Rules for arithmetical operations with significant figures

I Rule : In addition or subtraction the number of decimal places in the result should be equal to the
number of decimal places of that term in the operation which contain lesser number of decimal
places. e.g. 12.587 – 12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 (Q second term contain lesser i.e. one decimal place)

II Rule : In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or quotient is same as the smallest
number of SF in any of the factors. e.g. 2.4 × 3.65 = 8.8
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Ex. Write down the number of significant figures in the following.

(a) 165 (b) 2.05 (c) 0.005 (d) 26900 kg

Solution

(a) 165 3SF (following rule I)

(b) 2.05 3 SF (following rules I & II)

(c) 0.005 1 SF (following rules I & IV)

(d) 26900 kg 5 SF (see rule VI)

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3.2 Rounding Off
To represent the result of any computation containing more than one uncertain digit, it is rounded off to
appropriate number of significant figures.
Rules for rounding off the numbers :
I Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is more than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by one.
e.g. 6.87» 6.9
II Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
e.g. 3.94 » 3.9
III Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is 5 then the preceding digit is increased by one if it is odd and is left
unchanged if it is even. e.g. 14.35 » 14.4 and 14.45 » 14.4
Ex. The following values can be rounded off to four significant figures as follows :
(a) 36.879 »36.88 ( Q 9 > 5 \7 is increased by one i.e.I Rule)
(b) 1.0084 »1.008 ( Q 4 < 5 \8 is left unchanged i.e. II Rule)
(c) 11.115 »11.12 ( Q last 1 is odd it is increased by one i.e.III Rule)
(d) 11.1250 »11.12 ( Q 2 is even it is left unchanged i.e. III Rule)
(e) 11.1251 »11.13 ( Q 51 > 50 \ 2 is increased by 1 i.e. I Rule)
3.3 Order of Magnitude
Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent that quantity. This power is determined
after rounding off the value of the quantity properly. For rounding off, the last digit is simply ignored if it is less
than 5 and, is increased by one if it is 5 or more than 5.
l When a number is divided by 10x (where x is the order of the number) the result will always lie
between 0.5 and 5 i.e. 0.5 < N/10x < 5
Ex. Order of magnitude of the following values can be determined as follows :
(a) 49 = 4.9 × 101 » 101 \ Order of magnitude = 1
(b) 51 = 5.1 × 10 » 10
1 2
\ Order of magnitude = 2
(c) 0.049 = 4.9 × 10–2 » 10–2 \ Order of magnitude = –2
(d) 0.050 = 5.0 × 10 » 10
–2 –1
\ Order of magnitude = –1
(e) 0.051 = 5.1 × 10 » 10
–2 –1
\ Order of magnitude = –1

l Accuracy, Precision of Instruments and Errors in Mesurement

Accuracy and Precision : The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument contains some
uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error. Every calculated quantity which is based on measured value, also
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has an error. Every measurement is limited by the reliability of the measuring instrument and skill of the person
making the measurement. If we repeat a particular measurement, we usually do not get precisely the same
result as each result is subjected to some experimental error. This imperfection in measurement can be described
in terms of accuracy and precision. The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured
value is to the true value of the quantity. Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured,
we can illustrate the difference between accuracy and precision with help of a example. Suppose the true
value of a certain length is 1.234 cm. In one experiment , using a measuring instrument of resolution
0.1 cm, the measured value is found to be 1.1cm, while in another experiment using a measuring device
of greater resolution of 0.01m, the length is determined to be 1.53cm. The first measurement has more
accuracy (as it is closer to the true value) but less precision (as resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the second
measurement is less accurate but more precise.

