MANSOURA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING PROGRAM

EXPLORING ROVER FOR RUGGED & UNPAVED

SURFACES
Project members ID
Ashraf Mahmoud Abd El-Wahab 800136500
Amr Mahmoud Abd El-Wahab 800136492
Abdo El-Sayed El- sayed Abdo 800166837
Mahmoud El-Sayed Mahmoud 800167024
Samaa Adel Ali Hassan 80012630
Eslam Ibrahim Wafeek Ali 800166564
Ahmed Sami Kamal El-Asas 800167227
Ibrahim Tarek Ibrahim 800126781
Ahmed Gamal Shehata 800124839
Ahmed Abo El-Hagag Mostafa 800166871

Under the Supervision Of:

Prof.Dr. Abd El-Fattah Ali El-Adl
Eng. Mohamed El-Meadawy
Academic Year: 2022 – 2023

June 2023
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ABSTRACT
This book introduces a mars exploration robot based system that useful to explore the
planet mars. Mars Rover NSU is a semi-autonomous robot that is developed based on
sensors and interactive applications. The robot is capable of completing human assistant
tasks, Astronaut assistance task, collecting resource from planet mars, giving a feedback
of soils condition such as temperature, moisture, pH. This robotics system includes a web
based mother station from where the rover is controlled and given instructions to
complete tasks. The mars rover will be used in planetary exploration research to explore
life on mars. This rover has rocker-bogie suspension system, robotics arm, Drilling
mechanism, live feed camera, aluminum wheels suitable to explore planet mars. This
research is mainly focused on robotic system and computational efficiency. The system is
consist of a GPS system for mapping purpose and smooth controlling features. In his paper
we will discuss about different functionalities of mars rover. The end result will show the
efficiency, impact and performance analysis of the system.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to everyone who has contributed to the
successful completion of our graduation project “ Exploring Rover For Rugged &
Unpaved surfaces ”. Firstly, we would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to our project
supervisors, Prof.Dr. Abd El-Fattah Ali Aladl , Eng. Mohamed El-Meadawy for their
guidance, support, and encouragement throughout the project. Their valuable insights
and suggestions have been instrumental in shaping the direction of our research and
implementing the project goals. We would also like to thank the faculty members of the
engineering department for their unwavering support and for providing us with an
excellent academic environment to pursue our practical work. In conclusion, we would
like to express our heartfelt appreciation to everyone who has played a role, big or
small, in the completion of our graduation project. Thank you all for your support,
guidance, and encouragement.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF Figures ................................................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................. xiii
List of Equations ............................................................................................................................... xiii
1 Chapter (1) Introduction ...............................................................................................................2
1.1 Planetry Exploration ...............................................................................................................2
1.2 History of Exploring Rovers .................................................................................................3
1.3 Objectives of The Rover .........................................................................................................6
2 Chapter (2) Mechanical Design ...................................................................................................8
2.1 Movement Mechanism ...........................................................................................................8
2.1.1 Rocker_Bogie Suspension System………………………………………………………..9
2.2 CAD Software .......................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.1 SolidWorks……………………………………………………………………………………….18
2.3 Steps of Designing the 3d model ..................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 getting the key dimensions………………………………………………………………..19
2.3.2 Design of the main chasis…………………………………………………………………..21
2.3.3 Design of the Rocker Bogie suspention………………………………………………22
2.3.4 Design of links…………………………………………………………………………………..24
2.3.5 Design of Weels & Rims……………………………………………………………………..26
2.3.6 Design of motor holders…………………………………………………………………….28
2.3.7 Design of Camera unit………………………………………………………………………..32
2.3.8 design of 6 Dof Robotic Arm………………………………………………………………36
2.4 Simulation Of RBM ................................................................................................................ 36
2.4.1 Simulation on Curved path………………………………………………………………..36
2.4.2 Simulation on Steps…………………………………………………………………………..37
2.4.3 Results of Simulation…………………………………………………………………………38
2.5 Final body ................................................................................................................................. 39
3 Chapter (3) Manufacturing ........................................................................................................ 41
3.1 3D-Printing .............................................................................................................................. 41
3.1.1 intorduction……………………………………………………………………………………...41
3.1.2 General principles……………………………………………………………………………..42
3.1.3 Two major type Manufacturing………………………………………………………….44
3.1.4 Advantages of 3d printing………………………………………………………………….45
3.1.5 Disadvantages of 3d printing……………………………………………………………..49
3.1.6 Slicing in 3d printing…………………………………………………………………………49
3.1.7 3d printing our model……………………………………………………………………….54

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3.2 Laser cut .................................................................................................................................... 62

3.2.1 why Acrylic ?......................................................................................................................62
3.2.2 Types of Acrylic……………………………………………………………………………….62
3.2.3 Laser cutting acrylic………………………………………………………………………….63
3.2.4 DxF files……………………………………………………………………………………………63
4 Chapter (4) Electrical Design .................................................................................................... 66
4.1 Motor selection....................................................................................................................... 66
4.1.1 Dc motors………………………………………………………………………………………...66
(1) Brushed DC Motor………………………………………………………………………….67
(2) Separately Excited DC Motor…………………………………………………………..68
(3) Permanent Magnet DC Motor………………………………………………………….68
(4) Self Excited DC Motor……………………………………………………………………..69
ii. Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)………………………………………………………………..72
4.1.2 stepper motors…………………………………………………………………………………82
4.1.3 servo motors…………………………………………………………………………………….91
4.2 circuit borads .......................................................................................................................... 98
4.2.1 Main circuit………………………………………………………………………………………98
Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 99
4.2.2 transimmter circuit…………………………………………………………………………103
4.2.3 Robotic arm circuit………………………………………………………………………….107
4.2.4 Camera circuit………………………………………………………………………………...109
4.3 PCB ........................................................................................................................................... 110
4.3.1 Main board PCB………………………………………………………………………………110
4.3.2 RC transimtter PCB…………………………………………………………………………112
4.4 Final Results ......................................................................................................................... 113
5 Chapter (5) Steering system ................................................................................................... 115
5.1 Ackermann steering .......................................................................................................... 115
5.1.1 Defining Ackermann steering…………………………………………………………..115
5.1.2 Incorporating Slip Angels………………………………………………………………...116
5.1.3 Designing for Ackermann steering…………………………………………………...119
5.2 PWM ........................................................................................................................................ 120
5.2.1 2-Pole Permanent Magnet Motor……………………………………………………..120
5.2.2 Pulse Width Modulated Waveform…………………………………………………..122
6 Chapter (6) Code ......................................................................................................................... 126
6.1 Spi protocol .......................................................................................................................... 126
6.1.1 Interface…………………………………………………………………………………………126
6.1.2 Data Transmission…………………………………………………………………………..127
6.1.3 Clock Polarity and Clock Phase………………………………………………………...127
6.1.4 Multi-Subnode Configuration…………………………………………………………...131

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6.1.5 Analog Devices SPI Enabled Switches and Muxes……………………………...132

6.2 main board code ................................................................................................................. 134
6.3 transimmter code ............................................................................................................... 137
6.4 robot arm code .................................................................................................................... 154
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................... 160

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LIST OF Figures
Figure 1-1 Sojouner Rover…………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
Figure 1-2 Spirit Rover………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
Figure 1-3 Curiosity Rover…………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
Figure 1-4 Persevernce Rover……………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Figure 2-1 Line Diagram of Rocker Bogie Mechanism………………………………………….. 10
Figure 2-2 Three Dimensional view of Rocker Bogie Mechanism…………..................... 10
Figure 2-3 RBM on uneven path……………………………………………………………………………. 16
Figure 2-4 3D_CAD Software………………………………………………………………………………… 17
Figure 2-5 SolidWorks 2023…………………………………………………………………………………. 18
Figure 2-6 NASA Persevernce Rover Model…………………………………………………………… 19
Figure 2-7 Various scales of Persevernce Rover…………………………………………………… 20
Figure 2-8 Front, Top and side views ……………………………………………………………………. 20
Figure 2-9 Aluminum Extrusion with suitable T nuts ……………………………………………. 21
Figure 2-10 The main chasis …………………………………………………………………………………. 21

Figure 2-11 Top view of the rocker_bogie suspension with the differential ..22

Figure 2-12 Side view of the rocker_bogie suspension with the differential ..23

Figure 2-13 Final chasis and link dimensions ……………………………………… 25

Figure 2-14 Rim …………………………………………………………………………………… 26
Figure 2-15 wheel ………............................................................................................. 26
Figure 2-16 wheel & rim assembly ………………………………………………………. 27
Figure 2-17 12 volt Dc motor ……………………………………………………………….. 28
Figure 2-18 Mg996r servo ……………………………………………………………………. 28

Figure 2-19 DC motor holder ………………………………………………………………………. 29

Figure 2-20 Mg996r servo holder ………………………………………………………………. 29

Figure 2-21 dc motor coupler ……………………………………………………………………… 30

Figure 2-22 steering connector …………………………………………………………………… 31

Figure 2-23 final leg assembly …………………………………………………………………….. 32

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Figure 2-24 stepper motor ………………………………………………………………… 32

Figure 2-25 conncting rod …………………………………………………………………. 32
Figure 2-26 Mg996r servo mount ……………………………………………………… 33
Figure 2-27 Camera box …………………………………………………………………….. 33
Figure 2-28 Esp Camera ……………………………………………………………………. 34
Figure 2-29 final Camera Assembly …………………………………………………... 35

Figure 2-30 6-dof robot arm ………………………………………………………………………... 36

Figure 2-31 simulation of RBM on a sloped curve path ………………………………... 36

Figure 2-32 simulation of RBM on less sloped curve ……………………………………. 37

Figure 2-33 simulation of RBM on small steps …………………………………………….. 37

Figure 2-34 simulation of RBM on large steps ……………………………………………… 38

Figure 2-35 front, top, side and isometric views ………………………………………….. 39

Figure 3-1 3D printing process …………………………………………………………………….. 43

Figure 3-2 Additive Manufacturing ………………………………………………………………. 44

Figure 3-3 Subtractive Manufacturing ………………………………………………………….. 45

Figure 3-4 Industrial 3D printing ………………………………………………………………….. 48

Figure 3-5 Slicing process ……………………………………………………………………………… 50

Figure 3-6 Cura slicer settings ……………………………………………………………………….. 53

Figure 3-7 PLA filament ………………………………………………………………………………… 54

Figure 3-8 TPU filament ………………………………………………………………………………… 55

Figure 3-9 printing of deffirential and motor holders …………………………. 56

Figure 3-10 finish of differential printing ……………………………………………. 57
Figure 3-11 printing of Camera unit and servo mount ………………………… 58
Figure 3-12 printing wheels ………………………………………………………………… 59

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Figure 3-13 wheels after printing ………………………………………………………. 59

Figure 3-14 3D printed Rims ……………………………………………………………… 60
Figure 3-15 wheels after painting ………………………………………………………. 60
Figure 3-16 all 3d printed parts …………………………………………………………. 61
Figure 3-17 Team logo DxF file …………………………………………………………… 64
Figure 3-18 robot arm cover DxF file ………………………………………………….. 64
Figure 4-1 12v Geared Dc motor ………………………………………………………… 66

Figure 4-2 Brushed Dc motor ……………………………………………………………………….. 68

Figure 4-3 Separately Excited Dc motor ……………………………………………………….. 68

Figure 4-4 Ermenant magnet Dc motor …………………………………………………………. 69

Figure 4-5 Shunt Excited Dc motor ………………………………………………………………… 70

Figure 4-6 Series Dc motor ……………………………………………………………………………. 71

Figure 4-7 Compound wound Dc motor …………………………………………………………. 72

Figure 4-8 Brushless Dc motor ……………………………………………………………………….. 73

Figure 4-9 Inrunner and Outrunner Dc motor ………………………………………………… 74

Figure 4-10 Diagram of Brushless Dc motor ……………………………………………………. 75

Figure 4-11 Dc motor Diagram ……………………………………………………………………….. 76

Figure 4-12 simple Diagram of shaft ………………………………………………………………… 77

Figure 4-13 Dc motor terminals ……………………………………………………………………….. 78

Figure 4-14 Dc motor magnets ………………………………………………………………………... 79

Figure 4-15 wound rotor ………………………………………………………………………………… 79

Figure 4-16 Dc motor wire coil ………………………………………………………………………….. 80

Figure 4-17 diagram of Brushes and commutator …………………………………………… 80

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Figure 4-18 commutator of Dc motor ……………………………………………………………… 81

Figure 4-19 Nema 17 stepper motor ……………………………………………………………….. 82

Figure 4-20 stepper motor coil ……………………………………………………………………….. 83

Figure 4-21 stepper motor circuit …………………………………………………………………… 85

Figure 4-22 stepper motor control circuit ………………………………………………………. 88

Figure 4-23 Servo motor …………………………………………………………………………………. 91

Figure 4-24 MG995 Servo motor …………………………………………………………… 94

Figure 4-25 MG996r Servo motor ………………………………………………………….. 97

Figure 4-26 main borad circuit diagram ……………………………………………….. 98

Figure 4-27 Arduino Mega ……………………………………………………………………. 99

Figure 4-28 DRV 8871 Dc motor driver ………………………………………………. 100

Figure 4-29 A4988 Stepper motor driver ……………………………………………………….. 101

Figure 4-30 DC step down buck converter …………………………………………. 102

Figure 4-31 Transimmter ciruit …………………………………………………………. 103

Figure 4-32 Arduino Pro micro ………………………………………………………….. 104

Figure 4-33 NRf24L01 with antenna …………………………………………………. 105

Figure 4-34 MPU-9250 Gyro Module ………………………………………………… 106

Figure 4-35 robotic arm circuit …………………………………………………………….. 107

Figure 4-36 Arduino uno r3 ………………………………………………………………….. 108

Figure 4-36 Esp Camera circuit …………………………………………………………….. 110

Figure 4-37 Main Board PCB …………………………………………………………………. 111

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Figure 4-38 ordering the PCB from JLCPCB site …………………………………….. 111

Figure 4-39 PCB order deatails ……………………………………………………………... 112

Figure 4-40 Rc transimtter PCB …………………………………………………………….. 113

Figure 4-41 EasyEda free online software …………………………………………….. 113

Figure 4-42 Transimtter final borad ……………………………………………………. 113

Figure 4-43 final main borad ……………………………………………………………….. 115

Figure 5-1 Ackermann steering ………………………………………………………….. 117

Figure 5-2 Instantaneous Turn Center with slip angles ………………………. 118

Figure 5-3 Lateral Forces vs slip Angles ……………………………………………… 119

Figure 5-4 our rover Ackermann steering Geometry ………………………….. 120

Figure 5-5 Pole permanent Megnet motor ………………………………………… 121

Figure 5-6 speed vs voltage …………………………………………………………………… 122

Figure 5-7 pulse width modulated waveform ………………………………………. 129

Figure 5-8 555 timer circuit ………………………………………………………………… 132

Figure 6-1 SPI modes ……………………………………………………………………………………… 150

Figure 6-2 Daisy chain configration ……………………………………………………………….. 151

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
RBM Rocker_Bogie Mechanism
CAD Computed aided Design
Pcb Printed Circuit bourd
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

List of Equations
wheel base = horizontal length of stairs – ( Rf + Rr ) (1-1)

NC2 + NB2 = BC2 (1-2)

Net Height = Height + radius of wheel (1-3)

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
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1 Chapter (1) Introduction

1.1 Planetry Exploration
Planetary exploration research is one of the most trending topic of recent era. Mars rover
is a concept that is purposed to explore mars surface with a semi-autonomous robot to
collect data from resources available on planet mars, solving many problems related to
earth, analyze the possibilities of life on mars, carrying out missions of space technology.
The rover is made of aluminum, highly durable wheels, rocker bogie suspension system,
efficient navigation tools, mobile application, and software to control the functionalities.
The rover is capable of complete the tasks on planet mars where human contribution is
limited. It has a wirelessly controlled robotics arm which can complete the tasks of a
human. Rover is controlled from the mother station with several cameras attached in its
body. To complete the scientific tasks rover has to drill and collect soil from planet. Soil is
tested with various sensors to find out the moisture,temperature, pH of the soil. Also the
arm has a microscope attached to have a proper evaluation of the collected resource. The
cameras are 360 degree night vision camera with a built in voice communication system.
Use of mobile, web and hardware made this system sustainable. A big challenge for us to
complete this rover with maximum efficiency, proper rocker bogie suspension system,
proper data collection system and sustainable smooth control from base station.
Throughout the paper design, control and performance analysis of mars rover NSU is
discussed.

