Education as an Area of

UNIT 1 EDUCATION AS AN AREA OF Practice

PRACTICE
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Translating Philosophical, Sociological and Psychological Principles
into Practice
1.4 Constitutional Provisions and Policy Formulation
1.5 Curriculum Construction and Transaction
1.5.1 Curriculum Construction: Basic Foundations
1.5.2 Approaches to Curriculum Transaction

1.6 Research at the Micro and Macro Level

1.6.1 Micro Level Researches
1.6.2 Macro Level Researches
1.6.3 Challenges of Research in Contemporary Education System

1.7 Let Us Sum Up

1.8 Unit End Exercises
1.9 References and Suggested Readings
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is the process of acquiring knowledge; exploring new ideas;
revisiting past experiences; learning skills, values, attitudes; and preparing
for the future. Education plays an instrumental role in changing the future
of any society and is also seen as one of the significant factors for social
mobility. Consequently, every country aims towards building a more holistic
and inclusive education system. Education has a widened meaning now where
it is not limited to only formal education and attaining a degree, rather it is
associated with the overall development of the individual such that he/she can
realise their potential to the fullest. Therefore, it is necessary to understand
the meaning and purpose of education profoundly and critically.

Understanding education as a practice is a process of unfolding the multiple

aspects of education. The purpose of this unit is to make you aware of
the idea of education and how it is interwoven with other disciplines.
The Unit establishes the link between the Constitution as a source of
legislation and how policy making is formulated within the contours of
the aspirations and ideals embedded in the Preamble of the Constitution. It
also brings to focus the conscious procedure of constructing the curriculum
to follow guidelines and obligations presented in the policies in line with
the constitutional provisions. Further, this unit discusses the research
process involved in education and its contributions to theory generation
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Understanding Education and bringing positive outcomes in educational areas. Overall, the Unit
as a Practice will help you to get familiar with the different aspects of education as
practice and education as a vast field of learning, training, advancements,
innovation and changes, and knowledge creation.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
● explore how education relates with other disciplines and their
interdependence on each other;
● explain the relationship of constitutional provisions with policy-making,
with particular reference to education;
● describe the process of curriculum construction and highlight the important
aspects involved in curriculum transaction; and
● explore the process of conducting systematic and organized research at
various levels in the field of education.

1.3 TRANSLATING PHILOSOPHICAL,

SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE
The term “education” originates from the Latin word “Educare” which implies
to train or to mould. Another Latin word is “educere” which refers to lead out.
Thus, education is not merely limited to learning or acquisition of knowledge,
rather it is the development of skills, attitudes, habits as well as the overall
nurturance of an individual. Educationists, Sociologists, Philosophers, and
thinkers have defined the meaning and purpose of education differently. Some
consider education as multidisciplinary, whereas others consider it as an
interdisciplinary field. However, the most dominant view of education considers
it as a “field” as it widens the usage and implications of the term.

In trying to understand education as a field, Richard Peters insisted that

‘education is not an autonomous discipline, but a field, like politics, where the
disciplines of History, Philosophy, Psychology, and Sociology have applications
(Peters 1963/1980, p. 273). Peter’s definition of education helps us to understand
the basic features of education and how it amalgamates features of all other
disciplines.

Education as a field encompasses the basic principles of other disciplines such

as Philosophy, Sociology, Political Science, and Psychology. Education includes
the principles of these disciplines and creates its own epistemological basis.

Education and Philosophy

Considering that all disciplines have their origin in Philosophy, we can find the
linkage between Philosophy and Education in various theories and practices of
education. Philosophy works on the principles of speculating, dissecting, and
contemplating ideas, whereas education works on the implementation of those
ideas in a real-life setting. Hence, one can say that if Philosophy provides the
theory and guidance, Education provides the tools to achieve those ideas. Both are
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interdependent and this interdependence results in the emergence of the subfield Education as an Area of
“ Philosophy of Education”. Naturalism is one of the schools of thought, which Practice
emerged around the 18th century. One of the prominent thinkers of naturalism is
Jean Jacques Rousseau, who gave the motto “back to nature”. He believed in the
philosophy of “negative education” and how nature can be considered as the best
guide for the students. Rousseau considered society as corrupt and politically
driven, therefore he suggested that education should develop in harmony with
the natural abilities of students. From Rousseau’s idea of education, we can
make the linkage between how basic philosophical principles guide education.
Rousseau’s idea of education can be best understood from his book “Emile”.
Like Naturalism, other schools of thought like Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism
are based on their own principles of metaphysics and axiology and define and
suggest the best possible structure of education and educational practices.