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3.4 Errors
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the error in measurement.
Errors may result from different sources and are usually classified as follows :-
Systematic or Controllable Errors
Systematic errors are the errors whose causes are known. They can be either positive or negative. Due to the
known causes these errors can be minimised. Systematic errors can further be classified into three categories :
(i) Instrumental errors :- These errors are due to imperfect design or erroneous manufacture or misuse
of the measuring instrument. These can be reduced by using more accurate instruments.
(ii) Environmental errors :- These errors are due to the changes in external environmental conditions such
as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or magnetic and electrostatic fields.
(iii) Observational errors :- These errors arise due to improper setting of the apparatus or carelessness in
taking observations.
Random Errors :-
These errors are due to unknown causes. Therefore they occur irregularly and are variable in magnitude and
sign. Since the causes of these errors are not known precisely, they can not be eliminated completely. For
example, when the same person repeats the same observation in the same conditions, he may get different
readings different times.
Random erros can be reduced by repeating the observations a large number of times and taking the arithmetic
mean of all the observations. This mean value would be very close to the most accurate reading.

Note :- If the number of observations is made n times then the random error reduces to æç 1 ö÷ times.
è nø

Example :- If the random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is 'x' then the random error in the

x
arithmetic mean of 500 observations will be
5

Gross Errors : Gross errors arise due to human carelessness and mistakes in taking reading or calculating and
recording the measurement results.
For example :-
(i) Reading instrument without proper initial settings.
(ii) Taking the observations wrongly without taking necessary precautions.
(iii) Committing mistakes in recording the observations.
(iv) Putting improper values of the observations in calculations.
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These errors can be minimised by increasing the sincerity and alertness of the observer.

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

BB-3,4 Complete.

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

BB-3,4 Complete.

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LECTURE # 05
3.5 Representation of Errors
Errors can be expressed in the following ways :-
Absolute Error (Da) : The difference between the true value and the individual measured value of the quantity
is called the absolute error of the measurement.
Suppose a physical quantity is measured n times and the measured values are a1, a2, a3 ..........an. The arithmetic
n
a1 + a2 + a 3 + ..............a n 1
mean (am) of these values is am =
n
=
n åa
i =1
i

If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (am) can be taken as the true value. Then the
absolute errors in the individual measured values are –
Da1 = am – a1
Da2 = am – a2
......................
......................
Dan = am – an

The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error (Da)m or Da of the

n
1
value of the physical quantity a (Da)m =
| Da1 |+|Da2 |+...........+|Dan |
n
=
n å|Da |
i =1
i

So if the measured value of a quantity be 'a' and the error in measurement be Da, then the true value (at) can be
written as at = a ± Da

Relative or Fractional Error : It is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute error ((Da) m or Da) to the true
value or the mean value (am or a ) of the quantity measured.

Mean absolute error (Da)m Da

Relative or fractional error = =or
Mean value am a

When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error,

percentage error = relative error × 100

mean absolute error Da

or percentage error = ´ 100% = ´ 100%
true value am
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6. (1) In an experiment if refractive index of H2O is found 1.32, 1.34, 1.36, 1.38 respectively. Find
(i) Mean value (ii) Mean absolute error
(iii) Relative error (iv) Percentage error
(i) Mean value

a1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4
am =
4

1.32 + 1.34 + 1.36 + 1.38 5.40

= = = 1.35
4 4
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(ii) Mean absolute error
Da 1 + Da 2 + Da 3 + D a 4
D am =
4
am – a1 = Da1 Þ 1.35 – 1.32 = 0.03
am – a2 = Da2 Þ 1.35 – 1.34 = 0.01
am – a3 = Da3 Þ 1.35 – 1.36 = –0.01
am – a4 = Da4 Þ 1.35 – 1.38 = –0.03
0.03 + 0.01 + 0.03 + 0.01
=
4
= 0.02
(iii) Relative error
Da m 0.02
= = 0.014
am 1.35
(iv) Percentage error
Relative error × 100 = 0.014 × 100
= 1.4 %
µ = (am ± D am) = (1.35 ± 0.02)
µ = (am ± %(Dam/am))
= (1.35 ± 1.4%)
3.6 Propagation of Errors in Mathematical Operations
Rule I : The maximum absolute error in the sum or difference of the two quantities is equal to the sum of the
absolute errors in the individual quantities.
If X = A + B or X = A – B and if ± DA and ± DB represent the absolute errors in A and B respectively, then
DX
the maximum absolute error in X is DX = DA + DB and Maximum percentage error = ´ 100
X