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1.2 History of Exploring Rovers

As of May 2021, there have been six successful robotically operated Mars rovers; the
first five, managed by the American NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, were (by date of
Mars landing):
Sojourner (1997), Spirit (2004–2010), Opportunity (2004–2018), Curiosity (2012–),
and Perseverance (2021–).
The sixth, managed by the China National Space Administration, is Zhurong (2021–).

Figure 1-1 Sojouner Rover.

On January 24, 2016, NASA reported that then current studies on Mars
by Opportunity and Curiosity would be searching for evidence of ancient life, including
a biosphere based
on autotrophic, chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as
ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to
ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence
of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on Mars is now a
primary NASA objective.
The Soviet probes, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were physically tethered probes; Sojourner was
dependent on the Mars Pathfinder base station for communication with
Earth; Opportunity, Spirit and Curiosity were on their own. As of February

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2023, Curiosity is still active, while Spirit, Opportunity, and Sojourner completed their
missions before losing contact. On February 18, 2021, Perseverance, the newest American
Mars rover, successfully landed. On May 14, 2021, China's Zhurong became the first non-
American rover to successfully operate on Mars.

Figure 1-2 Spirit Rover.

Figure 1-3 Curiosity Rover.

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Figure 1-4 Persevernce Rover.

“ Our Graduation Project is based on the Design and Functionality of the

Perseveernce Rover “

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1.3 Objectives of The Rover

The rover has four main science objectives that support desired science goals:

 Looking for habitability: identify past environments that were capable of

supporting microbial life.

 Seeking biosignatures: seek signs of possible past microbial life in those habitable
environments, particularly in specific rock types known to preserve signs over time.

 Caching samples: collect core rock and regolith ("soil") samples and store them
within the rover and on the Martian surface (as a backup) for delivery to a future
sample return rocket.

 Preparing for humans: test oxygen production from the Martian atmosphere.

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 CHAPTER 2

MECHANICAL DESIGN
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2 Chapter (2) Mechanical Design

2.1 Movement Mechanism
The type of locomotion used by a mobile robot is crucial for the robot to perform its task
and reach its goal in a given environment. This work focuses on the optimization of the
design of a planetary rover’s wheel suspension system subject to optimizing well defined
mobility metrics. As robots evolve from industrial fixed base robots to autonomous
mobile platforms, the concept of locomotion in robotics becomes much more important.
Similar to nature, also robot locomotion must be adapted to the given terrain or task. The
optimal type of locomotion must be applied in a challenging environment. The scope of
this work is to design an efficient Mars Rover suspension system and to develop and
implement a Genetic Algorithm methodology which optimizes the design of the
locomotion system and can be applied to diverse mechanisms or other problems. As the
Mars Rover is a mobile robot, the wheel suspension system of the rover is most crucial. It
allows for movement, mobility and stability of the robot while it is travelling through a
Mars environment. The rover must be able to traverse over obstacles of at least half its
wheel diameter and keep its stability on slopes or other rough or hazardous terrain. A
planetary rover is a mobile robot which is especially designed to move on a planet surface.
Early rovers were teleoperated like the Lunokhod I while recent ones are fully
autonomous, such as FIDO . The rover has to be very robust and reliable, as it has to
withstand dust, strong winds, corrosion and large temperature changes. Most rovers are
powered by batteries which are recharged by solar panels during the day. Therefore, the
rover must position itself in such a way that the solar energy received is maximized. The
rover’s locomotion system is crucial to enable it to reach a goal, conduct experiments,
gather data and to position itself. Generally three main types of rover locomotion exist,
namely wheeled, legged and caterpillar locomotion. The key difference between the
miscellaneous designs of planetary robots lies in the type of locomotion system. Even
though many legged and hybrid robots have been presented in literature, most
researchers still focus on wheeled locomotion for rovers. The favoured design for a
wheeled planetary rover’s suspension system is the rocker-bogie mechanism. Numerous

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variations of the this mechanism have been presented in literature. The FIDO rover and
the Sojourner have six independently steered and driven wheels suspended from a
rocker-bogie mechanism. The Rocky7 Rover has a similar suspension system, but only the
front wheels are steered. The Nanorover and the Nomad have four steered wheels
suspended from two bogies, a variation of the rockerbogie mechanism. The CRAB Rover
uses two parallel bogie mechanisms on each side to overcome obstacles. Lamon et al.
optimize a simplified quasi-static model of the six-wheeled rover Shrimp. The motor
torques are optimized subject to minimizing the slip of the wheels, hence the odometric
error and power consumption are minimized. The optimization seeks for an optimum in
the constrained solution space given an initial solution. Li et al. derive a mathematical
model to optimize rover suspension parameters which define the geometry of the rocker-
bogie. The objective is to minimize the energy consumption, the vertical displacement of
the rover’s centre of mass and its pitch angle. The authors make use of a sequential
quadratic programming algorithm. Iagnemma and Dubowsky introduce an algorithm
which optimizes individual wheel ground contact forces. The objective is to optimize
traction and to minimize power consumption.

2.1.1 Rocker_Bogie Suspension System

2.1.1.1 Basic Description

The term “rocker” describes the rocking aspect of the larger links present each side of the
suspension system and balance the bogie as these rockers are connected to each other
and the vehicle chassis through a modified differential. In the system, “bogie” refers to the
conjoining links that have a drive wheel attached at each end. Bogies were commonly used
to bare loading as tracks of army tanks as idlers distributing the load over the terrain.
Bogies were also quite commonly used on the trailers of semitrailer trucks as that very
time the trucks will have to carry much heavier load. The chassis plays vital role to
maintain the average pitch angle of both rockers by allowing both rockers to move as per
the situation. The physics of these rovers is quite complex. To design and control these
analytical models of how the rover interacts with its environment are essential.

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Figure 2-1 Line Diagram of Rocker Bogie Mechanism.

Models are also needed for rover action planning. Simple mobility analysis of rocker-bogie
vehicles have been developed and used for design evaluation in the available published
works. Improving the performances of a simpler four wheel rover has also been explored

Figure 2-2 Three Dimensional view of Rocker Bogie Mechanism.

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2.1.1.2 Advantages

 The design incorporates independent motors for each wheel. There are no springs or
axles, making the design simpler and more reliable.

 Rocker Bogie Suspension can withstand a tilt of at least 500 in any direction without
overturning, which is the biggest advantage of heavy loaded vehicle.

 It can move in harsh environment

 It can work in place which are beyond human reach

 Rocker Bogie consisting of no spring and stub axle in each wheel which allows the chasis
to climb over any obstacle such as rocks, ditches, sands etc. that are upto double the
wheels diameter in size while keeping all the wheels on ground for maximum time.

The suspension was required to:

1.) Stow in an extremely small space and deploy the mobility into a stance that would
provide the rover with 45 degree stability

2.) Absorb a large percentage of the impact loads the rover would experience during
lander egress and surface traverse. The rocker-bogie suspension is a mechanism that,
along with a differential, enables a six-wheeled vehicle to passively keep all six wheels in
contact with a surface even when driving on severely uneven terrain

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2.1.1.3 Study of The Mechanism

The rocker-bogie system is the suspension arrangement used in the MarS rovers
(mechanical robot) introduced for the Mars Pathfinder and also used on the Mars
Exploration Rover (MER) and Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) missions. It is currently
NASA's favored design. The term “rocker” comes from the rocking aspect of the larger link
on each side of the suspension system. These rockers are connected to each other and the
vehicle chassis through a differential. Relative to the chassis, when one rocker goes up,
the other goes down. The chassis maintains the average pitch angle of both rockers. One
end of a rocker is fitted with a drive wheel and the other end is pivoted to a bogie. The
term “bogie” refers to the links that have a drive wheel at each end. Bogies were commonly
used as load wheels in the tracks of army tanks as idlers distributing the load over the
terrain. Bogies were also quite commonly used on the trailers of semitrailer trucks. Both
applications now prefer trailing arm suspensions The rocker-bogie design has no springs
or stub axles for each wheel, allowing the rover to climb over obstacles, such as rocks, that
are up to twice the wheel's diameter in size while keeping all six wheels on the ground. As
with any suspension system, the tilt stability is limited by the height of the center of
gravity. Systems using springs tend to tip more easily as the loaded side yields. Based on
the center of mass, the Curiosity rover of the Mars Science Laboratory mission can
withstand a tilt of at least 45 degrees in any direction without overturning, but automatic
sensors limit the rover from exceeding 30-degree tilts. The system is designed to be used
at slow speed of around 10 centimeters per second (3.9 in/s) so as to minimize dynamic
shocks and consequential damage to the vehicle when surmounting sizable obstacles. JPL
states that this rocker bogie system reduces the motion of the main MER vehicle body by
half compared to other suspension systems. Each of the rover's six wheels has an
independent motor. The two front and two rear wheels have individual steering motors
which allow the vehicle to turn in place. Each wheel also has cleats, providing grip for
climbing in soft sand and scrambling over rocks. The maximum speed of the robots
operated in this way is limited to eliminate as many dynamic effects as possible so that
the motors can be geared down, thus enabling each wheel to individually lift a large
portion of the entire vehicle's mass. In order to go over a vertical obstacle face, the front

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wheels are forced against the obstacle by the center and rear wheels. The rotation of the
front wheel then lifts the front of the vehicle up and over the obstacle. The middle wheel
is then pressed against the obstacle by the rear wheels and pulled against the obstacle by
the front until it is lifted up and over. Finally, the rear wheel is pulled over the obstacle by
the front two wheels. During each wheel's traversal of the obstacle, forward progress of
the vehicle is slowed or completely halted. This is not an issue for the operational speeds
at which these vehicles have been operated to date. One of the future applications of
rovers will be to assist astronauts during surface operations. To be a useful assistant, the
rover will need to be able to move much faster than human walking speed or at least
equivalent. Other missions which have been proposed, such as the Sun-Synchronous
Lunar Rover, require even greater speeds (4–10 km/h). Rocker Bogie Suspension has the
specialty of being able to climb over obstacles twice the diameter of the wheel, that too
without compromising the stability of the rover as a whole.

Some features make it a real design.

1. The mechanism allows to climb over high obstacles, while keeping all the six wheels in
contact with the ground. This is only true at the operational speeds of rovers like Curiosity
which is around 10 cm/s.

2. The two sides (left and right) move independently, and hence the rover can traverse
terrains where the right and left rockers go over different type of obstacles.

3. The mechanism is designed such as due to the independent motion of right and left
rockers, the pitching of the chassis or the rover body remains an average of the two
rockers.

4. System with spring suspensions are susceptible to tip-over sideways easily than rocker-
bogie. Curiosity, by design, can sustain over 50 deg tilt in any direction.

5. The design incorporates independent motors for each wheel. There are no springs or
axles, making the design simpler and more reliable.

6. The design reduces the main body motion by half, compared to any other suspension.

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The jerk experienced by any of the wheel is transferred to the body as a rotation via the
differential connecting the two rockers, not as translation like conventional suspensions.
Over the past decade, the rocker-bogie suspension design has become a proven mobility
application known for its superior vehicle stability and obstacle-climbing capability.
Following several technology and research rover implementations, the system was
successfully flown as part of Mars Pathfinder’s Sojourner rover. When the Mars
Exploration Rover (MER) Project was first proposed, the use of a rocker-bogie suspension
was the obvious choice due to its extensive heritage. The challenge posed by MER was to
design a lightweight rocker-bogie suspension that would permit the mobility to stow
within the limited space available and deploy into a configuration that the rover could
then safely use to egress from the lander and explore the Martian surface. This paper will
describe how the MER rocker-bogie suspension subsystem was able to meet these
conflicting design requirements while highlighting the variety of deployment and latch
mechanisms employed in the design. The primary role of the MER suspension subsystem
is to provide the rover with a mobility system that has the kinematic range to permit the
rover to safely traverse 20 cm obstacles and allow the wheel assemblies to rotate for rover
“arc-turn” and “turn-in-place” maneuvers. In addition to these general stability
requirements, there were several requirements unique to the particular issues of the MER
vehicle.

Specifically, the suspension was required to

1.) Stow in an extremely small space and deploy the mobility into a stance that would
provide the rover with 45 degree stability

2.) Absorb a large percentage of the impact loads the rover would experience during
lander egress and surface traverse.

The rocker-bogie suspension is a mechanism that, along with a differential, enables a six-
wheeled vehicle to passively keep all six wheels in contact with a surface even when
driving on severely uneven terrain There are two key advantages to this feature. The first
advantage is that the wheels’ pressure on the ground will be equilibrated. This is

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extremely important in soft terrain where excessive ground pressure can result in the
vehicle sinking into the driving surface. The second advantage is that while climbing over
hard, uneven terrain, all six wheels will nominally remain in contact with the surface and
under load, helping to propel the vehicle over the terrain. MER takes advantage of this
configuration by integrating each wheel with a drive actuator, maximizing the vehicle’s
motive force capability. Another key feature of the suspension that has not been
emphasized in previous technology and flight applications is the ability to absorb
significant driving loads. In the past, rocker-bogie suspensions have been used on rovers
where the loads generated during driving have been relatively low. Therefore, the
suspension served primarily as a “rigid” kinematic link between the rover body and the
wheels. However, the MER rover has the challenge of egressing from a lander poised on
airbags and surface features, a maneuver that could require the vehicle to drop from a
significant height above the surface. Instruments that had been stowed during the landing
phase of the mission will be deployed during driving and were not designed to withstand
large loads in their science-gathering configuration. A compelling design requirement was
to therefore create a “soft” suspension to limit the accelerations experienced by the
payload during driving. However, one of the more challenging design issues to address
was how soft to make the suspension. A suspension that was too soft will result in large
deflections where the rover body or its science appendages may contact Martian surface
features in an uncontrolled manner. Therefore, * Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA Proceedings of the 37th Aerospace Mechanisms
Symposium, Johnson Space Center, May 19-21, 2004 185 the suspension had to be
designed to give the rover a ride somewhere between a luxury vehicle and a truck. The
suspension system stiffness target was one that would produce a translational impact
load no greater than 6 G’s and not let the rover body deflect below a 20 cm ground height.
The resulting suspension structural members were fabricated from tapered, welded,
titanium box beams tuned to meet these requirements. The design of these elements also
provides exceptional bending and torsional capability while minimizing the volume and
mass impact to the spacecraft. The last and most difficult design requirement was to
create a suspension that would stow within the tetrahedral lander, unfold and latch into

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a deployed configuration, and provide the rover with the ground clearance and stability
necessary to navigate the Martian surface. This task required significant coordination
with other rover and lander subsystems in order to produce a deployment sequence free
of static or dynamic interferences.

Figure 2-3 RBM on uneven path.

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2.2 CAD Software

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the process of digitally creating design simulations of
real-world goods and products in 2D or 3D, complete with scale, precision, and physics
properties to optimize and perfect the design – often in a collaborative manner – before
manufacturing.

Figure 2-4 3D_CAD Software.