Education and Sociology

Education is an important part of society, and in contemporary times, imagining

a society without any education system is quite difficult. As discussed earlier,
education serves as a tool to not just facilitate or transfer knowledge, it also
works as an agent for social change, developing and inculcating certain kinds
of beliefs, skills, and attitudes. Therefore, as a part of society, education can not
separate itself from the socio-political principles of society. Various Sociologists
based on their idea of society, have analyzed the education system and how it
works for the reproduction of future citizens. This interlink age of education
and socio-political ideas has resulted in the emergence of the area “Sociology of
Education”. As an area, it deals with critically analyzing educational practices
concerning the social, political, economical context of the society and the
hidden agendas, beliefs, and motives located in society. Functionalists like
Durkheim believed that schools are an essential part of society and the function
of education is to imprint the shared social values of society in the minds of the
young ones. Durkheim has quoted that “society can survive only if there exists
among its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates
and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the mind of the child, from the
beginning, the essential similarities that social life demands.”. It is evident from
Durkheim’s views that his idea of society influenced his understanding of the
educational system and its functioning. Just like Durkheim, various Sociologists
also study the social functioning of society about caste, class, gender, region,
race, etc. Education as an integral part of society always becomes the center of
analysis.

Education and Psychology

Let us now understand the relationship between Psychology and Education.

Crow and Crow defined Psychology as “the study of human behaviour and
human relationships”. Skinner refers to it as “ the science of behaviour and
experience”. Behaviour and experience remain a focal point of Psychology. The
basic principles of Psychology help us to understand the behavior of learners
and teachers and how learning can be maximized among the students. This
interlinkage between Psychology and Education led to the origin of the branch
“Psychology of Education”. This particular area deals with the psychological
implications of education, that is, the study of learners’ all-around development
and growth about education. This branch is a synthesis of psychological
principles and educational methods. Theories of cognitive development, 11
Understanding Education learning, behaviourism are such examples, where psychologists studied
as a Practice the learner behaviours to demonstrate which kind of learning environment
should be provided to students for maximum realization of learners’ potential.
Moreover, how personality or development should be perceived is also one of
the contributions of Psychology of education in the field of education. Hence,
with the help of psychological principles, we try to maximise the learning
opportunities in the classroom and try to develop the best kind of education for
students.

After trying to understand the linkage between Education and disciplines

like Sociology and Psychology, let us, in the next section discuss how the
Constitution of a country impacts educational processes by making policies
related to education.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1. What is the perspective of ‘Philosophy of Education’?
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2. Discuss how the psychological principles translated into educational
practice.
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3. Analyse the interlinkage between Sociology and Education.
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1.4 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AND

POLICY FORMULATION
The Constitution of India came into effect on January 26, 1950. The Constitution
is the document that serves as a guide to the nation to move on the path enshrined
in the Preamble which reflects the values, aspirations and ideals of a free and
independent nation. The Constitution is the source of legislation and policy
formulation as well. The Indian Constitution has a large number of articles and
clauses which have a direct and indirect bearing on education, highlighting the
12 significance of education.
Education is a key pillar of society, it helps the country to grow and prepare its Education as an Area of
future citizens for participating in the welfare and development of the country. Practice
Education has always remained a center of attention for any government, as the
aim of education is to fulfil the vision or goal set by its policies. Policies in
education develop over a period of time in line with the Constitutional provisions
and education becomes a means to fulfil the Constitution provision/obligations.
For example, Article 45 of the Indian Constitution states that every child has the
right to free and compulsory education, it becomes the responsibility of policy
makers and educationists to develop a policy that aims to fulfill this provision
so that no child is left behind. As one can see, such suggestions find a place in
National Education Policy 2020, wherein it talks about creating opportunities
for all students so that no child should be left behind and minimizing dropout
rates. However, only suggesting these measures and providing vision on a policy
is not sufficient, the Government needs to make a conscious effort to realize the
vision and for that purpose, the successful implementation of that policy becomes
the priority of the government. Implementation of any policy on the ground
level requires planning, strategy, and well-equipped trained people to work
towards the vision. Therefore the whole process of education starts from making
constitutional provisions/obligations, translating such provisions into policy, and
then implementing those steps prescribed in the policy in the educational setup.