æ DX ö
The result will be written as X ± DX (in terms of absolute error) or X ± ç ´ 100 ÷ % (in terms of percentage
è X ø
error)
Rule II : The maximum fractional or relative error in the product or quotient of quantities is equal to the sum of
the fractional or relative errors in the individual quantities.
A DX DA DB
If X = AB or X= then = ±( + )
B X A B
Rule III : The maximum fractional error in a quantity raised to a power (n) is n times the fractional error in the
quantity itself, i.e.
DX DA
If X = An then = n( )
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X A
DX DA DB DC
If X = ApBq Cr then = [p( ) + q( ) + r( )]
X A B C

A p Bq DX DA DB DC
If X= then = [p( ) + q( ) + r( )]
Cr X A B C
Ex. The inital and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6 ± 0.2)°C and
(78.3 ± 0.3)°C. Calculate the rise in temperature with proper error limits.
Sol. Given q1 = (40.6 ± 0.2)°C and q2 = (78.3 ± 0.3)°C
Rise in temp. q = q2 – q1 = 78.3 – 40.6 = 37.7°C.
Dq = ± (Dq1 + Dq2) = ± (0.2 + 0.3) = ± 0.5°C \ rise in temperature = (37.7 ± 0.5)°C

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Ex. A thin copper wire of length L increases in length by 2% when heated from T1 to T2. If a copper cube having
side 10 L is heated from T1 to T2 what will be the percentage change in
(i) Area of one face of the cube and.
(ii) Volume of the cube.
Sol. (i) Area A = 10 L × 10 L = 100 L2 Þ A µ L2

DA DL
% change in area = × 100 = 2 × × 100 = 2 × 2% = 4%
A L
(ii) Volume V = 10 L × 10 L × 10 L = 1000 L3 Þ V µ L3
DV DL
% change in volume = × 100 = 3 = 3 × 2% = 6%
V L
R1 DR1
7. (1) R1 = (24 ± 0.5) W
R2 = (8 ± 0.3) W
R2 DR2
Both are connected in series. Find equivalent resistance with absolute error.
DX = DA + DB
R eq = R1 + R2 = 24 + 8 = 32 W
DR eq = DR1 + DR2 = 0.5 + 0.3 = 0.8 W
R eq = (32 ± 0.8) W
V DV
(2) V = (8 ± 0.5) V
I = (2 ± 0.2) A
I DI
Find R in W with relative error, % & absolute error

V
R=
I

DR DV DI 0.5 0.2
= + = + = 0.16
R V I 8 2
% Error = 0.16 × 100 = 16%
Absolute Error DR = (0.16) R
= (0. 16) 4
= 0.65 W
(3) X = Ma Lb Tc
% error in M=a
L=b
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T=g
Find % error in X
(% Er X) = a(% Er M) + b(% Er L) + c(% Er T)
= aa + bb + gc
Relative error is unitless but abolute error has unit.

a 2 b2
(4) P =
c
% Error in a = ± 1%
b = ± 2%
c = ± 3%

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Find % error in P, which quantity contributing maximum error.

a 2 b2
P=
c

(% Er) = 2(% Er a) + 2(% Er b) + (% Er c)

= 2(1) + 2(2) + 3
=2+4+3
= 9%

m Dm r Dr
(5) A wire has a mass (0.3 ± 0.003) gm radius (0.5 ± 0.005) mm and length (6 ± 0.06) cm. Find % error in
l Dl

m
density d =
pr 2 l

Dd Dm 2 Dr Dl
= + +
d m r l

Dd 0.003 0.005 0.06

= +2× +
d 0.3 0.5 6
Þ 0.01 + 0.020 + 0.01
Þ 0.04
% error = 0.04 × 100 = 4%
(6) If mass and velocity of a particle changes by 1% and 2% respectively. Find % change in K.E.