CAD is also sometimes called “computer-aided design and drafting” (CADD). Using
computer_based software to assist in design processes is known as computer-aided
design. Various kinds of engineers and designers regularly utilize CAD software. Two-
dimensional (2-D) drawings and three-dimensional (3-D) models can both be produced
using CAD software. By making designs simple to share, review, simulate, and edit using
3D CAD, you can quickly bring new, unique items to market. When it comes to the
conventional “pencil on paper” method of engineering and design, known as manual
drafting, CAD software has supplanted the T-squares and protractors employed by past
designers

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2.2.1 SolidWorks
Professional 3D designers frequently utilize this Dassault Systems product. It is a feature-
based, parametric model. Employers usually look for candidates with SolidWorks
knowledge because it is a well-known mechanical design software
with a sizable user base. This 3D modeling CAD software is widely
utilized in the mechanical engineering and design fields. A variety
of capabilities, including tools for design validation or reverse
engineering, are included in the Solidworks software.

Figure 2-5 SolidWorks 2023.

“SolidWorks is the CAD software used for Designing our project”

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2.3 Steps of Designing the 3d model

3d CAD model plays vital rule in the manufacturing process. it gives us the ability to test
and manufacture the rover parts with the right dimensions by different ways like 3d
printing , laser cut and sheet mwtal bending.

So, In order to Design our project, the rover was subdivided into several steps.

2.3.1 getting the key dimensions

we can’t get a proper functional model without the dimensions of the parts. So, our first
step was downloading the original CAD model from NASA website. The website offers a
3d model of the full rover with all of it’s functionalities.

Figure 2-6 NASA Persevernce Rover Model.

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Then, We scaled the model by a factor of ¼ to get our desired dimensions.

Figure 2-7 Various scales of Persevernce Rover.

Then, by tacking 3 pictures of front, top and side views, all of the main dimentions were
Aquired and the design of our modified rover begun.

Figure 2-8 Front, Top and side views .

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2.3.2 Design of the main chasis

The main frame is made 10 20x20 Aluminum profile T-slot extrusions. These extrusions
are connected togheter with suitable T-slot Nuts.

Figure 2-9 Aluminum Extrusion with suitable T nuts .

With the help of 3d printed parts, the chasis is connected to the differential and the
rocker_bogie suspension.

Figure 2-10 The main chasis .

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2.3.3 Design of the Rocker Bogie suspention

 The rocker bogie system maintains a relatively constant weight on each of the
rover's wheels. The suspension also minimizes rover tilt as it drives, keeping it
more stable.
 The rocker bogie is made with a differential connected to the body of the rover
for stability.
 The differential connects the left and right rockers and connects to the body of
the rover by a pivot point in the centre of the rover’s top deck.

Figure 2-11 Top view of the rocker_bogie suspension with the differential .

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 We decided on 6 wheeled rocker bogie, so we have three main parts for the
rocker bogie-
 The first one is the rocker which connects the front wheel to the differential and
bogie in the rear.
 The second one is the bogie which connects the middle and rear wheel to the
rocker.
 The third one is the connector for the front and back wheel to the rocker bogie
for steering and rotation.

Figure 2-12 Side view of the rocker_bogie suspension with the differential .

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2.3.4 Design of links

If horizontal length of stairs is 400 mm Then

wheel base = horizontal length of stairs – ( Rf + Rr )

Rf = radius of front wheel

Rr = radius of rear wheel So wheel base = 400 – ( 35+35 )

Wheel base = 330 mm Let θ = 450

In Triangle BNC, Angle BNC = 900 , Angle NBC = Angle NCB = 450 , Therefore,NC = NB

NC2 + NB2 = BC2 ( from Pythagoras theorem)

BC2 = 2(NC2 ) …….

2(1652 ) BC = 233.33 mm Rounding off to 230 mm

Substituting in eqn (1) we get, 2302 = 2(NC2 ) , NC = 162.63 mm Also, NC = AN = 162.6

mm

In Triangle AMN, angle AMN = 900

AM2 + MN2 = AN2
2(AM2 ) =AN2
AM = 114.99 AM = 115 mm Now due to symmetry,
BC = 230 mm
AM = MN =115 mm
BM = AB – AM = 230-115
Height of RBM Height2 = BC2 – NC2
Height2 = 2302 – 162.632
Height = 162.4 mm
Net Height = Height + radius of wheel = 162.4 + 35 = 197.64 mm

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Figure 2-13 Final chasis and link dimensions .

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2.3.5 Design of Weels & Rims

The design of the wheels was meant to match the design of the real rover. With spikes
on the wheel, it can withstand hard environment and rough obstacles.

Figure 2-14 Rim .

Figure 2-15 wheel .

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Figure 2-16 wheel & rim assembly .

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2.3.6 Design of motor holders

Motor holders were designed to fit and secure Dc motors used for motion

Figure 2-17 12 volt Dc motor .

in addition to mg996r servo motors used for steering

Figure 2-18 Mg996r servo .

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Figure 2-19 DC motor holder .

Figure 2-20 Mg996r servo holder .

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Figure 2-21 dc motor coupler .

Figure 2-22 steering connector .

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Figure 2-23 final leg assembly .

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2.3.7 Design of Camera unit

The unit consist of 4 major parts :

(1) stepper motor to rotate about z-axis

Figure 2-24 stepper motor

(2) coonection rod with servo holder for rotating about x-axis

Figure 2-25 conncting rod

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Figure 2-26 Mg996r servo mount

(3) camera box

Figure 2-27 Camera box

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(4) Esp Cam

Figure 2-28 Esp Camera

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Figure 2-29 final Camera Assembly

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2.3.8 design of 6 Dof Robotic Arm

The robotic arm consists of 6 mg996r servos allowing it to have 6 Dof of Freedom

with a mechanical gripper at it’s end to allow it to pick up things easy

Figure 2-30 6-dof robot arm

2.4 Simulation Of RBM

2.4.1 Simulation on Curved path

When RBM is move on curved path then bogie adjusts itself with the help of free pivot
joint.

Figure 2-31 simulation of RBM on a sloped curve path

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Figure 2-32 simulation of RBM on less sloped curve

2.4.2 Simulation on Steps

RBM can climb on stairs with an angle 900 It is difficult to climb at 900 . in this type of
climbing high torque & friction are needed. When bogie starts climbing on steps then
motor on rocker end supports to climb bogie on steps.

Figure 2-33 simulation of RBM on small steps

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Figure 2-34 simulation of RBM on large steps

2.4.3 Results of Simulation

 After the realized simulation, the results has been generated and analyzed that the
simulated model can run on a plane without any inclination with 10 cm/s.

 RBM can move on a curved path with slope

 RBM can climb on steps having less height but there is a difficulty to climb on large height
steps.

 Centre of Gravity position in each of the two operating modes, contrasting the response
of these two distinctive configurations of the rocker-bogie suspension against upcoming
obstacles that can be present along the system generated obstacles and roadblocks.

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2.5 Final body

Figure 2-35 front, top, side and isometric views

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 CHAPTER 3

MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
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3 Chapter (3) Manufacturing

The main body was manufactured via two process

(1) 3D-printing
(2) Acrylic lasr cut

3.1 3D-Printing

3.1.1 intorduction

A 3D printer uses a virtual, mathematical model to construct a physical artifact. For

example, a designer in the process of creating a new laptop can use a software package to
create a threedimensional model of her creation, that can be manipulated and viewed on
the computer screen. The 3D printer can take the symbolic representation of this new
object and use it to build a fullsize, physical model that can be held and manipulated,
helping the designer to better understand the strengths and limitations of her design. An
architect can turn the plans for a building into a three-dimensional model and then “print”
a scale model to help him understand and communicate his design. An archaeologist can
print duplicates of an important, but fragile, tool so that her students can hold it in their
hands and better understand how it might have been used by an ancient civilization. A
biochemist can print accurate models of DNA molecules, enlarged by many orders of
magnitude, to help students and researchers better understand nature by engaging their
hands as well as their eyes in comprehending the geometry of nature. And a student of the
arts can create a unique object that would be difficult or impossible to build by hand. We
will not here consider other types of computer-controlled manufacturing, such
subtractive machines, which work by cutting away from a larger piece of material in order
to build a part. Additive rapid prototyping machines were first introduced twenty years
ago, when 3D Systems introduced the Stereo lithography, or SLA machine. While these
machines were remarkable for their ability to create complex parts, they were large,
expense, and difficult to operate.

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3.1.2 General principles

3.1.2.1 Modeling

3D printable models may be created with a computer aided design package or via 3D
scanner. The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D
computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D scanning is
a process of analyzing and collecting digital data on the shape and
appearance of a real object. Based on this data, three-dimensional models of
the scanned object can then be produced. 46 | P a g e Both manual and
automatic creation of 3D printable models is difficult for average consumers.
This is why several marketplaces have emerged over the last years. Among the most
popular are Shape ways, Thing verse, My MiniFactory and Threading.

3.1.2.2 Printing

Before printing a 3D model from an STL file, it must first be processed by a piece of
software called a "slicer" which converts the model into a series of thin layers and
produces a G-code file containing instructions tailored to a specific printer. Several open-
source slicer programs exist, including Skeinforge, Slic3r, KISSlicer, and Cura. The 3D
printer follows the G-code instructions to lay down successive layers of liquid, powder,
paper or sheet material to build the model from a series of cross sections. These layers,
which correspond to the virtual cross sections from the CAD model, are joined or
automatically fused to create the final shape. The primary advantage of this technique is
its ability to create almost any shape or geometric feature. Printer resolution describes
layer thickness and X-Y resolution in dots per inch (dpi) or micrometers (µm). Typical
layer thickness is around 100 µm (250 DPI), although some machines such as the Objet
Convex series and 3D Systems' ProJet series can print layers as thin as 16 µm (1,600 DPI).
X-Y resolution is comparable to that of laser printers. The particles (3D dots) are around
50 to 100 µm (510 to 250 DPI) in diameter. Construction of a model with contemporary
methods can take anywhere from several hours to several days, depending on the method
used and the size and complexity of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce this

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time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the type of machine used and
the size and number of models being produced simultaneously. Traditional techniques
like injection moldings can be less expensive for manufacturing polymer products in high
quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster, more flexible, and less expensive
when producing relatively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and
concept development teams the ability to produce parts and concept models using a
desktop size printer.

3.1.2.3 Finishing

Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications, printing a

slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard resolution and then removing
material with a higher-resolution subtractive process can achieve greater precision. As
with the LUMEX Avance-25 and other machines slated for IMTS 2014 IMTS Press Release
| International Manufacturing Technology Show Some additive manufacturing techniques
are capable of using multiple materials in the course of constructing parts. Some are able
to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously. Some also utilise
supports when building. Supports are removable or dissolvable upon completion of the
print and are used to support overhanging features during construction.

Figure 3-1 3D printing process

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3.1.3 Two major type Manufacturing

3.1.3.1 Additive Manufacturing

• Creating A Form

• Conserves Resources

• Efficient

• 3D Printing

Figure 3-2 Additive Manufacturing

3.1.3.2 Subtractive Manufacturing

• Uncovering A Form

o Carving A Sculpture

o Chiseling A Statue

• Wasteful

• Time Consuming

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Figure 3-3 Subtractive Manufacturing

3.1.4 Advantages of 3d printing

3.1.4.1 New structures and shapes

Traditional manufacturing methods depend on cutting and moulding technologies to

create a limited number of structures and shapes, with more intricate hollow ones having
to be formed from a number of parts and assembled together. However, 3D printing
technology transforms this process—the nozzle of the 3D printer can create many
complex figures, being confined only by a person’s imagination. This method gives them
higher structural integrity and more durability. The use of 3D printing technology takes
virtual designs from animation modeling software or computer-aided design (CAD),
converts them into thin, virtual, flat cross-sections and then produces successive layers
until the complete model is produced. It is a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get)
method where the physical model and the virtual model are almost the same. To create a
model, we can hire early adopter communities or enthusiasts, with connections to both
the hacker and academic communities.

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Figure 3-4 3D printed complex shape

3.1.4.2 New Combination of material

Combining different raw materials isn’t always possible with mass production methods
due to the high costs involved and to their chemical and physical properties that make
them tricky to combine using traditional methods. 3D printing has eliminated many of
these limitations not only because of the initial dependence on plastic, but also because of
a constant innovation made by enthusiasts believing that 3D printing’s potential hasn’t
been reached yet. Thus, a lot of companies now provide tens of different materials with
unique finishes producing the feel and look of glass, ceramics or metal with a variety of
strengths and temperature resistance.

3.1.4.3 Less waste

Manufacturing plastic and metal objects in particular is generally a wasteful process with
a lot of surplus materials and chunky parts. For some aircraft builders, up to 90 percent
of the material is usually wasted. Creating a similar object with the use of additive
manufacturing not only utilizes less energy, but also minimizes waste. Other objects that

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can be made with the use of additive manufacturing include jewelry, footwear, automotive
parts, and more. Sometimes, the finished product of 3D printing can be up to 60 percent
lighter than the machined part but still sturdy. Large cost savings can be attained in this
way and a smaller amount of waste also means a lesser effect on the environment.

3.1.4.4 Cheap Manufacturing

3D printing helps companies save up to 70 percent of their manufacturing cost. This is

attained through lower packaging and shipping costs related to more reliable and cheaper
raw materials and lesser workforce needed, as well as overseas parts suppliers. In the
end, this technology makes progressive companies more profitable.

3.1.4.5 Quick production

The speed of 3D printing is quicker as compared to the traditional method. It’s similar to
comparing the top speed of a sports car to a horse cart. They both take us to our
destination, but the travel period differs significantly. With industrial 3D printing
technologies being able to create an object in a few hours, the traditional manufacturing
methods, taking up to two or more days (from prototype to finish product), are gradually
becoming obsolete. This leads to an on-demand manufacturing model and to considerable
cost savings. Why should we have stores filled up with stocks if we can make them based
on the demand? Even if this scheme might not work with major offline manufacturers
because of their independence on offline sellers that commonly purchase in bulk, it can
prove very efficient for an online business.

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Figure 3-4 Industrial 3D printing

3.1.4.6 Better quality

Avoiding most of the mass manufacturing faults does not only make better products but
it also extends their life as they will break less often. This is not necessarily a great benefit
for manufacturers who need the product life cycle to be profitable, but it is certainly a
major benefit for the end consumer

3.1.4.7 Sustainability

less waste compared to traditional manufacturing methods is not only a cost saving
feature of 3D printing but also a possible eco-friendly attribute. Add to this the multi-
purpose characteristic of a 3D printer (can build different objects without the need of
using specialised machines for each part) and their digital ecosystem (all 3D models are
transmitted electronically so in theory they can be printed out where they are needed,
minimizing therefore transport costs) and we get a sustainable manufacturing process.
Integrating additive manufacturing with more classic production methods – as is the case

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with 3D printed textiles in the clothing industry – adds another layer (excuse the pun) to
the sustainability case.

3.1.5 Disadvantages of 3d printing

1. Fewer Manufacturing Jobs: As with all new technologies, manufacturing jobs will
decrease. This disadvantage can and will have a large impact to the economies of third
world countries, especially China, that depend on a large number of low skill jobs.

2. Limited Materials: Currently, 3D printers only manufacture products out of plastic,

resin, certain metals, and ceramics. 3D printing of products in mixed materials and
technology, such as circuit boards, are still under development.

3. Copyright: With 3D printing becoming more common, the printing of copyrighted

products to create counterfeit items will become more common and nearly impossible to
determine.

4. Dangerous Items: 3D printers can create dangerous items, such as guns and knives,
with very little or no oversight.

5. More Useless Stuff: One of the dangers of 3D printers is that they will be used to create
more useless stuff that is bad for the environment and wallets. Fortunately, there are new
methods of automatically recycling objects made by 3D printers that hold promise of
better recycling in the future.

3.1.6 Slicing in 3d printing

3.1.6.1 Inrtoduction

A slicer is software that transforms digital 3D models into instructions for producing an
object on a specific 3D printer. The instructions include the model as well as user-entered
3D printing settings, such as speed, layer height, and support structure options. Each 3D
printing technique produces 3D objects by layering material. Therefore, the term "slicer"

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software is appropriate because it effectively "slices" 3D models into numerous horizontal

2D layers that will subsequently be printed one at a time.