It is important to note that Constitutional provisions are mandatory to carry

out and government or policymakers have to abide by them. Although, in a
democratic country like India, certain provisions are questionable and can be
challenged based on adequate research evidence or insights emerging from the
praxis. That’s how research and praxis inform Constitutional provisions, laws
and policies in any country. Since Independence, various provisions have been
added to our Constitution which is associated with education:
1. Right of free and compulsory education- Article 45
2. Right to education- Article 21A
3. Education for women- Article 15(1)(3)
4. Promotion of education and economic interests of SC, ST and OBC- Article
46
5. Religious education- Article 25, 28 (1) (2) (3)
6. Education of minorities, protection of interest of minorities- Article 29
7. Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions-
Article 30
The Right to Education Act (RTE) 2009

The Right to Education Act (RTE) was passed by the Indian Parliament on
August 4, 2009, to provide free and compulsory education for children between
6 and 14 years of age in India. The present Act has its roots in Article 45 of the
Indian Constitution, but more specifically the constitutional amendment that
included article 21(A) in the Indian constitution making education a fundamental
right its basis. The main objective of the RTE Act is to ensure that every child
between the ages of 6 to 14 years has the right to free and compulsory education.
The Right to Education serves as a building block to ensure that every child has
his or her right to get a quality elementary education.
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Understanding Education Key Points of the Right to Education Act:
as a Practice
● Free and compulsory education to all children of India from 6 to 14 years
of age.
● Private schools shall have to admit at least 25% of the children in their
schools from the weaker sections and disadvantaged groups of the society
through a random selection process. The government will fund the education
of these children.
● No school shall while admitting a child, collect any donation and capitation
fee.
● No child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment.
● A child who completes elementary education that is up to class VIII shall be
awarded a certificate.
● It also calls for a fixed student-teacher ratio (30:1).
● Every teacher must obtain an adequate professional degree in teaching
within five years from the date of commencement of the Act.
● The National Commission for Elementary Education shall be constituted to
monitor all aspects of elementary education including quality.
● School infrastructure to be improved in three years, else recognition is
cancelled.
● Schools to face a penalty for violating RTE.

Thus, there are various Articles and Policies related to education that have
from time to time sought guidance from the Constitutional vision of India.
Their successful implementation will help improve the quality of education and
achieve the required objectives.

Activity 1
Read more about the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 and share your
understanding of this act. Do you think making education a right of every
child will be able to resolve all the dropout issues in India? Give relevant
arguments for your response.
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1.5 CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION AND

TRANSACTION
We have discussed the significance of policymaking in Education and its
inseparable links with the Constitution. Ultimately, the policy environment
also influences classroom practice which is the focal point for curriculum
14 delivery and student learning. Policies cover various issues like standards,
assessments, accountability etc. that guide curriculum and have curricular Education as an Area of
implications. Practice