1
KE = mv 2
2
(% Error k) = (% Er in m) + 2(% Er in v)
% Dk = (% Dm) + 2(% Dv)
= 1% + 2(2%)
= 5%
Only applicable if change is < 5%
Conclusion – The maximum percentage change will be observed in volume, lesser in area and the least (minimum)
change will be observed in length or radius.
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HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

Ex-1 Q.no. 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

Ex-1 Q.no. 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52

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LECTURE # 06
3.7 Least Count : The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with an instrument
is called its least count (L. C.).

Least Count of Vernier Callipers : Suppose the size of one main scale division (M.S.D.) is M units and that
of one vernier scale division (V. S. D.) is V units. Also let the length of 'a' main scale divisions is equal to the length
of 'b' vernier scale divisions.

a
aM = bV Þ V= M
b

a æb-aö
\M - V = M - M = ç ÷M
b è b ø

[ M ®MSD, V ® VSD]

æb-aö
L.C. = M - V = ç ÷M
è b ø

8. LEAST COUNT
The minimum value that can be measured accurately with an instrument is called least count.

1
Accuracy µ
L.C.
(1) Vernier Callipers

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 14 15

Reading = (Main Scale Reading) + (Vernier Scale Reading × LC)

a
aM = bV Þ V= M
b
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1M - 1V
æ aö
= ç1 - ÷ M
è bø

æ b-aö
LC = ç ÷M
è b ø
a = No. of division on Main scale.
b = No. of division on Vernier scale.
M = 1 Main Scale division.
V = 1 Vernier scale division.

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Illustration – 16 :-
10 M = 1 cm
1
M= = 0.1 cm
10
b = 20
a = 18
æ b-a ö
L.C. = ç ÷M
è b ø
æ 20 - 18 ö
= ç ÷ ´ 0.1
è 20 ø
æ 20 - 18 ö 1
= ç ÷ ´ cm
è 20 ø 10
1
= cm = 0.01 cm
100
Q. The main scale division of vernier calliper is equal to 1 mm. 19 division of main scale are equal in length to 20
division of vernier scale. In measuring diameter the main scale read 35 division and 4th division of vernier scale
coinide with main scale. Find
(i) Least count (ii) Diameter
M = 1 mm
a = 19
b = 20
MSR = 35 division = 35 M = 35 mm
VSR = 4
b-a 20 - 19
(i) LC = ×M Þ × 35 mm Þ 0.05 mm
b 20
(ii) Diameter
Þ MSR + (VSR × LC)
= 35 mm + (4 × 0.05 mm)
= 35.2 mm
Least Count of screw gauge or spherometer

Spindle Circular (Head) scale

Ratchet
0
5
10

Linear (Pitch)
Scale Thimble
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Sleeve

Pitch
Least Count =
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale
where pitch is defined as the distance moved by the screw head when the circular scale is given one complete

Distance moved by the screw on the linear scale

rotation. i.e. Pitch =
Number of full rotations given

Note : With the decrease in the least count of the measuring instrument, the accuracy of the measurement
increases and the error in the measurement decreases.

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Ex. One cm on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20 divisions of vernier scale
coincide with 18 small divisions of the main scale. What will be the least count of callipers ?

æ 18 ö
Sol. 20 division of vernier scale = 18 division of main scale Þ 1 VSD= ç ÷ MSD = 0.9 MSD
è 20 ø

Least count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD = 1 MSD – 0.9 MSD = 0.1 MSD

1
= 0.1 × 0.1 cm = 0.01 cm (Q 1 MSD= cm = 0.1 cm)
10

Ex. The nth division of main scale coincides with (n + 1)th division of vernier scale. Given one main scale division is
equal to 'a' units. Find the least count of the vernier.