Figure 3-5 Slicing process

3.1.6.2 Slicing in detail

3D models are sliced into instructions for 3D printers by the process known as slicing. It
essentially "slices" the 3D model into thin layers and then determines the path for each
layer to be printed to get the best strength, shortest printing time, etc. A 3D CAD model,
often an STL format file, is converted into G code, which the printer may use. The three
main categories of parameters that can be adjusted in a slicer program are as follows:

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• Layer heights

• Shells

• Infill percentages, and

• 3D print speeds.

Print bed settings, filament diameter, extrusion multiplier, and extruder temperature are
included in filament settings. A printer's settings include the diameter of the nozzle, the
shape of the print bed (L x W), and the Z offset. In the following sections, we'll examine
some Slicer options that directly affect the ability to slice three-dimensional models

3.1.6.3 Slicing Software

Cura is an open-source, free, and widely used 3D slicing software. Ultimate made the
software specifically for their 3D printers. The 3D slicer is appropriate for all users, from
novices to experts across a range of sectors. For a better user experience, it is simple to
use, has a quick graphical user interface, and receives frequent updates. It also features a
considerable resource collection and a sizable user base. Cura is compatible with
computers running macOS, Windows, and Linux and supports a variety of 3D printers.
Additionally, it connects with several plugins to improve workflow and CAD programs
like SelfCAD, SolidWorks and Autodesk Inventor. The software displays a tool path, an
expected printing time, and material usage for file types like STL, X3D, OBJ, and 3MF. In
addition, it supports a wide range of image formats, such as JPG, GIF, PNG, and BMP.

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Figure 3-6 Cura slicer

3.1.6.4 Slicing our model

Figure 3-7 Differential arm slicing

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3.1.6.5 slicing settings

Figure 3-6 Cura slicer settings

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3.1.7 3d printing our model

3.1.7.1 3d printing Filaments

(1) PLA filament : PLA is a type of polyester made from fermented plant starch
from corn, cassava, maize, sugarcane or sugar beet pulp. The sugar in these
renewable materials are fermented and turned into lactic acid, when is then
made into polylactic acid, or PLA.

‘PLA gives rigidity to the model’

Figure 3-7 PLA filament

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(2) TPU filament : TPU (Thermoplastic polyurethane) is a type of flexible and elastic
3D printing filament. Its rubber-like elasticity, resilience, and durability make it
suitable for uses requiring impact-absorption and a soft-touch surface. Examples
of TPU 3D printed parts include tubes, seals, bushings and vibration dampeners.

Figure 3-8 TPU filament

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3.1.7.2 steps of 3d printing our model

As our model is quite big and 3d printed parts represents 70% of the main body, the 3d
printing process to long time to finish ( over 5 weeks ). with a 4 kg of total filament.

So, the process was done in steps :

starting with the differential bar and ending with wheels & Rims

Figure 3-9 printing of deffirential and motor holders

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Figure 3-10 finish of differential printing

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Figure 3-11 printing of Camera unit and servo mount

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Figure 3-12 printing wheels

Figure 3-13 wheels after printing

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Figure 3-14 3D printed Rims

Figure 3-15 wheels after painting

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Figure 3-16 all 3d printed parts

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3.2 Laser cut

3.2.1 why Acrylic ?

Laser cutting acrylic is an exceptionally popular application for Epilog Laser machines
because of the high-quality results that are produced.

Depending on the type of acrylic you’re working with, the laser can produce a smooth,
flame-polished edge when laser cut, and it can also produce a bright, frosty white
engraving when laser engraved.

3.2.2 Types of Acrylic

Before beginning to experiment with acrylic in your laser, it’s important to understand
the different types of this substrate. There are actually two types of acrylics suitable for
use with the laser: cast and extruded.

Cast acrylic sheets are made from a liquid acrylic that is poured into molds that can be
set into various shapes and sizes. This is the type of acrylic used for most of the awards
you see on the market. Cast acrylic is ideal for engraving because it turns a frosty white
color when engraved. Cast acrylic can be cut with a laser, but it will not result in flame-
polished edges. This acrylic material is better suited for engraving.

The other type of acrylic is known as extruded acrylic, which is a very popular cutting
material. Extruded acrylic is formed through a higher-volume manufacturing technique,
so it is typically less expensive than cast, and it reacts very differently with the laser
beam. Extruded acrylic will cut cleanly and smoothly and will have a flame-polished
edge when laser cut. But when it is engraved, instead of a frosted look you will have a
clear engraving.

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3.2.3 Laser cutting acrylic

To achieve the best results when cutting extruded acrylic, you’ll want to elevate the
material so that it’s not touching the cutting table. This will greatly reduce backside
reflection and the occurrence of grid marks on the material after being laser cut.

Epilog’s Pin Table is the perfect accessory to help you get those perfect cuts on extruded
acrylic. This handy device allows you to raise and support your acrylic for better cutting
edge quality. The Pin Table incorporates movable pins that can be placed anywhere along
the table’s grid of one inch (25.4 mm) spaced holes. The acrylic is raised and supported in
locations where the laser will not be cutting, which is what helps eliminate backside
reflection. The Pin Table also allows you to place pins to support small or intricate parts
that would normally fall out of the cutting pattern.

3.2.4 DxF files

DXF is short for Drawing Exchange Format or Drawing Interchange Format and is a type
of vector file. Engineers, designers and architects often use the DXF format for 2D and
3D drawings during product design.

Several 3D applications support DXF format, but it is most often used to share designs
across different CAD programs.

DXF files, which use the .DXF extension, are completely open-source This makes them
different to other file formats used in CAD file sharing — such as DWG files.

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Figure 3-17 Team logo DxF file

Figure 3-18 robot arm cover DxF file

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 CHAPTER 4

ELECTRICAL DESIGN
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4 Chapter (4) Electrical Design

4.1 Motor selection

4.1.1 Dc motors
4.1.1.1 what is Dc motor ?

A DC motor or direct current motor is an electrical machine that transforms electrical

energy into mechanical energy by creating a magnetic field that is powered by direct
current. When a DC motor is powered, a magnetic field is created in its stator. The field
attracts and repels magnets on the rotor; this causes the rotor to rotate. To keep the
rotor continually rotating, the commutator that is attached to brushes connected to the
power source supply current to the motors wire windings.

Figure 4-1 12v Geared Dc motor

One of the reasons DC motors are preferred over other types of motors is their ability to
precision control their speed, which is a necessity for industrial machinery. DC motors
are able to immediately start, stop, and reverse—an essential factor for controlling the
operation of production equipment.

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4.1.1.2 Types of Dc motor

In order to appreciate the benefits of DC motors, it is important to understand the
various types. Each type of DC motor has beneficial characteristics that must be
examined before purchase and use. Two of the main advantages of DC motors over
alternating current (AC) motors are how easy they are to install and that they require
little maintenance.

DC motors are differentiated by the connections between the field winding and the
armature. The field winding can be connected parallel to the armature or connected in a
series. In some cases, the connection is both parallel and in a series.

A further distinction of DC motors is how the rotor is powered; it can be brushed or

brushless. In brush DC motors, current is applied to the rotor by brushes. In a brushless
DC motor, the rotor has a permanent magnet.

Since DC motors are everywhere and used for a wide variety of applications, there is a
different type to meet the needs of every application. Regardless of your need for DC
motors, it is important to understand each type since they can be found in every aspect
of life.

(1) Brushed DC Motor

The magnetic field in a brush DC motor is produced by current sent through a
commutator and brush that are connected to the rotor. Brushes are made of carbon and
can be separately excited or self excited. The stator is the enclosure that contains the
components of the motor and contains the magnetic field. The winding of the coil on the
rotor can be in a series or parallel to form either a series wound DC motor or shunt
wound DC motor.

The commutator is an electrical switch that reverses the current between the rotor and
the external power source. It is a method of applying electrical current to the windings
and produces a steady rotating torque by reversing the current direction. The sections of
the commutator are attached to the windings on the rotor through a set of contact bars
that are set in the shaft of the motor.

There are three main types of DC motors: separately excited, self excited, or permanent
magnet. In the separately excited and self excited, an electromagnet is used in the stator
structure. With the permanent magnet type, a powerful magnet generates the magnetic
field.

Self excited DC motors are further divided into shunt, series, and compound. The
compound excited type is separated into cumulative and differential with short
and long shunts in each type.

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Figure 4-2 Brushed Dc motor

(2) Separately Excited DC Motor

In a separately excited DC motor, the motor has separate electrical supplies to the
armature winding and field winding, which are electrically separate from each other.
The operations of the armature current and field current do not interfere with each
other‘s actions, but the input power is their total sum.

Figure 4-3 Separately Excited Dc motor

(3) Permanent Magnet DC Motor
A permanent magnet DC motor has an armature winding but does not have a field
winding. The permanent magnet is mounted on the inner surface of the stator core to

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produce the magnetic field. It has a regular armature consisting of a commutator and
brushes.

Permanent magnet DC motors are smaller and less expensive. They use rare earth
magnets such as samarium cobalt or neodymium iron boron.

Figure 4-4 Ermenant magnet Dc motor

(4) Self Excited DC Motor

In self excited DC motors, the field and armature windings are connected and have a
single supply source. The connections are parallel or series with parallel made as shunt
wound while the series version is series wound.

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1. Shunt
In a shunt wound DC motor, the field and armature windings are connected parallel to
each other; this exposes the field winding to terminal voltage. Though the supply is the
same, the current for the field and armature windings is different. The speed of a shunt
DC motor is constant and does not deviate with varying mechanical loads.

Figure 4-5 Shunt Excited Dc motor

2. Series
The field and armature winding on a series DC motor are connected to the power supply
in a series. The same current flows in the field and armature windings. A series wound
motor can work with AC and DC voltage supply, which makes it a universal motor. Series
motors always rotate in the same direction regardless of the voltage source. Their speed
varies with the mechanical load.

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Figure 4-6 Series Dc motor

3. Compound
A compound DC motor uses the features of the series and shunt field windings. The
winding for the armature is connected in a series while the winding for the field is a
shunt or parallel connection.

Compound DC motors are further divided into cumulative and differential. With
cumulative DC motors, the flux of the shunt field helps the flux in the series field. They
both move in the same direction while the flux of a differential compound DC motor, for
the series and shunt fields, moves in the opposite direction. Cumulative and differential
compound DC motors can have long or short shunts; this is based on the shunting of the
shunt field winding.

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Figure 4-7 Compound wound Dc motor

ii. Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)

Brushless DC motors, known as BLDC motors, are a permanent magnet synchronous
electric motor driven by direct current and an electronically controlled commutation
system, the process of producing rotational torque by changing phase currents. They are
also referred to as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.

The electrical commutation by a BLDC motor is what differentiates it from brushed DC

motors that operate by mechanical contact on a rotor. A BLDC motor includes a magnet
rotor and a stator with a sequence of coils. The permanent magnet rotates while current
carrying conductors are fixed in position.

The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors at the correct rotor
position. The created force causes the rotor to rotate. Hall sensors sense the position of
the rotor and are placed on the stator. The feedback position of the rotor from the
sensors determines when to switch the current of the armature.

The design of brushless DC motors eliminates the need for brushes and makes BLDC
motors quieter and more reliable with an efficiency rating of 85 to 90 percent. The
elimination of brushes removes the wear and tear that brushes experience since very
little heat is produced by the rotating magnet.

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Figure 4-8 Brushless Dc motor

1. Brushless DC Motor Construction
There are several different configurations of BLDC motors, which vary according to their
stator windings that can be single, two, or three phase. The majority of BLDC motors
have the three phase design with a permanent magnet rotor. The stator for each type of
BLDC motor has the same number of windings.

BLDC motors can be inrunner or outrunner where an inrunner brushless motor has the
permanent magnets inside the electromagnets while an outrunner has the permanent
magnets outside the electromagnets. The working principle for both designs is the same
with different configurations.

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Figure 4-9 Inrunner and Outrunner Dc motor

a. Stator
The stator produces the magnetic force that causes the rotor of a brushless DC motor to
spin. It is either inside and surrounded by the rotor or outside enclosing the rotor. The
stator is made up of laminated steel stampings stacked together to form a magnetic core.
Coils of wire are wound around the core and are connected to the controller.

The pieces of steel of the stator can be slotted or slotless with slotless cores being
capable of producing high speed motors because of low inductance, a design that is more
expensive since it requires more coil turns.

b. Rotor
The rotor contains a permanent magnet with two to eight pairs of poles with alternate
south and north poles. The magnetic material for the rotor is carefully chosen in order to
produce the required magnetic field density. The types of magnets for the rotor can be
ferrite or neodymium.

The different core configurations are circular with permanent magnets on the periphery
or circular with rectangular magnets.

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c. Hall Sensor
Hall sensors synchronize the stator armature excitation by sensing the position of the
rotor. The commutation of BLDC motors is controlled electronically causing the stator
windings to be energized in sequence to rotate the rotor. Before a winding can be
energized, the Hall sensor identifies the position of the rotor. Most BLDC motors have
three Hall sensors that are placed in the stator. Each of the sensors generates a low and
high signal when the rotor poles pass near them.

d. Benefits of BLDC Motor

 Absence of mechanical commutator to avoid wear
 High efficiency
 High speed of operation in loaded and unloaded conditions
 Smaller motor geometry and lighter weight
 Long life
 Higher dynamic response because of low inertia and carrying windings in the stator
 Less electromagnetic interference
 Low noise and quiet operation

Figure 4-10 Diagram of Brushless Dc motor

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4.1.1.3 How Dc motors work ?

A DC motor is based on the idea that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it produces mechanical force. The direction of the force is determined by
the left hand rule. Since DC motors and DC generators have the same construction, they
can be used interchangeably.

For large electrical applications, such as steel mills and electric trains, alternating
current (AC) is converted into DC current since the speed and torque characteristics of a
DC motor are superior to an AC motor. In the case of industrial applications, DC motors
are as widely used as three phase induction motors.

4.1.1.3.1 Stator
The stator is the unmoving main body of the motor, and it provides support and
protection for the motor. The stator provides a rotating magnetic field that drives the
armature or rotor. It is the static part of the motor that houses the field windings and
receives the electrical supply through its terminals.

Figure 4-11 Dc motor Diagram

4.1.1.3.2 Shaft
The windings and the commutator rotate the shaft, which is at the center of the motor
and made of a hardened metal, usually steel, to withstand the loads of the application.
The commutator bars are attached to the plate that is affixed to the shaft by plastic
molding. The torque that is produced by the winding is transferred to the shaft

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supported by the stator. The shaft protrudes through the stator and connects the motor
to the application.

Figure 4-12 simple Diagram of shaft

4.1.1.3.3 Terminals
A DC motor has two terminals: positive and negative. When the positive wire is
connected to the positive terminal and the negative wire connected to the negative
terminal, the motor rotates clockwise. When they are reversed, the motor rotates
counter clockwise. The terminals provide the power supply for the motor and are
connected to the brushes and brush arms inside the back cover.

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Figure 4-13 Dc motor terminals

4.1.1.3.4 Magnets
The magnets used in DC motors are referred to as permanent magnets; this means their
magnetic field is always active. Opposite ends of magnets attract while similar ends
repel. The magnetic field of a magnet runs from the south pole to the north pole. The
most powerful part of a magnet‘s magnetic field is at its ends.

Two magnets create a very strong field; this is why two magnets are included in a DC
motor around the rotor such that the strong magnetic field passes through the rotor.

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Figure 4-14 Dc motor magnets

4.1.1.3.5 Rotor
The rotor or armature is made of multiple disks that are insulated from each other by
laminated sheets. The multiple disks prevent the creation of a large eddy current. (Eddy
currents are the reason the plates are insulated.) Eddy currents are still present but are
much smaller and do not interfere with the operation of the motor; they are a necessary
part of the motor's operation. For greater motor efficiency, the disks of the rotor are
made as small as possible. The rotor is the dynamic part of the motor that is used to
create the mechanical revolutions.