A curriculum is a written design/plan that manages learning or a blueprint

of experiences that have been planned for the students. The curriculum is
normally understood as a common, officially prescribed syllabus with an
accompanying package of textbooks. The complete schedule of classroom
activities, the co-curricular programmes as well as the entire evaluation
schedule generate from the curriculum. The word curriculum stems from the
Latin verb currere, meaning to run, so its noun, curriculum roughly translates
to “racecourse”, if we define it etymologically then the curriculum is a course
one takes to reach a goal. These goals range from social, political, economic to
cultural, as its aims are varied so are its definitions. Taba (1962), a prominent
curriculum theorist of the 20th century, states, “All curricula, no matter
what their particular design, is composed of certain elements. A curriculum
usually contains a statement of aims and specific objectives; it indicates some
selection and organization of content; it either implies or manifests certain
patterns of learning and teaching, whether because the objectives demand
them or because the content organization requires them. Finally, it includes a
program of evaluation of the outcomes.” Another curriculum theorist of the
time, Tyler (1957) defines curriculum as “all of the learning of students which
is planned by and directed by the school to attain its educational goals”. The
above two definitions provide the key elements of any educational curriculum,
which are, statement of aims/objectives, indicators for selection, organization,
and teaching of learning content, and a plan for evaluating the learning.
We need to differentiate curriculum from syllabus at this point as these are
often used interchangeably in the common parlance but the curriculum is a
broader concept which guides the structure and constituents of the syllabus.
The curriculum consists of all educational experiences that are offered to
the learners and the syllabus provides the list of topics/ concepts precisely
around which the experiences could be created. The curriculum also involves
pedagogy or the approaches of teaching-learning; educational resources and
their use; evaluation and assessment etc.

As we discussed in section 1.4 education is entrusted with the responsibility

of bringing constitutional provisions/obligations into practice, curriculum is
one of the instruments of doing so. A curriculum is required to make education
a worthwhile venture to invest in and without curriculum, education would be
an unorganized, aimless venture. This crucial role of curriculum in providing
meaning to education sometimes makes it a stooge of the political powers.
A hidden curriculum is a concept that captures this phenomenon well. The
curriculum as we discussed, has a statement of objective but it also has, what
remains unstated and unfolds in the practices and rituals of the school.

1.5.1 Curriculum Construction: Basic Foundations

Constructing a curriculum involves the three major basic foundations namely,
Philosophical, Sociological, and Psychological. These foundations guide the
whole process of curriculum designing by shaping the minds of curriculum
developers. These basic foundations underpin the content and organization
of the curriculum. The decisions of curriculum planning, content selection,
criteria for selection of activities, methods, and teaching-learning resources
are influenced by the foundations of the curriculum. The Philosophical 15
Understanding Education foundations guide the nature and value system in education. The Sociological
as a Practice foundations influence the curriculum concerning the social milieu, society,
and culture. The Psychological foundations emphasize the learners and the
way they learn.

Philosophy, the love for wisdom, is the beginning of curriculum construction.

It provides a wider perspective for answering questions of educational
realities such as ‘who is a learner?’, ‘what are schools for?’, ‘what content
is taught?’ etc. In other words, it helps the curriculum maker in contriving
beliefs, assumptions, and arguments in making value judgments. Philosophy
helps the curriculum developers in determining the purpose of education that
subsequently directs the objectives and structure of the curriculum. It decides
the subject matter, methods of teaching, and assessment of learning. Hence,
philosophical foundations confer the development of intellectual abilities
alongside utilitarian knowledge which focuses on reasoning, analyzing,
problem-solving, inquiry, and mental skills to facilitate the development of
the highest potentialities.

Sociology, the study of society, makes the social phenomenon, structure of

society and social interrelations the object of its study. Society is constituted
of individuals and their interactions with each other. Education prepares
individuals for societal roles therefore social factors contribute to the making
of the curriculum. Philosophers like John Dewey have given importance to
the role of society in the education of children. The social environment
influences the interests, needs, attitudes, and belief systems of the learners.
The construction of curriculum is shaped by various social aspects such
as changes taking place in the structure of society; cultural transmission;
social problems as the issues of curriculum and economic issues. Therefore,
all these aspects need to be considered while developing the curriculum.
Furthermore, the sociological foundations of the curriculum take care of
the needs and desires of society in the form of goals of education. It helps
in the conservation and reformation of culture in the educational context.
Additionally, it decides the teaching methodology to equip the students
with social skills and knowledge and also help them to develop capacity for
social development.