Sol. (n + 1) divisions of vernier scale = n divisions of main scale

n
\ 1 vernier division = main scale division
n +1

n 1 a
Least count = 1 MSD – 1VSD = (1 - ) MSD = ( ) MSD =
n +1 n +1 n +1

Ex. A spherometer has 100 equal divisions marked along the periphery of its disc, and one full rotation of the disc
advances on the main scale by 0.01 cm. Find the least count of the system.
Sol. Given Pitch = 0.01 cm

Pitch 0.01
\ Least count = = cm = 10–4 cm.
Total no. of divisions on the the circular scale 100

1
Ex. The least count of a stop watch is second. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is measured to be
5
25 seconds. What is the percentage error in the measurement of time ?

1 0.2
Sol. Error in measuring 25 s = s = 0.2 sec. \ percentage error = ´ 100 = 0.8%
5 25

Note : The final absolute error in this type of questions is taken to be equal to the least count of the measuring
instrument.
Zero Error Vernier scale
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Main scale Main scale Main scale

0 1 0 1 0 1

0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
Vernier scale Vernier scale Vernier scale
without zero error with positive zero error with negative zero error
(i) (ii)

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The zero error is always subtracted from the reading to get the corrected value.
If the zero error is positive, its value is calculated as we take any normal reading.
Negative zero error = – [Total no. of vsd – vsd coinciding] × L.C.
Positive zero error = – (vsd coinciding] × L.C.

Zero Error in Screw Gauge

If there is no object between the jaws (i.e. jaws are in contact), the screwgauge should give zero reading. But
due to extra material on jaws, even if there is no object, it gives some excess reading. This excess reading is
called Zero error.

Negative Zero Error Positive Zero Error

(3 division error) i.e., –0.003 cm (2 division error) i.e., +0.002 cm

Circular scale Circular scale

10 15
zero of the circular
5 scale is above the 10
0 zero of main scale 5 Zero of the circular
0 0 scale is below the
95 0
zero of main scale
Main scale 90 Main scale 95
reference line reference line 90
85

ZERO ERROR
Vernier Callipers
Que. Take L.C. = 0.01

0 1

Que. zero error = 0.06 cm

0 5 10

0 1

Que. zero error = –0.06 cm

0 5 10
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0 1

Que. zero error = –0.04 cm

0 5 10

0 1

Que. zero error = 0.10 cm

0 5 10

Find the zero error and thecorrect reading.

L.C of V.C is 0.01

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Que. Two full turns of the circular scal of screw gauge cover a distance of 1 mm on scale. The total division on circular
scale is 50 further if found that screw gauge has a zero error of –0.01 mm. Whil measuring the diameter of thin
wire a student notes the main scale reading of 2 mm and the no of circuler scale division in line with the main
scale as 25. The diameter of wire is

Sol. Reading = MSR + (CSR × L.C) – ZE

0.5
= 2 + 25 × – (–0.01)
50

= 2 + 0.25 + 0.01
Reading = 2.26 mm

Que. cm
0 1 2 3
cm
0 1 2 3

0 10 0 10

1mm
Least count = = 0.1 mm;
10
Zero error = –(10–6) × 0.1 = – 0.4 mm
Reading = 6 + 5 × (0.1) – (–0.4) = 6.9 mm
Que. The number of circular division on theshown screw gauge is 50. It moves 0.5 mm on main scale for one
complete rotation. Main scale reading is 2. The diameter ofthe ball is :

10
5 25
0 0 0 20

(1) 2.25 mm (2) 2.20 mm (3) 1.20 mm (4) 1.25 mm

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

Ex-1 ; Q. 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52

BB-7 ; Complete

Ex-3 ; Q. 9

Race-2 ; U & D
NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\NURTURE_(11TH)_NOTES\UNIT & DIMENSION.P65

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

Ex-1 ; Q. 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52

BB-7 ; Complete

Ex-3 ; Q. 9

Race-2 ; U & D

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