Figure 4-15 wound rotor

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4.1.1.3.6 Coil Windings

The coil windings are wrapped around the rotor. The coiling of the wire creates a strong
and powerful magnetic field. Every type of wire creates a weak magnetic field when
electricity passes through it. Due to coiling of the wire, each turned section has the same
weak magnetic field. When combined with all the different coiled wire, a strong
magnetic field is created. As more coils are added to the rotor, its rotation becomes
smoother. All DC motors have a minimum of three coils to ensure smooth rotation since
two coils tend to jam and stop the motor. Each coil is 120o from the previous coil.

Figure 4-16 Dc motor wire coil

4.1.1.3.7 Brushes
The brushes of a DC motor provide the coils with power and are metal pieces that act
like springs. On one side, they have a conductive material made of carbon. On the other
side, they have a pin where the power supply is applied to the motor. The brushes are
pushed by their spring action against the commutator, are held in place by the brush
arms, and are directly connected to the terminals or electrical supply.

Figure 4-17 diagram of Brushes and commutator

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4.1.1.3.8 Commutator
The commutator is made of small copper plates that are mounted on the shaft and rotate
as the shaft rotates. The rotation of the rotor causes the poles of the power supply to the
coils to change. Each coil is connected to two commutator plates, which are electrically
isolated from each other but connected by the coils. With positive and negative
terminals connected to two commutator plates, current easily flows and an
electromagnetic field is generated.

Figure 4-18 commutator of Dc motor

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4.1.2 stepper motors

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device it converts electrical power into
mechanical power. Also, it is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full
rotation into an expansive number of steps. The motor’s position can be controlled
accurately without any feedback mechanism, as long as the motor is carefully sized to the
application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors. The stepper motor
uses the theory of operation for magnets to make the motor shaft turn a precise distance
when a pulse of electricity is provided. The stator has eight poles, and the rotor has six
poles. The rotor will require 24 pulses of electricity to move the 24 steps to make one
complete revolution. Another way to say this is that the rotor will move precisely 15° for
each pulse of electricity that the motor receives.

• Construction & Working Principle The construction of a stepper motor is fairly related
to a DC motor. It includes a permanent magnet like Rotor which is in the middle & it will
turn once force acts on it. This rotor is enclosed through a no. of the stator which is wound
through a magnetic coil all over it. The stator is arranged near to rotor so that magnetic
fields within the stators can control the movement of the rotor.

Figure 4-19 Nema 17 stepper motor

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The stepper motor can be controlled by energizing every stator one by one. So the stator
will magnetize & works like an electromagnetic pole which uses repulsive energy on the
rotor to move forward. The stator’s alternative magnetizing as well as demagnetizing will
shift the rotor gradually &allows it to turn through great control.

The stepper motor working principle is Electro-Magnetism. It includes a rotor which is

made with a permanent magnet whereas a stator is with electromagnets. Once the supply
is provided to the winding of the stator then the magnetic field will be developed within
the stator. Now rotor in the motor will start to move with the rotating magnetic field of
the stator. So this is the fundamental working principle of this motor.

Figure 4-20 stepper motor coil

Stepper Motor Construction In this motor, there is a soft iron that is enclosed through the
electromagnetic stators. The poles of the stator as well as the rotor don’t depend on the
kind of stepper. Once the stators of this motor are energized then the rotor will rotate to
line up itself with the stator otherwise turns to have the least gap through the stator. In
this way, the stators are activated in a series to revolve the stepper motor.

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Driving Techniques

Stepper motor driving techniques can be possible with some special circuits due to their
complex design. There are several methods to drive this motor, some of them are
discussed below by taking an example of a four-phase stepper motor.

• Single Excitation Mode

The basic method of driving a stepper motor is a single excitation mode. It is an old
method and not used much at present but one has to know about this technique. In this
technique every phase otherwise stator next to each other will be triggered one by one
alternatively with a special circuit. This will magnetize & demagnetize the stator to move
the rotor forward.

• Full Step Drive

In this technique, two stators are activated at a time instead of one in a very less time
period. This technique results in high torque & allows the motor to drive the high load.

• Half Step Drive

This technique is fairly related to the Full step drive because the two stators will be
arranged next to each other so that it will be activated first whereas the third one will be
activated after that. This kind of cycle for switching two stators first &after that third
stator will drive the motor. This technique will result in improved resolution of the
stepper motor while decreasing the torque.

• Micro Stepping

technique is most frequently used due to its accuracy. The variable step current will
supply by the stepper motor driver circuit toward stator coils within the form of a
sinusoidal waveform. The accuracy of every step can be enhanced by this small step
current. This technique is extensively used because it provides high accuracy as well as
decreases operating noise to a large extent.

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• Stepper Motor Circuit & Its Operation

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is
applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple
toothed electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The
electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, for example, a
microcontroller. Stepper Motor Circuit To make the motor shaft turn, first one
electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear’s teeth magnetically attracted to the
electromagnet’s teeth. At the point when the gear’s teeth are thus aligned to the first
electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet.

Figure 4-21 stepper motor circuit

So when the next electromagnet is turned ON and the first is turned OFF, the gear rotates
slightly to align with the next one and from there the process is repeated. Each of those
slight rotations is called a step, with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In
that way, the motor can be turned by a precise. Stepper motor doesn’t rotate continuously,
they rotate in steps. There are 4 coils with a 90o angle between each other fixed on the
stator. The stepper motor connections are determined by the way the coils are

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interconnected. In a stepper motor, the coils are not connected. The motor has a 90o
rotation step with the coils being energized in a cyclic order, determining the shaft
rotation direction. The working of this motor is shown by operating the switch. The coils
are activated in series in 1-sec intervals. The shaft rotates 90o each time the next coil is
activated. Its low speed torque will vary directly with current.

• Types of Stepper Motor There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:

• Permanent magnet stepper

• Hybrid synchronous stepper

• Variable reluctance stepper

▪ Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet
(PM) in the rotor and operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and
the stator electromagnets.

This is the most common type of stepper motor as compared with different types of
stepper motors available in the market. This motor includes permanent magnets in the
construction of the motor. This kind of motor is also known as tin-can/can-stack motor.
The main benefit of this stepper motor is less manufacturing cost. For every revolution, it
has 48-24 steps.

▪ Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron
rotor and operate based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum
gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles. The stepper
motor like variable reluctance is the basic type of motor and it is used for the past many
years. As the name suggests, the rotor’s angular position mainly depends on the magnetic
circuit’s reluctance that can be formed among the teeth of the stator as well as a rotor.

▪ Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Motor Hybrid stepper motors are named because they
use a combination of permanent magnet (PM) and variable reluctance (VR) techniques to
achieve maximum power in small package sizes. The most popular type of motor is the
hybrid stepper motor because it gives a good performance as compared with a permanent

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magnet rotor in terms of speed, step resolution, and holding torque. But, this type of
stepper motor is expensive as compared with permanent magnet stepper motors. This
motor combines the features of both the permanent magnet and variable reluctance
stepper motors. These motors are used where less stepping angle is required like 1.5, 1.8
& 2.5 degrees.

• How to Select a Stepper Motor? Before selecting a stepper motor for your requirement,
it is very significant to examine the torque-speed curve of the motor. So this information
is available from the designer of the motor, and it is a graphical symbol of the torque of
the motor at a specified speed. The motor’s torque-speed curve should match closely the
necessities of the application; or else, the expected system performance cannot be
obtained.

• Types of Wiring The stepper motors are generally two-phase motors like unipolar
otherwise bipolar. For each phase in a unipolar motor, there are two windings. Here,
center-tapped is a common one lead in between two windings toward a pole. The unipolar
motor has 5 to 8 leads. In the construction, where the common of two poles are divided
however center-tapped, this stepper motor includes six leads. If the two-pole center taps
are short inside, then this motor includes five leads. Unipolar with 8 leads will facilitate
both series & parallel connection while the motor with five lead or six lead has stator coil’s
series connection. The operation of the unipolar motor can be simplified because while
operating them, there is no requirement of reversing the flow of current within the driving
circuit which are known as bifilar motors. In a bipolar stepper motor, for each pole, there
is a single winding. The direction of supply needs to change through the driving circuit so
that it will become complex so these motors are called unifilar motors.

• Stepper Motor Control

by Varying Clock Pulses Stepper motor control circuit is a simple and low-cost circuit,
mainly used in low power applications. The circuit is shown in the figure, which consists
of 555 timers IC as a stable multi-vibrator. The frequency is calculated by using the given
relationship.

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Frequency = 1/T = 1.45/(RA + 2RB)C

Where RA = RB = R2 = R3 = 4.7 kilo-ohm and C = C2 = 100 µF.

Stepper Motor Control by Varying Clock Pulses The output of the timer is used as a clock
for two 7474 dual ‘D’ flip-flops (U4 and U3) configured as a ring counter.

Figure 4-22 stepper motor control circuit

When power is initially switched on, only the first flip-flop is set (i.e. Q output at pin 5 of
U3 will be at logic ‘1’) and the other three flip-flops are reset (i.e. the output of Q is at logic
0). On receipt of a clock pulse, the logic ‘1’ output of the first flip-flop gets shifted to the
second flip-flop (pin 9 of U3).

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Thus, logic 1 output keeps shifting circularly with every clock pulse. Q outputs of all the
four flip-flops are amplified by Darling-ton transistor arrays inside ULN2003 (U2) and
connected to the stepper motor windings orange, brown, yellow, black to 16, 15,14, 13 of
ULN2003 and the red to +ve supply.

The common point of the winding is connected to the +12V DC supply, which is also
connected to pin 9 of ULN2003. The color code used for the windings is may vary from
make to make. When the power is switched on, the control signal connected to the SET
pin of the first flip-flop and CLR pins of the other three flip-flops goes active ‘low’ (because
of the power-on-reset circuit formed by the R1-C1 combination) to set the first flip-flop
and reset the remaining three flip-flops.

On reset, Q1 of IC3 goes ‘high’ while all other Q outputs go ‘low’.

An external reset can be activated by pressing the reset switch.

By pressing the reset switch, you can stop the stepper motor. The motor again starts
rotating in the same direction by releasing the reset switch.

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• Advantages The advantages of stepper motor include the following.

• Ruggedness

• Can work in an open-loop control system

• Maintenance is low

• Reliability is high

• The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

• The motor has full torque at standstill.

• Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an
accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this error is noncumulative from one step to the next.

Excellent response to starting, stopping, and reversing.

• It is possible to achieve very low-speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly
coupled to the shaft.

• A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the
frequency of the input pulses.

• Disadvantages The disadvantages of stepper motor include the following.

• Efficiency is low

• The Torque of a motor will declines fast with speed

• Accuracy is low

• Feedback is not used for specifying potential missed steps

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• Small Torque toward Inertia Ratio

• Extremely Noisy

• If the motor is not controlled properly then resonances can occur

4.1.3 servo motors

Figure 4-23 Servo motor

4.1.3.1 What is a Servo Motor?

A servo motor is a type of motor that can rotate with great precision. Normally this type

of motor consists of a control circuit that provides feedback on the current position of the

motor shaft, this feedback allows the servo motors to rotate with great precision. If you

want to rotate an object at some specific angles or distance, then you use a servo motor.

It is just made up of a simple motor which runs through a servo mechanism. If motor is

powered by a DC power supply then it is called DC servo motor, and if it is AC-powered

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motor then it is called AC servo motor. For this tutorial, we will be discussing only about

the DC servo motor working. Apart from these major classifications, there are many

other types of servo motors based on the type of gear arrangement and operating

characteristics. A servo motor usually comes with a gear arrangement that allows us to

get a very high torque servo motor in small and lightweight packages. Due to these

features, they are being used in many applications like toy car, RC helicopters and planes,

Robotics, etc.

Servo motors are rated in kg/cm (kilogram per centimeter) most hobby servo motors are

rated at 3kg/cm or 6kg/cm or 12kg/cm. This kg/cm tells you how much weight your servo

motor can lift at a particular distance. For example: A 6kg/cm Servo motor should be able

to lift 6kg if the load is suspended 1cm away from the motors shaft, the greater the

distance the lesser the weight carrying capacity. The position of a servo motor is decided

by electrical pulse and its circuitry is placed beside the motor.

4.1.3.2 Servo Motor Working Mechanism

It consists of three parts:

1. Controlled device

2. Output sensor

3. Feedback system

It is a closed-loop system where it uses a positive feedback system to control motion and

the final position of the shaft. Here the device is controlled by a feedback signal generated

by comparing output signal and reference input signal.

Here reference input signal is compared to the reference output signal and the third signal

is produced by the feedback system. And this third signal acts as an input signal to the

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control the device. This signal is present as long as the feedback signal is generated or

there is a difference between the reference input signal and reference output signal. So

the main task of servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the desired value

at presence of noises.

4.1.3.3 Servo Motor Working Principle

A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, gear assembly, and a controlling

circuit. First of all, we use gear assembly to reduce RPM and to increase torque of the

motor. Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob

is such that there is no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer.

Now an electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier.

Now the difference between these two signals, one comes from the potentiometer and

another comes from other sources, will be processed in a feedback mechanism and output

will be provided in terms of error signal. This error signal acts as the input for motor and

motor starts rotating. Now motor shaft is connected with the potentiometer and as the

motor rotates so the potentiometer and it will generate a signal. So as the potentiometer’s

angular position changes, its output feedback signal changes. After sometime the position

of potentiometer reaches at a position that the output of potentiometer is same as

external signal provided. At this condition, there will be no output signal from the

amplifier to the motor input as there is no difference between external applied signal and

the signal generated at potentiometer, and in this situation motor stops rotating.

4.1.3.4 Interfacing Servo Motors with Microcontrollers:

Interfacing hobby Servo motors like s90 servo motor with MCU is very easy. Servos have

three wires coming out of them. Out of which two will be used for Supply (positive and

negative) and one will be used for the signal that is to be sent from the MCU. An MG995

Metal Gear Servo Motor which is most commonly used for RC cars humanoid bots etc.

The picture of MG995 is shown below:

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Figure 4-24 MG995 Servo motor

The color coding of your servo motor might differ hence check for your respective

datasheet.

All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we have to be careful on

the amount of current the motor would consume if you are planning to use more than two

servo motors a proper servo shield should be designed.

4.1.3.5 Controlling Servo Motor:

All motors have three wires coming out of them. Out of which two will be used for

Supply (positive and negative) and one will be used for the signal that is to be sent from
the MCU.

Servo motor is controlled by PWM (Pulse with Modulation) which is provided by the

control wires. There is a minimum pulse, a maximum pulse and a repetition rate. Servo

motor can turn 90 degree from either direction form its neutral position. The servo motor

expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (ms) and the length of the pulse will

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determine how far the motor turns. For example, a 1.5ms pulse will make the motor turn

to the 90° position, such as if pulse is shorter than 1.5ms shaft moves to 0° and if it is

longer than 1.5ms than it will turn the servo to 180°.

Servo motor works on PWM (Pulse width modulation) principle, means its angle of

rotation is controlled by the duration of applied pulse to its Control PIN. Basically servo

motor is made up of DC motor which is controlled by a variable resistor

(potentiometer) and some gears. High speed force of DC motor is converted into torque

by Gears. We know that WORK= FORCE X DISTANCE, in DC motor Force is less and

distance (speed) is high and in Servo, force is High and distance is less. The potentiometer

is connected to the output shaft of the Servo, to calculate the angle and stop the DC motor

on the required angle.

Servo motor can be rotated from 0 to 180 degrees, but it can go up to 210 degrees,

depending on the manufacturing. This degree of rotation can be controlled by applying

the Electrical Pulse of proper width, to its Control pin. Servo checks the pulse in every

20 milliseconds. The pulse of 1 ms (1 millisecond) width can rotate the servo to 0 degrees,

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1.5ms can rotate to 90 degrees (neutral position) and 2 ms pulse can rotate it to 180

degree.