Psychology deals with the various aspects of the human mind and behaviour
and their holistic development. It plays an important role in the educational
arena. It provides a basis for understanding learners and their differences and
the process of teaching-learning. As psychology deals with ‘how humans
learn?’ and the major aim of the curriculum is to bring about, it becomes
necessary to consider psychological theories while constructing curriculum.
Different theories explain the process of learning differently. Some theories
focus on the cognition of the learner, some emphasize the role of the
environment on the behaviour of learners and others highlight the human
potentialities. In addition, psychological foundations work to strengthen
the relationship between curriculum teaching and curriculum learning as
they are interrelated. It offers the theories and principles of learning which
affects the behaviour of teacher-learner in the educational context. It also
determines how individual learner interacts with their surroundings and
helps to underline the objectives and how learning takes place accordingly.
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1.5.2 Approaches to Curriculum Transaction Education as an Area of
Practice
Curriculum construction is the primary step of the planned teaching-learning
process but how the curriculum is implemented and executed is a vital
step. Curriculum transaction refers to the implementation of the curriculum
concerning the formulated aims and objectives. It includes the incorporation
of effective and organized planning and evaluation of implementation by the
stakeholders who are experts in the relevant field. The effective curriculum
transaction requires efficient planning, clarity of thoughts, knowing the way
of transacting curriculum, teamwork, barrier-free communication, review of
work done, addressing various levels of education and learners with various
needs, time management, and backup planning.

There are different approaches to curriculum transaction based on the focal

point of the curriculum. The traditional approach to curriculum transaction
is subject-centred or teacher-centred that stresses guiding learning according
to the subject matter and to which teachers give priority. Alternatively, new
approaches to curriculum transactions are replacing the traditional approach.
Some of them are as discussed below:
● Activity-centred curriculum that expects learners to engage in activities
that are desirable and meaningful. It emphasizes ‘learning by doing’ and
‘learning by relating to life’. It gives importance to experiential learning
by offering laboratory work and fieldwork.
● Child/learner-centred curriculum which gives priority to the learner itself.
It takes care of the interests and needs of the learner and their overall
development. This approach is based on the psychological foundation
of education. Therefore the subject matter and objectives are realized by
cooperating and collaborating with the learner. It emphasizes individual
learning styles, interests, aptitudes, and potentialities.
● Integrated curriculum is perceived as an amalgamation of subject-centred,
learner-centered, and activity-centered curriculum. It helps learners to
comprehend the concepts from a broader perspective and in an integrated
manner.
● A holistic curriculum stresses the holistic development of a learner by
emphasizing the integration of various aspects of development in an
environment. It promotes higher levels of thinking in learners by providing
them with the opportunity to discover and explore their surroundings.
The focus is on the overall development of the learner.

Activity 2
After reading about all the aspects of the curriculum, how will you
differentiate between curriculum and syllabus? List out all the differences
between curriculum and syllabus giving relevant examples/ instances.
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Understanding Education
as a Practice Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
4. List down some of the important articles of the Constitution which are
related to education.
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5. What do you understand by curriculum and why is it significant for any
education system?
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6. Briefly explain the role of foundations of the curriculum in the
development of any curriculum.
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7. What can be done to make curriculum transaction effective?
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8. Compare the traditional and alternative approaches to curriculum
transaction.
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1.6 RESEARCH AT THE MICRO AND

MACRO LEVEL
The research influences educational policy, classroom practices, the generation
of new knowledge and so on. At the micro-level, it seeks to understand, challenge
issues within an institution or an organisation. At the macro level, knowledge is
sought at the systemic level.

18
The term research means “an act of searching closely” for a specific purpose Education as an Area of
and this term has been derived from the French word recherche. The process Practice
of research involves organized and systematic steps to find the best possible
solution to a problem or cause of an issue. In any field, research plays a very
prominent role in our society: we have come so far because of research in
various fields and its contribution. Research in various fields adds to knowledge
derivation, provides a means to understand the issues, and allows us to explore
solutions to any problem. Like any other discipline, research is a significant
part of the field of education as well. However, there is no single way one can
define education research. Various thinkers, educationists perceive the idea of
educational research differently. The majority of thinkers consider educational
research as a process of investigating educational practices, the impact of
those practices on students as well as on teachers, and scrutinizing the issues
related to education. Research in the field of education mainly revolves around
educational issues and tries to explore possible solutions to those issues.
Research in Education contributes to the development of reframing of the
curriculum, creating equitable opportunities for all, understanding diversity,
developing various learning tools, and improving the education system. The
National Education Policy (2020) acknowledges the importance of academic
research in the arena of education and suggests multiple measures to encourage
quality academic research in all fields.