All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we have to be careful about

the amount of current the motor would consume if you are planning to use more than two

servo motors a proper servo shield should be designed.

4.1.3.6 Mg996r

MG996R High Torque Metal Gear Dual Ball Bearing Servo This High-Torque MG996R
Digital Servo features metal gearing resulting in extra high 10kg stalling torque in a tiny
package. The MG996R is essentially an upgraded version of the famous MG995 servo, and
features upgraded shock-proofing and a redesigned PCB and IC control system that make
it much more accurate than its predecessor. The gearing and motor have also been
upgraded to improve dead bandwith and centering. The unit comes complete with 30cm
wire and 3 pin 'S' type female header connector that fits most receivers, including Futaba,
JR, GWS, Cirrus, Blue Bird, Blue Arrow, Corona, Berg, Spektrum and Hitec. This high-
torque standard servo can rotate approximately 120 degrees (60 in each direction). You
can use any servo code, hardware or library to control these servos, so it's great for
beginners who want to make stuff move without building a motor controller with
feedback & gear box, especially since it will fit in small places. The MG996R Metal Gear
Servo also comes with a selection of arms and hardware to get you set up nice and fast!
Specifications

• Weight: 55 g

• Dimension: 40.7 x 19.7 x 42.9 mm approx.

• Stall torque: 9.4 kgf·cm (4.8 V ), 11 kgf·cm (6 V)

• Operating speed: 0.17 s/60º (4.8 V), 0.14 s/60º (6 V)

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• Operating voltage: 4.8 V a 7.2 V

• Running Current 500 mA –

• Stall Current 2.5 A (6V) • Dead band width: 5 µs

• Stable and shock proof double ball bearing design

• Temperature range: 0 ºC – 4.8 V a 7.2 V – 900 mA (6V) double ball bearing design 55 ºC

Figure 4-25 MG996r Servo motor

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4.2 circuit borads

4.2.1 Main circuit

Figure 4-26 main borad circuit diagram

4.2.1.1 Microcontroller
The Arduino Mega 2560, the successor to the Arduino Mega, is a microcontroller board
based on a ATmega2560 AVR microcontroller. It has 70 digital input/output pins (of
which 14 can be used as PWM outputs and 16 can be used as analog inputs), a 16 MHz
resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an in-circuit system programming (ICSP)
header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller;
simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or
battery to get started.
The Mega 2560 differs from the preceding Mega in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-
serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega8U2 programmed as a USB-to-serial
converter. This auxiliary microcontroller has its own USB bootloader, which allows
advanced users to reprogram it.

The Arduino has a large support community and an extensive set of support libraries and
hardware add-on “shields” (e.g. you can easily make your Arduino wireless with our Wixel
shield), making it a great introductory platform for embedded electronics.

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Summary
 Microcontroller: ATmega2560
 Operating voltage: 5 V
 Input voltage (recommended): 7-12 V
 Digital I/O pins: 70 (of which 14 provide PWM output)
 Analog input pins: 16*
 DC current per I/O pin: 40 mA
 DC current for 3.3V pin: 50 mA
 Flash memory: 256 KB of which 8 KB used by bootloader
 SRAM: 8 KB
 EEPROM: 4 KB
 Clock speed: 16 MHz
*The Arduino Mega 2560 has 70 total available I/O lines; all of them can function as digital
I/O lines, and sixteen of them can be used as analog inputs.

Figure 4-27 Arduino Mega

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4.2.1.2 Motor drivers

4.2.1.2.1 Dc motor driver ( DRV 8871 )

The DRV8871 device is a brushed-DC motor driver for printers, appliances, industrial
equipment, and other small machines. Two logic inputs control the Hbridge driver, which
consists of four N-channel MOSFETs that can control motors bidirectionally with up to
3.6-A peak current. The inputs can be pulsewidth modulated (PWM) to control motor
speed, using a choice of current-decay modes. Setting both inputs low enters a low-power
sleep mode. The DRV8871 device has advanced currentregulation circuitry that does not
use an analog voltage reference or external sense resistor. This novel solution uses a
standard low-cost, low-power resistor to set the current threshold. The ability to limit
current to a known level can significantly reduce the system power requirements and
bulk capacitance needed to maintain stable voltage, especially for motor startup and stall
conditions. The device is fully protected from faults and short circuits, including
undervoltage (UVLO), overcurrent (OCP), and overtemperature (TSD). When the fault
condition is removed, the device automatically resumes normal operation.

Figure 4-28 DRV 8871 Dc motor driver

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4.2.1.2.2 stepper motor driver ( A4988 )

The A4988 is a complete microstepping motor driver with built-in translator for easy
operation. It is designed to operate bipolar stepper motors in full-, half-, quarter-,
eighth-, and sixteenth-step modes, with an output drive capacity of up to 35 V and ±2 A.
The A4988 includes a fixed off-time current regulator which has the ability to operate in
Slow or Mixed decay modes. The translator is the key to the easy implementation of the
A4988. Simply inputting one pulse on the STEP input drives the motor one microstep.
There are no phase sequence tables, highfrequencycontrollines,or
complexinterfacestoprogram. The A4988 interface is an ideal fit for applications where a
complex microprocessor is unavailable or is overburdened. During stepping operation,
the chopping control in the A4988 automatically selects the current decay mode, Slow or
Mixed. In Mixed decay mode, the device is set initially to a fast decay for a proportion of
the fixed off-time, then to a slow decay for the remainder of the off-time. Mixed decay
current control resultsinreducedaudiblemotornoise,increasedstepaccuracy, and reduced
power dissipation.

Figure 4-29 A4988 Stepper motor driver

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4.2.1.2.3 Dc_Dc step down Buck converter

XL4016 DC to DC step down regulator/buck converter, adjustable +0.8 to 28vdc output,

8A. This module is ideal for battery operated projects requiring a higher current
regulated power supply. Regulator Type : Step Down Input Voltage : +7 to 32vdc Output
Voltage : +0.8 to 28vdc
Features
 Input voltage: 8V-32V
 Output voltage: 1.25V-28V (adjustable with potentiometer on "IN" side)
 Maximum input current: 8A
 Current without load ring: approximately 20mA
 Output power: 100W (passive cooling in 20°C air), 200W with a fan on the cooling
fins (active cooling in 20°C air)
 Conversion efficiency: 96% (highest)
 Switching frequency: 180KHz
 Output ripple: about 50mV
 Working Temperature: -40 °C to +85 °C
 Thermal Protection enabled.
 Short circuit protection: Yes
 Status LED: Changes color when the load exceeds 10% of the set current limit

Figure 4-30 DC step down buck converter

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4.2.2 transimmter circuit

Figure 4-31 Transimmter ciruit

4.2.2.1 Microcontroller
The Arduino Pro Mini is a small microcontroller board based on the ATmega 328.
intended for use on breadboards and when space is critical. It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 8 analog inputs, and a
16 MHz crystal oscillator. It can be programmed with the USB TTL serial adapter.
Specifications
 Microcontroller: ATmega328
 Operating Voltage: 5V
 Input Voltage: 7-9 V
 Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins: 8 (of which 4 are broken out onto pins)
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 mA
 Flash Memory: 16 KB (of which 2 KB used by bootloader)
 SRAM: 1 KB
 EEPROM: 512 bytes
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz

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Figure 4-32 Arduino Pro micro

4.2.2.2 Radio control

The latest version of 2.4 Ghz wireless transceiver based on Nordic nRF 24L01. This
module is equipped with power amplifier (PA) and low noise amplifier (LNA) together
with 2DB antenna. This increase the transmission distance to reach 1000 meter at
250kbps data ratewith line of sight but at he same tie noise is decreased due to LNA.
The Nordic nRF24L01 integrates a complete 2.4GHz RF transceiver, RF synthesizer,
and Enhanced ShockBurst™ hardware protocol accelerator supporting a high-speed SPI
interface for the application controller.
Transceivers like these both send and receive data in 'packets' of several bytes at a time.
There is built-in error correction and resending, and it is possible to have one unit
communicate with up to 6 other similar units at the same time.

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Features
 Power Supply: 1.9 : 3.3 v
 2DB Antenna
 Low noise amplifier (LNA) for noise supression
 Power Amplifier (PA)
 1Km Range with line of sight at 250kbps
 Ultra low power consumption – months to years of battery lifetime
 250kbps to 2Mbit Data Rate
 Auto Acknowledge & Auto Re-Transmit
 Multiceiver - 6 Data Pipes
 Software selectable channel from 2400MHz to 2525MHz (125 Selectable channels)

Figure 4-33 NRf24L01 with antenna

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4.2.2.3 Accelerometer & Gyro

The MPU-9250 is a 9-axis MotionTracking device that combines a 3-axis gyroscope, 3-

axis accelerometer, 3-axis magnetometer and a Digital motion processor. Based on the
IC MPU-9250, which is the world’s smallest 9-axis MotionTracking device and
incorporates the latest InvenSense design innovations, this module features three 16-bit
ADC for digitizing the gyroscope outputs and three 16-bit ADCs for digitizing the
accelerometer outputs and three 16-bit ADCs for digitizing the magnetometer outputs.
low power, low cost, and high performance .
The sensor can be used in many application such as angle measurments ( yaw - pitch -
roll), motion detection, gesture position or as pedometer for counting steps while
walking
Features
 Three 16-bit analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) for digitizing the gyroscope
outputs
 Three 16-bit ADCs for digitizing the accelerometer outputs
 Gyroscope full-scale range of ±250, ±500, ±1000, and ±2000°/sec (dps)
 Accelerometer full-scale range of ±2g, ±4g, ±8g, and ±16g
 Magnetometer full-scale range of ±4800μT
 I2C and SPI serial interfaces
 Internal Digital Motion Processing engine supports advanced MotionProcessing and
low power functions such as gesture recognition using programmable interrupts
 Voltage supply: 3-5v

Figure 4-34 MPU-9250 Gyro Module

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4.2.3 Robotic arm circuit

Figure 4-35 robotic arm circuit

4.2.3.1 Microcontroller ( Arduino uno )

Description
 There are a few changes in the UNO, here is what they are
 ATmega16U2 instead of the 8U2 found. This allows for faster USB transfer rates.
 No drivers needed for Linux or Mac (.inf file for Windows is needed and included in
the Arduino IDE)
 The ability to have the Uno show up as a keyboard, mouse, joystick, etc.
 New SDA and SCL pins next to the AREF. this is a duplication of the Analog 4 and 5
pins.
 Two new pins placed near the RESET pin. One is the IOREF that allow the shields to
adapt to the voltage provided from the board. The other is a not connected and is
reserved for future purposes.
 Reset button moved from center of board to corner near USB connector, allowing
resets when shields are connected.
 Larger heat sink copper area for the LM117 regulator

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Figure 4-36 Arduino uno r3

4.2.3.2 Bluetooth module (Hc-05)

This serial bluetooth module can work as either master or slave. This module also
includes the base board, not only the core board, most functions are pre-set, so only the
serial port communication is available but it’s more easy to use. It can be used also with
arduino or Microcontroller.
Features
 Use CSR popular buletooth chip, bluetooth V2.0 Protocol standard.
 Serial port operation voltage 3.3V
 Baud rate set at 9600, but you can change it with AT command
 Operation current, pairing at 30MA, after pairing is 8 MA during communication
 Widely use for wireless data communication such as GPS navigation device, remote
data collection, PDA devices
 Also can pair and communicate with laptop, laptop bluetooth adapter, PDA devices,
Arduino
 Be aware default setting of the product is slave mode, communication only available
between master and slave mode, but not master and master, or slave and slave
mode.

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4.2.4 Camera circuit

Figure 4-36 Esp Camera circuit

4.2.4.1 Esp32 Camera

The ESP32-CAM is a small size, low power consumption camera module based on ESP32
WIFI development board. It comes with an OV2640 camera and it also features a
microSD card slot that can be useful to store images taken with the camera or to store
files to serve to clients.
The ESP32-CAM suitable for home automation and smart devices, industrial wireless
control, wireless video monitoring, QR wireless identification, WiFi image upload,
wireless face recognition and other IoT applications. It is an ideal solution for IoT
applications.
Features
 Onboard ESP32-S module, supports WiFi + Bluetooth
 OV2640 camera with built-in flash lamp
 Onboard microSD card slot, supports up to 4G TF card for data storage
 Supports WiFi video monitoring and WiFi image upload
 Supports multi sleep modes, deep sleep current as low as 6mA
 Control interface is accessible via pin-header, easy to be integrated and embedded
into user products

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4.3 PCB

4.3.1 Main board PCB

Figure 4-37 Main Board PCB

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4.3.1.1 ordering the PCB from JLC PCb

Figure 4-38 ordering the PCB from JLCPCB site

4.3.1.2 PCB Details

Figure 4-39 PCB order deatails

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4.3.2 RC transimtter PCB

Figure 4-40 Rc transimtter PCB

All PCBs are designed with the help of easy EDA online software.

Figure 4-41 EasyEda free online software

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4.4 Final Results

Figure 4-42 Transimtter final borad

Figure 4-43 final main borad

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CHAPTER 5

STEERING & SPEED

CONTROL

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5 Chapter (5) Steering system

5.1 Ackermann steering

5.1.1 Defining Ackermann steering

Consider a low-speed cornering manoeuvre, where all tyres are in pure rolling
condition, and there is no vehicle sliding present. As the vehicle travels along a curved
path, all four tyres follow unique trajectories around a shared turn centre, as defined by
the blue arcs in Figure 1.

Figure 5-1 Ackermann steering

The different curvature radii mean that to avoid sliding, the steering geometry must
steer the inside front tyre at a larger angle than the outside front. Ackermann Steering
refers to the geometric configuration that allows both front wheels to be steered at the
appropriate angle to avoid tyre sliding.
For a given turn radius R, wheelbase L, and track width T, engineers calculate the
required front steering angles (δ_(f,in) and δ_(f,out)) with the following expressions:

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The
difference in front-wheel steer angle as a function of the input steer angle is known as
Dynamic Toe. If the vehicle dimensions are known, it is possible to construct a curve of
the desired toe change for the full range of expected turn radii, such as the example in
Figure 2.

The tighter the desired vehicle turn radius, the larger the difference in steer angles
required. Ackermann Steering geometry is a practical measure to avoid sliding tyres
while in the pit lane or parking on the street. The picture gets much more complicated
once the vehicle is at speed.

5.1.2 Incorporating Slip Angels

A vehicle navigating a curved path at speed requires centripetal force provided by the
tyres’ lateral force capacity to maintain its trajectory. The centripetal force occurs when
the tyre assumes a slip angle, which you can read more about in this previous Tech
Explained Article.
The subsequent difference between the tyre’s heading and the contact patch’s
orientation shifts the turn centre of the vehicle forward, as depicted in Figure 3.

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Figure 5-2 Instantaneous Turn Center with slip angles

If a tyre has a slip angle, the lateral sliding velocity component present is greater than
zero.
For this reason, the goal is to fine-tune the sliding conditions of each tyre to optimise
total performance, rather than try to avoid tyre slip entirely.
The key to unlocking this performance comes from understanding the relationship
between vertical load and lateral force capacity in tyres.
Figure 4 displays the lateral force vs slip angle relationship for an Indy Lights
Tyre across a range of vertical loads.

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Figure 5-3 Lateral Forces vs slip Angles

vs slip angle curves for a Cooper Tires Indy Lights 2017 Front Tyre

The higher the vertical load on the tyre, the greater peak lateral force it can produce. At
higher vertical loads, the peak lateral force arrives at a higher slip angle. This trend is
expected but not necessarily present in all tyres and may depend on compound or
construction.
The relationship between vertical load and peak slip angle is known as the Line of
Peaks. Characterising the Line of Peaks is essential due to the onset of lateral load
transfer during a cornering manoeuvre, transferring vertical load from the inside tyres
to the outside tyres.
It is critical to make sure both tyres operate at their peak slip angles simultaneously to
maximise performance. In the case of the Indy Lights tyre, this means that the more
heavily loaded outside tyre should be at a higher slip angle than the inside tyre. Steering
the outside tyre more than the inside for a given steering wheel input achieves this.
The result is the exact opposite of Ackermann Steering and is known as reverse
Ackermann or anti-Ackermann. Many race cars fitted with Anti-Ackermann exploit the
peak operating conditions of the individual tyres.

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5.1.3 Designing for Ackermann steering

The Ackermann level in a vehicle steering geometry is represented as a percentage,
where 100% Ackermann means the difference in steer angle between the inside and
outside tyre matches the geometric low-speed turn centre.
Most race cars do not run 100% Ackermann or 100% Anti-Ackermann. Instead, fine-
tuning their solution somewhere in between to meet their specific design goals and
expected operating conditions.
There are a few critical considerations for a designer to make when selecting a steering
geometry for a race car. Designers must understand the speed profile and track
characteristics where the car will be racing.
The slower and tighter the track is, the more critical it becomes to employ Ackermann to
help navigate hairpins and other tight corners where geometry dominates all else. While
a Formula One car navigating a 200m radius cornering may benefit handsomely from
Anti-Ackermann, a similar setup would severely hamper a Formula Student vehicle
navigating a 5m radius hairpin.

Figure 5-4 our rover Ackermann steering Geometry

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5.2 PWM

There are many different ways to control the speed of DC motors but one very simple
and easy way is to use Pulse Width Modulation.

But before we start looking at the in’s and out’s of “Pulse Width Modulation” we need to
understand a little more about how a DC motor works.
Next to stepper motors, the Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC) is the most commonly
used type of small direct current motor available producing a continuous rotational
speed that can be easily controlled. Small DC motors ideal for use in applications were
speed control is required such as in small toys, models, robots and other such
electronics circuits.
A DC motor consist basically of two parts, the stationary body of the motor called the
“Stator” and the inner part which rotates producing the movement called the “Rotor”.
For D.C. machines the rotor is commonly termed the “Armature”.
Generally in small light duty DC motors the stator consists of a pair of fixed permanent
magnets producing a uniform and stationary magnetic flux inside the motor giving these
types of motors their name of “permanent-magnet direct-current” (PMDC) motors.
The motors armature consists of individual electrical coils connected together in a
circular configuration around its metallic body producing a North-Pole then a South-
Pole then a North-Pole etc, type of field system configuration.
The current flowing within these rotor coils producing the necessary electromagnetic
field. The circular magnetic field produced by the armatures windings produces both
north and south poles around the armature which are repelled or attracted by the
stator’s permanent magnets producing a rotational movement around the motors
central axis as shown.

5.2.1 2-Pole Permanent Magnet Motor

Figure 5-5 Pole permanent Megnet motor

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As the armature rotates electrical current is passed from the motors terminals to the
next set of armature windings via carbon brushes located around the commutator
producing another magnetic field and each time the armature rotates a new set of
armature windings are energised forcing the armature to rotate more and more and so
on.
So the rotational speed of a DC motor depends upon the interaction between two
magnetic fields, one set up by the stator’s stationary permanent magnets and the other
by the armatures rotating electromagnets and by controlling this interaction we can
control the speed of rotation.
The magnetic field produced by the stator’s permanent magnets is fixed and therefore
can not be changed but if we change the strength of the armatures electromagnetic field
by controlling the current flowing through the windings more or less magnetic flux will
be produced resulting in a stronger or weaker interaction and therefore a faster or
slower speed.
Then the rotational speed of a DC motor (N) is proportional to the back emf (Vb) of the
motor divided by the magnetic flux (which for a permanent magnet is a constant) times
an electromechanical constant depending upon the nature of the armatures windings
(Ke) giving us the equation of: N ∝ V/KeΦ.

Figure 5-6 speed vs voltage

So how do we control the flow of current through the motor. Well many people attempt
to control the speed of a DC motor using a large variable resistor (Rheostat) in series
with the motor as shown.
While this may work, as it does with Scalextric slot car racing, it generates a lot of heat
and wasted power in the resistance. One simple and easy way to control the speed of a
motor is to regulate the amount of voltage across its terminals and this can be achieved
using “Pulse Width Modulation” or PWM.
As its name suggests, pulse width modulation speed control works by driving the motor
with a series of “ON-OFF” pulses and varying the duty cycle, the fraction of time that the
output voltage is “ON” compared to when it is “OFF”, of the pulses while keeping the
frequency constant.
The power applied to the motor can be controlled by varying the width of these applied
pulses and thereby varying the average DC voltage applied to the motors terminals. By
changing or modulating the timing of these pulses the speed of the motor can be

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controlled, ie, the longer the pulse is “ON”, the faster the motor will rotate and likewise,
the shorter the pulse is “ON” the slower the motor will rotate.
In other words, the wider the pulse width, the more average voltage applied to the
motor terminals, the stronger the magnetic flux inside the armature windings and the
faster the motor will rotate and this is shown below.

5.2.2 Pulse Width Modulated Waveform

Figure 5-7 pulse width modulated waveform

The use of pulse width modulation to control a small motor has the advantage in that the
power loss in the switching transistor is small because the transistor is either fully “ON”
or fully “OFF”. As a result the switching transistor has a much reduced power dissipation
giving it a linear type of control which results in better speed stability.
Also the amplitude of the motor voltage remains constant so the motor is always at full
strength. The result is that the motor can be rotated much more slowly without it
stalling. So how can we produce a pulse width modulation signal to control the motor.
Easy, use an Astable 555 Oscillator circuit as shown below.

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Figure 5-8 555 timer circuit

This simple circuit based around the familiar NE555 or 7555 timer chip is used to
produced the required pulse width modulation signal at a fixed frequency output. The
timing capacitor C is charged and discharged by current flowing through the timing
networks RA and RB as we looked at in the 555 Timer tutorial.
The output signal at pin 3 of the 555 is equal to the supply voltage switching the
transistors fully “ON”. The time taken for C to charge or discharge depends upon the
values of RA, RB.
The capacitor charges up through the network RA but is diverted around the resistive
network RB and through diode D1. As soon as the capacitor is charged, it is immediately
discharged through diode D2 and network RB into pin 7. During the discharging process
the output at pin 3 is at 0 V and the transistor is switched “OFF”.
Then the time taken for capacitor, C to go through one complete charge-discharge cycle
depends on the values of RA, RB and C with the time T for one complete cycle being given
as:
The time, TH, for which the output is “ON” is: TH = 0.693(RA).C
The time, TL, for which the output is “OFF” is: TL = 0.693(RB).C
Total “ON”-“OFF” cycle time given as: T = TH + TL with the output frequency
being ƒ = 1/T
With the component values shown, the duty cycle of the waveform can be adjusted from
about 8.3% (0.5V) to about 91.7% (5.5V) using a 6.0V power supply. The Astable

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frequency is constant at about 256 Hz and the motor is switched “ON” and “OFF” at this
rate.
Resistor R1 plus the “top” part of the potentiometer, VR1 represent the resistive network
of RA. While the “bottom” part of the potentiometer plus R2 represent the resistive
network of RB above.
These values can be changed to suite different applications and DC motors but providing
that the 555 Astable circuit runs fast enough at a few hundred Hertz minimum, there
should be no jerkiness in the rotation of the motor.
Diode D3 is our old favourite the flywheel diode used to protect the electronic circuit
from the inductive loading of the motor. Also if the motor load is high put a heatsink on
the switching transistor or MOSFET.
Pulse width modulation is a great method of controlling the amount of power delivered
to a load without dissipating any wasted power. The above circuit can also be used to
control the speed of a fan or to dim the brightness of DC lamps or LED’s. If you need to
control it, then use Pulse Width Modulation to do it.

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CODING
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6 Chapter (6) Code

6.1 Spi protocol
Serial peripheral interface (SPI) is one of the most widely used interfaces between
microcontroller and peripheral ICs such as sensors, ADCs, DACs, shift registers, SRAM,
and others. This article provides a brief description of the SPI interface followed by an
introduction to Analog Devices’ SPI enabled switches and muxes, and how they help
reduce the number of digital GPIOs in system board design.

SPI is a synchronous, full duplex main-subnode-based interface. The data from the main
or the subnode is synchronized on the rising or falling clock edge. Both main and
subnode can transmit data at the same time. The SPI interface can be either 3-wire or 4-
wire. This article focuses on the popular 4-wire SPI interface.

6.1.1 Interface

Figure 1. SPI configuration with main and a subnode.

4-wire SPI devices have four signals:

 Clock (SPI CLK, SCLK)

 Chip select (CS)
 main out, subnode in (MOSI)
 main in, subnode out (MISO)

The device that generates the clock signal is called the main. Data transmitted between
the main and the subnode is synchronized to the clock generated by the main. SPI
devices support much higher clock frequencies compared to I2C interfaces. Users should
consult the product data sheet for the clock frequency specification of the SPI interface.

SPI interfaces can have only one main and can have one or multiple subnodes. Figure 1
shows the SPI connection between the main and the subnode.

The chip select signal from the main is used to select the subnode. This is normally an
active low signal and is pulled high to disconnect the subnode from the SPI bus. When
multiple subnodes are used, an individual chip select signal for each subnode is required
from the main. In this article, the chip select signal is always an active low signal.

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MOSI and MISO are the data lines. MOSI transmits data from the main to the subnode
and MISO transmits data from the subnode to the main.

6.1.2 Data Transmission

To begin SPI communication, the main must send the clock signal and select the subnode
by enabling the CS signal. Usually chip select is an active low signal; hence, the main
must send a logic 0 on this signal to select the subnode. SPI is a full-duplex interface;
both main and subnode can send data at the same time via the MOSI and MISO lines
respectively. During SPI communication, the data is simultaneously transmitted (shifted
out serially onto the MOSI/SDO bus) and received (the data on the bus (MISO/SDI) is
sampled or read in). The serial clock edge synchronizes the shifting and sampling of the
data. The SPI interface provides the user with flexibility to select the rising or falling
edge of the clock to sample and/or shift the data. Please refer to the device data sheet to
determine the number of data bits transmitted using the SPI interface.

6.1.3 Clock Polarity and Clock Phase

In SPI, the main can select the clock polarity and clock phase. The CPOL bit sets the
polarity of the clock signal during the idle state. The idle state is defined as the period
when CS is high and transitioning to low at the start of the transmission and when CS is
low and transitioning to high at the end of the transmission. The CPHA bit selects the
clock phase. Depending on the CPHA bit, the rising or falling clock edge is used to sample
and/or shift the data. The main must select the clock polarity and clock phase, as per the
requirement of the subnode. Depending on the CPOL and CPHA bit selection, four SPI
modes are available. Table 1 shows the four SPI modes.

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Table 1. SPI Modes with CPOL and CPHA

Clock
Clock Phase Used to Sample
SPI Mode CPOL CPHA Polarity in
and/or Shift the Data
Idle State

Data sampled on rising edge and

0 0 0 Logic low
shifted out on the falling edge

Data sampled on the falling edge

1 0 1 Logic low
and shifted out on the rising edge

Data sampled on the rising edge

2 1 0 Logic high
and shifted out on the falling edge

Data sampled on the falling edge

3 1 1 Logic high
and shifted out on the rising edge

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Figure 2 through Figure 5 show an example of communication in four SPI modes. In

these examples, the data is shown on the MOSI and MISO line. The start and end of
transmission is indicated by the dotted green line, the sampling edge is indicated in
orange, and the shifting edge is indicated in blue. Please note these figures are for
illustration purpose only. For successful SPI communications, users must refer to the
product data sheet and ensure that the timing specifications for the part are met.

Figure 6-1 SPI modes

SPI Mode 0, CPOL = 0, CPHA = 0: CLK idle state = low, data sampled on rising edge and
shifted on falling edge.
Figure 3 shows the timing diagram for SPI Mode 1. In this mode, clock polarity is 0,
which indicates that the idle state of the clock signal is low. The clock phase in this mode
is 1, which indicates that the data is sampled on the falling edge (shown by the orange
dotted line) and the data is shifted on the rising edge (shown by the dotted blue line) of
the clock signal.

Figure 3.

SPI Mode 1, CPOL = 0, CPHA = 1: CLK idle state = low, data sampled on the falling edge and
shifted on the rising edge.

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Figure 4 shows the timing diagram for SPI Mode 3. In this mode, the clock polarity is 1,
which indicates that the idle state of the clock signal is high. The clock phase in this
mode is 1, which indicates that the data is sampled on the falling edge (shown by the
orange dotted line) and the data is shifted on the rising edge (shown by the dotted blue
line) of the clock signal.

Figure 4.

SPI Mode 3, CPOL = 1, CPHA = 1: CLK idle state = high, data sampled on the falling edge
and shifted on the rising edge.
Figure 5 shows the timing diagram for SPI Mode 2. In this mode, the clock polarity is 1,
which indicates that the idle state of the clock signal is high. The clock phase in this
mode is 0, which indicates that the data is sampled on the rising edge (shown by the
orange dotted line) and the data is shifted on the falling edge (shown by the dotted blue
line) of the clock signal.

Figure 5.

SPI Mode 2, CPOL = 1, CPHA = 0: CLK idle state = high, data sampled on the rising edge
and shifted on the falling edge.

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6.1.4 Multi-Subnode Configuration

Multiple subnodes can be used with a single SPI main. The subnodes can be connected in
regular mode or daisy-chain mode.

6.1.4.1 Regular SPI Mode:

Figure 6. Multi-subnode SPI configuration.

In regular mode, an individual chip select for each subnode is required from the main.
Once the chip select signal is enabled (pulled low) by the main, the clock and data on the
MOSI/MISO lines are available for the selected subnode. If multiple chip select signals
are enabled, the data on the MISO line is corrupted, as there is no way for the main to
identify which subnode is transmitting the data.

As can be seen from Figure 6, as the number of subnodes increases, the number of chip
select lines from the main increases. This can quickly add to the number of inputs and
outputs needed from the main and limit the number of subnodes that can be used. There
are different techniques that can be used to increase the number of subnodes in regular
mode; for example, using a mux to generate a chip select signal.

6.1.4.2 Daisy-Chain Method:

Figure 7. Multi-subnode SPI daisy-chain configuration.

In daisy-chain mode, the subnodes are configured such that the chip select signal for all
subnodes is tied together and data propagates from one subnode to the next. In this
configuration, all subnodes receive the same SPI clock at the same time. The data from
the main is directly connected to the first subnode and that subnode provides data to the
next subnode and so on.

In this method, as data is propagated from one subnode to the next, the number of clock
cycles required to transmit data is proportional to the subnode position in the daisy
chain. For example, in Figure 7, in an 8-bit system, 24 clock pulses are required for the
data to be available on the 3rd subnode, compared to only eight clock pulses in regular
SPI mode. Figure 8 shows the clock cycles and data propagating through the daisy chain.
Daisy-chain mode is not necessarily supported by all SPI devices. Please refer to the
product data sheet to confirm if daisy chain is available.

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Figure 6-2 Daisy chain configration

6.1.5 Analog Devices SPI Enabled Switches and Muxes

The newest generation of ADI SPI enabled switches offer significant space saving
without compromise to the precision switch performance. This section of the article
discusses a case study of how SPI enabled switches or muxes can significantly simplify
the system-level design and reduce the number of GPIOs required.

The ADG1412 is a quad, single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switch, which requires four
GPIOs connected to the control input of each switch. Figure 9 shows the connection
between the microcontroller and one ADG1412.

Figure 9. Microcontroller GPIO as control signals for the switch.

As the number of switches on the board increases, the number of required GPIOs
increases significantly. For example, when designing a test instrumentation system and
a large number of switches are used to increase the number of channels in the system. In
a 4 × 4 cross-point matrix configuration, four ADG1412s are used. This system would

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require 16 GPIOs, limiting the available GPIOs in a standard microcontroller. Figure 10

shows the connection of four ADG1412s using the 16 GPIOs of the microcontroller.