Following are the few characteristics of research in the field of education:

● Research is an essential part of our education system, which helps us to
understand any phenomenon critically and systematically.
● By following the scientific method, we can explain and scrutinize any
phenomenon related to the education system.
● Education research is based on both empirical as well as observable
experience, of any individual or group and gathers data in both the primary
and secondary form for qualitative as well as quantitative research.
● Research in education caters to the social, cultural, economical, educational,
philosophical phenomena related to education.
● Research in education is done for finding solutions to a new problem,
revisiting the old ideas, critically analyzing any phenomenon, or for theory
generation.

Research in the field of education follows a systematic process that goes from
identifying issues to concluding with the findings. Education as a broad field,
provides opportunities for qualitative and quantitative research. Qualitative
research refers to collecting and analyzing the data in a non-numeric form
such as in the form of experiences, observations, audio, videos, books, etc. On
the other hand, quantitative research relies on data that can be quantified for
describing characteristics, making linkage and correlation, and justifying the
hypothesis. Researchers also chose the mixed research method, where they use
both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

There is always a thrust for the right information and the urge for finding logical
answers to questions. Thus, there is a continuous need for research to find
out what is really happening around us. In the field of education, sociology,
psychology, science & technology and economics etc. there are broadly two
19
Understanding Education possible levels of inquiry on which systematic investigations might be based and
as a Practice that are Micro and Macro approaches, which share the value of investigating and
understanding human interaction, at what level they investigate that interaction
will vary. Let us discuss these approaches:

1.6.1 Micro Level Research

The term micro refers to small or doing something on a small scale level. Hence,
micro-level research in the field of education refers to research that is conducted
at the school or college level for informing school practices or examining the
challenges and issues faced at a micro-level. This kind of research examines
the person-to-person interaction, their beliefs, and ideas and analyzes to make a
broader understanding. For a better understanding of the research at the micro-
level, let’s take an example. A researcher decides to conduct research on how
primary school male students’ identities form through school practices. For the
research, the researcher identifies a particular school and selects class IV students
as the research sample. After that, the researcher starts observing the day-to-day
classroom practices, one on one interaction of students of that class, and their
interaction with their teachers as well. After collecting the data, the researcher
analyzes the data and finds how school practices influence the students’ identities
and give preference to one kind of identity of ‘boy’ over others. As the research
only took a particular class and particular group of students, this research will
be considered as micro-level research as it helps to understand the nuances of
day to day school practices, instructions, and interactions, how they impact the
individual or small group in multiple spheres of the life. This type of research
fails to consider broader practices and patterns which impact such phenomena
or processes.

1.6.2 Macro Level Research

Opposite to the term micro, macro refers to large or doing something at a broad
level. Macro-level research in the field of education is conducted to understand,
analyze and contribute to policy formation at the region, state, and national level.
Further, macro-level research also helps to understand the political and social
meaning of school practices, priorities of contemporary government and helps
to evaluate the implementation of an educational policy. As we all are aware that
data related to education helps us to understand the diversity amongst learners,
the effectiveness of any teaching pedagogy, challenges and issues at the school
level etc. At the same time, it also helps us to critically understand the role of the
school in the socialization of the students and the contribution of education in
both widening the inequalities or creating equality amongst people in the society.
Data gathered in micro-level research can contribute to gathering the data for
macro-level, where various similar kinds of micro-level researches can be studied
collectively to study the impact and findings of such researches at a broader level.

1.6.3 Challenges of Research in Contemporary Education

System
Conducting research in the field of education, whether it is at the micro-level or
macro level, has certain challenges which researchers face while conducting the
research. Overcoming such challenges always remains an important task for the
researcher and these challenges encourage the researcher to conduct research in a
20 more systematic and organized way. One such challenge is the political nature of
education. Public education is regulated by the government, therefore investigating Education as an Area of
the hidden agenda or critiquing the social or political practices of school culture Practice
becomes a quite difficult task. Another challenge is to minimize the biases while
conducting the research. One of the important ethics of the research is to reduce
the subjective meaning or experiences, however, in reality, eliminating all the
biases and analyzing data objectively becomes a difficult task. In addition to this,
there are some aspects of the field of education that are completely unexplored.
Therefore, working on such areas becomes a whole new journey, and finding
literature on those issues becomes a constant struggle for the researcher. However,
these challenges should not create a hindrance in the research and any researcher
must aim to justify the research he/she has been conducting.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
9. Why do you think, conducting research in the field of education is
important?
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10. How is macro-level research different from micro-level research?
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11. What kind of challenges do researchers face while conducting research
in the field of education?
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1.7 LET US SUM UP

This unit specifically dealt with the aspects of understanding education as a
practice. As understanding is a continuous and reflective process, this unit
discusses multiple dimensions of education as practice in a critical light. It
explores the multifaceted structure of education and discusses how educational
policies work in line with constitutional provisions. There is a further discussion
on the characteristics of curriculum and the process of curriculum making is
discussed concerning the educational policies adopted by a country. The
relevance of research in the field of education, at the Micro and Macro level, and
the process of conducting research is elaborated with examples for facilitating
the process of research.
21
Understanding Education
as a Practice 1.8 UNIT END EXERCISES
1. How is education interrelated with other disciplines? Give your answer
with suitable examples.
2. What kind of approaches to curriculum transaction have you experienced in
your educational surroundings? Critically analyze and give suggestions.
3. What is the relevance of conducting both micro-level and macro-level
research in education? Justify your answer with an example.

1.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READINGS
• Anderson J. and Van Weert, T. (Eds) (2002). Information and Communication
Technology in Education: A Curriculum for Schools and Programme of
Teacher Development. UNESCO
• Angrist, J. and Lavy. V. (2002). “New evidence on classroom computers and
pupil learning”, The Economic Journal, Vol. 112, No. 482, Royal Economic
Society. anses (National Social Security Administration) (2014)
• Barret, A. M. (2009). The Education Millennium Development Goals
Beyond 2015, Prospects for Quality and Learners, Edqual Working Paper
No. 13, University of Bristol
• Cabanatan, P. (2003). Integrating Pedagogy and Technology: The SEAMEO
INNOTECH Experience Presentation to Experts’ Meeting on Teachers/
Facilitators Training in Technology- Pedagogy Integration, Bangkok,
Thailand. June 18-20.
• Coleman, J. and others (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity,
Washington, D. C., United States Government Publishing Office. Córdoba
Gómez, F. and H. Herrera Mejía (2013),
• Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: A qualitative, quantitative, and
mixed-method approaches. Third Edition. Sage Publications. Inc.
• Francis, H. A, and Ezeife, A N. (2007). Integrating Information and
Communication Technology into the School Curriculum: A Case for
Professional Development Models. Accessed on December 19, 2011
• Hodysh, H. W. (1970). An Analysis of History of Education as an Academic
Discipline. Journal of Teacher Education, 21(2), 203–209. https://doi.
org/10.1177/002248717002100209
• Peter, R. (1963/1980). Education Psychology, in Hirst (ed), Education
Theory and its Foundation Displinies, 84-99
• Tyler, R. W. (1957). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction:
Syllabus for Education 360. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
• Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, New
York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Web Resources
• Alera, A. G. (2019). Foundations of Curriculum. Retrieved from
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 https://wwwslideshare.net/AprilGealeneAlera/foundations-of- Education as an Area of
curriculum-165558290 Practice

• Praveen, C. (2016). Concept of curriculum transaction. Retrieved from

https://socioed.wordpress.com/2016/04/18/88-concept-of-curriculum-
transaction/
• Matliwala, K. (2015). Curriculum Transaction. Retrieved from https://
www.slideshare.net/KirtiMatliwala/curriculum-transaction-56481765
• Santillan, S. (2017). Foundations of Curriculum. Retrieved from https://
www.slideshare.net/Shelamiesantillan/unit-2-foundations-of-curriculum
• Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum. (n.d.) Philosophical
foundation of curriculum. Retrieved from https://oer.pressbooks.pub/
curriculumessentials/chapter/philosophical-foundations-of-curriculum/
• Madrid, M.S. (2014). Psychological foundations of curriculum. Retrieved
from https://www.slideshare.net/zholliimadrid/psychological-foundations-
of-curriculum-41616411
• National Education Policy. (2020) Retrieved from https://www.education.
gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf
• Sociological Foundations of Curriculum. (2014). Sociological foundations
of curriculum. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/marinelademesa/
sociological-foundation-of-curriculum
• The Right to Education Act (RTE) 2009. Retrieved from https://legislative.
gov.in/sites/default/files/A2009-35_0.pdf
• UNICEF (n.d.). Strengthening education systems and innovation. Retrieved
from https://www.unicef.org/education/strengthening-education-systems-
innovation

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Considering philosophy as the origin of all the other disciplines, the linkage
between philosophy and education can be seen in various theories and
practices of education also. Throughout history, from Socrates to modern
philosophers everyone has given their idea of an ideal education and their
philosophy has implications for the education system. Philosophy works on
the principles of speculating, dissecting, and contemplating ideas, whereas
education works on the implementation of those ideas in a real-life setting.
Hence, one can say that if philosophy provides the theory and guidance,
education provides the tools to achieve those ideas.
2. Education is one of the important parts of society, and in contemporary
times imagining a society without any education system is quite difficult.
Sociology of education as an area deal with critically analyzing the
educational practices concerning the social, political, economical context of
the society. It reflects on educational practices concerning hidden agendas,
beliefs, and motives located in society.
3. The basic principles of psychology help to understand the behaviour of
learners and teachers and how learning can be maximized among the
students. This interlinkage between psychology and education led to the
23
Understanding Education origin of the branch “psychology of education”. This particular area deals
as a Practice with the psychological implication of education that is the study of learners’
all-around development and growth concerning education. This branch is a
synthesis of psychological principles and educational methods.
4. Refer 1.4
5. A curriculum is required to make education a worthwhile venture to invest
in and without curriculum, education would be an unorganized, aimless
venture. This crucial role of curriculum in providing meaning to education
sometimes makes it a stooge of the political powers. A hidden curriculum
is a concept that captures this phenomenon well. The curriculum is, as we
discussed, has a statement of objective but it also is, what remains unstated
and unfolds in the practices and rituals of the school.
6. Refer 1.5.1
7. The effective curriculum transaction requires efficient planning, clarity of
thoughts, knowing the way of transacting curriculum, teamwork, barrier-
free communication, review of work done, addressing various levels of
education and learners with various needs, time management, and backup
planning.
8. The traditional approach to curriculum transaction is subject-centered or
teacher-centered that stresses guiding learning according to the subject
matter and to which teachers give priority. An activity-centered curriculum
expects learners to engage in activities that are desirable and meaningful.
It emphasizes ‘learning by doing’ and ‘learning by relating to life’. It
gives importance to experiential learning by offering laboratory work and
fieldwork.
9. Self-exercise
10. The term micro refers to small or doing something on a small scale level.
Hence, micro-level research in the field of education refers to research that
is conducted at the school or college level for informing school practices
or examining the challenges and issues faced at a micro-level. This kind
of research examines the person-to-person interaction, their beliefs, and
ideas and analyzes to make a broader understanding. Opposite to the term
micro, macro refers to large or doing something at a broad level. Macro-
level research in the field of education is conducted to understand, analyze
and contribute to policy formation at the region, state, and national level.
Further, macro-level research also helps to understand the political and
social meaning of school practices, priorities of contemporary government
and helps to evaluate the implementation of an educational policy.
11. Refer section 1.6.3

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