Figure 10. In a multi-subnode configuration, the number of GPIOs needed increases

tremendously.
One approach to reduce the number of GPIOs is to use a serial-to-parallel converter, as
shown in Figure 11. This device outputs parallel signals that can be connected to the
switch control inputs and the device can be configured by serial interface SPI. The
drawback of this method is an increase in the bill of material by introducing an
additional component.

Figure 11. Multi-subnode switches using a serial-to-parallel converter.

An alternative method is to use SPI controlled switches. This method provides the
benefit of reducing the number of GPIOs required and also eliminates the overhead of
additional serial-to-parallel converter. As shown in Figure 12, instead of 16
microcontroller GPIOS, only seven microcontroller GPIOs are needed to provide the SPI
signals to the four ADGS1412s.

Figure 12. SPI enabled switches save up microcontroller GPIOs.

The switches can be configured in daisy-chain configuration to further optimize the
GPIO count. In daisy-chain configuration, irrespective of the number of switches used in
the system, only four GPIOs are used from the main (microcontroller).

Figure 13. SPI enabled switches configured in a daisy chain to further optimize the
GPIOs.
Figure 13 is for illustration purposes. The ADGS1412 data sheet recommends a pull-up
resistor on the SDO pin. Please refer to the ADGS1412 data sheet for further details on
daisy-chain mode. For the sake of simplicity, four switches have been used in this
example. As the number of switches increase in a system, the benefits of board
simplicity and space saving is significant. The ADI SPI enabled switches provide a 20%
overall board space reduction in a 4 × 8 crosspoint configuration with eight quad SPST
switches on a 6-layer board. The article “Precision SPI Switch Configuration Increases
Channel Density” provides detail on how precision SPI switch configuration increases
channel density.

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6.2 main board code

// Reading the data comming from the RC Transmitter

IBus.loop();

ch0 = IBus.readChannel(0);

ch1 = IBus.readChannel(1);

ch2 = IBus.readChannel(2);

ch3 = IBus.readChannel(3);

ch6 = IBus.readChannel(6);Code language: Arduino (arduino)

// Convertign the incoming data

// Steering right

if (ch0 > 1515) {

r = map(ch0, 1515, 2000, 1400, 600); // turining radius from 1400mm to 600mm

// Steering left

else if (ch0 < 1485) {

r = map(ch0, 1485, 1000, 1400, 600); // turining radius from 600mm to 1400mm

// Rover speed in % from 0 to 100

s = map(ch2, 1000, 2000, 0, 100); // rover speed from 0% to 100%Code language: Arduino
(arduino)
void calculateMotorsSpeed() {

// if no steering, all wheels speed is the same - straight move

if (ch0 > 1485 && ch0 < 1515) {

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speed1 = speed2 = speed3 = s;

// when steering, wheels speed depend on the turning radius value

else {

// Outer wheels, furthest wheels from turning point, have max speed

// Due to the rover geometry, all three outer wheels should rotate almost with the same speed.
They differe only 1% so we asume they are the same.

speed1 = s;

// Inner front and back wheels are closer to the turing point and have lower speeds compared to
the outer speeds

speed2 = s * sqrt(pow(d3, 2) + pow((r - d1), 2)) / (r + d4);

// Inner middle wheel is closest to the turning point, has the lowest speed

speed3 = s * (r - d4) / (r + d4);

// speed value from 0 to 100% to PWM value from 0 to 255

speed1PWM = map(round(speed1), 0, 100, 0, 255);

speed2PWM = map(round(speed2), 0, 100, 0, 255);

speed3PWM = map(round(speed3), 0, 100, 0, 255);

void calculateServoAngle() {

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// Calculate the angle for each servo for the input turning radius "r"

thetaInnerFront = round((atan((d3 / (r + d1)))) * 180 / PI);

thetaInnerBack = round((atan((d2 / (r + d1)))) * 180 / PI);

thetaOuterFront = round((atan((d3 / (r - d1)))) * 180 / PI);

thetaOuterBack = round((atan((d2 / (r - d1)))) * 180 / PI);

}Code language: Arduino (arduino)

// Servo motors

servoW1.startEaseTo(97 - thetaOuterFront);

servoW3.startEaseTo(97 + thetaOuterBack);

servoW4.startEaseTo(94 - thetaInnerFront);

servoW6.startEaseTo(96 + thetaInnerBack);Code language: Arduino (arduino)

// Motor Wheel 1 - Left Front

analogWrite(motorW1_IN1, speed2PWM); // PWM value

digitalWrite(motorW1_IN2, LOW); // Forward

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6.3 transimmter code

#include <SPI.h>

#include <nRF24L01.h>

#include <RF24.h>

#include <Wire.h>

// Define the digital inputs

#define jB1 1 // Joystick button 1

#define jB2 0 // Joystick button 2

#define t1 7 // Toggle switch 1

#define t2 4 // Toggle switch 1

#define b1 8 // Button 1

#define b2 9 // Button 2

#define b3 2 // Button 3

#define b4 3 // Button 4

const int MPU = 0x68; // MPU6050 I2C address

float AccX, AccY, AccZ;

float GyroX, GyroY, GyroZ;

float accAngleX, accAngleY, gyroAngleX, gyroAngleY;

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float angleX, angleY;

float AccErrorX, AccErrorY, GyroErrorX, GyroErrorY;

float elapsedTime, currentTime, previousTime;

int c = 0;

RF24 radio(5, 6); // nRF24L01 (CE, CSN)

const byte address[6] = "00001"; // AddressCode language: Arduino (arduino)

/ Max size of this struct is 32 bytes - NRF24L01 buffer limit

struct Data_Package {

byte j1PotX;

byte j1PotY;

byte j1Button;

byte j2PotX;

byte j2PotY;

byte j2Button;

byte pot1;

byte pot2;

byte tSwitch1;

byte tSwitch2;

byte button1;

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byte button2;

byte button3;

byte button4;

};

Data_Package data; //Create a variable with the above structureCode language: Arduino
(arduino)
.

void initialize_MPU6050() {

Wire.begin(); // Initialize comunication

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU); // Start communication with MPU6050 // MPU=0x68

Wire.write(0x6B); // Talk to the register 6B

Wire.write(0x00); // Make reset - place a 0 into the 6B register

Wire.endTransmission(true); //end the transmission

// Configure Accelerometer

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU);

Wire.write(0x1C); //Talk to the ACCEL_CONFIG register

Wire.write(0x10); //Set the register bits as 00010000 (+/- 8g full scale range)

Wire.endTransmission(true);

// Configure Gyro

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU);

Wire.write(0x1B); // Talk to the GYRO_CONFIG register (1B hex)

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Wire.write(0x10); // Set the register bits as 00010000 (1000dps full scale)

Wire.endTransmission(true);

}Code language: Arduino (arduino)

// Define the radio communication

radio.begin();

radio.openWritingPipe(address);

radio.setAutoAck(false);

radio.setDataRate(RF24_250KBPS);

radio.setPALevel(RF24_PA_LOW);

// Activate the Arduino internal pull-up resistors

pinMode(jB1, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(jB2, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(t1, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(t2, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(b1, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(b2, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(b3, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(b4, INPUT_PULLUP);Code language: Arduino (arduino)

// Read all analog inputs and map them to one Byte value

data.j1PotX = map(analogRead(A1), 0, 1023, 0, 255); // Convert the analog read value from 0 to
1023 into a BYTE value from 0 to 255

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data.j1PotY = map(analogRead(A0), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

data.j2PotX = map(analogRead(A2), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

data.j2PotY = map(analogRead(A3), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

data.pot1 = map(analogRead(A7), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

data.pot2 = map(analogRead(A6), 0, 1023, 0, 255);Code language: Arduino (arduino)

// Read all digital inputs

data.j1Button = digitalRead(jB1);

data.j2Button = digitalRead(jB2);

data.tSwitch2 = digitalRead(t2);

data.button1 = digitalRead(b1);

data.button2 = digitalRead(b2);

data.button3 = digitalRead(b3);

data.button4 = digitalRead(b4);Code language: Arduino (arduino)

So using the radio.write() function we simple send the values from
all 14 channels to the receiver.

// Send the whole data from the structure to the receiver

radio.write(&data, sizeof(Data_Package));Code language: Arduino (arduino)

In case the toggle switch 1 is switched on, then we use the
accelerometer and gyro data instead for the control.

if (digitalRead(t1) == 0) {

read_IMU(); // Use MPU6050 instead of Joystick 1 for controling left, right, forward and
backward movements

}Code language: Arduino (arduino)

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So instead of the joystick 1 X and Y values we are using the angle

values we are getting from the IMU, which we previously convert
them from values from -90 to +90 degrees into byte values from 0
to 255 appropriately.

// Map the angle values from -90deg to +90 deg into values from 0 to 255, like the values we are
getting from the Joystick

data.j1PotX = map(angleX, -90, +90, 255, 0);

data.j1PotY = map(angleY, -90, +90, 0, 255);Code language: Arduino (arduino)

#include <SPI.h>

#include <nRF24L01.h>

#include <RF24.h>

#include <Wire.h>

// Define the digital inputs

#define jB1 1 // Joystick button 1

#define jB2 0 // Joystick button 2

#define t1 7 // Toggle switch 1

#define t2 4 // Toggle switch 1

#define b1 8 // Button 1

#define b2 9 // Button 2

#define b3 2 // Button 3

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#define b4 3 // Button 4

const int MPU = 0x68; // MPU6050 I2C address

float AccX, AccY, AccZ;

float GyroX, GyroY, GyroZ;

float accAngleX, accAngleY, gyroAngleX, gyroAngleY;

float angleX, angleY;

float AccErrorX, AccErrorY, GyroErrorX, GyroErrorY;

float elapsedTime, currentTime, previousTime;

int c = 0;

RF24 radio(5, 6); // nRF24L01 (CE, CSN)

const byte address[6] = "00001"; // Address

// Max size of this struct is 32 bytes - NRF24L01 buffer limit

struct Data_Package {

byte j1PotX;

byte j1PotY;

byte j1Button;

byte j2PotX;

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byte j2PotY;

byte j2Button;

byte pot1;

byte pot2;

byte tSwitch1;

byte tSwitch2;

byte button1;

byte button2;

byte button3;

byte button4;

};

Data_Package data; //Create a variable with the above structure

void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

// Initialize interface to the MPU6050

initialize_MPU6050();

// Call this function if you need to get the IMU error values for your module

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//calculate_IMU_error();

// Define the radio communication

radio.begin();

radio.openWritingPipe(address);

radio.setAutoAck(false);

radio.setDataRate(RF24_250KBPS);

radio.setPALevel(RF24_PA_LOW);

// Activate the Arduino internal pull-up resistors

pinMode(jB1, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(jB2, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(t1, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(t2, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(b1, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(b2, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(b3, INPUT_PULLUP);

pinMode(b4, INPUT_PULLUP);

// Set initial default values

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data.j1PotX = 127; // Values from 0 to 255. When Joystick is in resting position, the value is in
the middle, or 127. We actually map the pot value from 0 to 1023 to 0 to 255 because that's one
BYTE value

data.j1PotY = 127;

data.j2PotX = 127;

data.j2PotY = 127;

data.j1Button = 1;

data.j2Button = 1;

data.pot1 = 1;

data.pot2 = 1;

data.tSwitch1 = 1;

data.tSwitch2 = 1;

data.button1 = 1;

data.button2 = 1;

data.button3 = 1;

data.button4 = 1;

void loop() {

// Read all analog inputs and map them to one Byte value

data.j1PotX = map(analogRead(A1), 0, 1023, 0, 255); // Convert the analog read value from 0 to
1023 into a BYTE value from 0 to 255

data.j1PotY = map(analogRead(A0), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

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data.j2PotX = map(analogRead(A2), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

data.j2PotY = map(analogRead(A3), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

data.pot1 = map(analogRead(A7), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

data.pot2 = map(analogRead(A6), 0, 1023, 0, 255);

// Read all digital inputs

data.j1Button = digitalRead(jB1);

data.j2Button = digitalRead(jB2);

data.tSwitch2 = digitalRead(t2);

data.button1 = digitalRead(b1);

data.button2 = digitalRead(b2);

data.button3 = digitalRead(b3);

data.button4 = digitalRead(b4);

// If toggle switch 1 is switched on

if (digitalRead(t1) == 0) {

read_IMU(); // Use MPU6050 instead of Joystick 1 for controling left, right, forward and
backward movements

// Send the whole data from the structure to the receiver

radio.write(&data, sizeof(Data_Package));

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void initialize_MPU6050() {

Wire.begin(); // Initialize comunication

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU); // Start communication with MPU6050 // MPU=0x68

Wire.write(0x6B); // Talk to the register 6B

Wire.write(0x00); // Make reset - place a 0 into the 6B register

Wire.endTransmission(true); //end the transmission

// Configure Accelerometer

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU);

Wire.write(0x1C); //Talk to the ACCEL_CONFIG register

Wire.write(0x10); //Set the register bits as 00010000 (+/- 8g full scale range)

Wire.endTransmission(true);

// Configure Gyro

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU);

Wire.write(0x1B); // Talk to the GYRO_CONFIG register (1B hex)

Wire.write(0x10); // Set the register bits as 00010000 (1000dps full scale)

Wire.endTransmission(true);

void calculate_IMU_error() {

// We can call this funtion in the setup section to calculate the accelerometer and gury data
error. From here we will get the error values used in the above equations printed on the Serial
Monitor.

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// Note that we should place the IMU flat in order to get the proper values, so that we then can
the correct values

// Read accelerometer values 200 times

while (c < 200) {

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU);

Wire.write(0x3B);

Wire.endTransmission(false);

Wire.requestFrom(MPU, 6, true);

AccX = (Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read()) / 4096.0 ;

AccY = (Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read()) / 4096.0 ;

AccZ = (Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read()) / 4096.0 ;

// Sum all readings

AccErrorX = AccErrorX + ((atan((AccY) / sqrt(pow((AccX), 2) + pow((AccZ), 2))) * 180 /

PI));

AccErrorY = AccErrorY + ((atan(-1 * (AccX) / sqrt(pow((AccY), 2) + pow((AccZ), 2))) * 180

/ PI));

c++;

//Divide the sum by 200 to get the error value

AccErrorX = AccErrorX / 200;

AccErrorY = AccErrorY / 200;

c = 0;

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// Read gyro values 200 times

while (c < 200) {

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU);

Wire.write(0x43);

Wire.endTransmission(false);

Wire.requestFrom(MPU, 4, true);

GyroX = Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read();

GyroY = Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read();

// Sum all readings

GyroErrorX = GyroErrorX + (GyroX / 32.8);

GyroErrorY = GyroErrorY + (GyroY / 32.8);

c++;

//Divide the sum by 200 to get the error value

GyroErrorX = GyroErrorX / 200;

GyroErrorY = GyroErrorY / 200;

// Print the error values on the Serial Monitor

Serial.print("AccErrorX: ");

Serial.println(AccErrorX);

Serial.print("AccErrorY: ");

Serial.println(AccErrorY);

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Serial.print("GyroErrorX: ");

Serial.println(GyroErrorX);

Serial.print("GyroErrorY: ");

Serial.println(GyroErrorY);

void read_IMU() {

// === Read acceleromter data === //

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU);

Wire.write(0x3B); // Start with register 0x3B (ACCEL_XOUT_H)

Wire.endTransmission(false);

Wire.requestFrom(MPU, 6, true); // Read 6 registers total, each axis value is stored in 2

registers

//For a range of +-8g, we need to divide the raw values by 4096, according to the datasheet

AccX = (Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read()) / 4096.0; // X-axis value

AccY = (Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read()) / 4096.0; // Y-axis value

AccZ = (Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read()) / 4096.0; // Z-axis value

// Calculating angle values using

accAngleX = (atan(AccY / sqrt(pow(AccX, 2) + pow(AccZ, 2))) * 180 / PI) + 1.15; // AccErrorX

~(-1.15) See the calculate_IMU_error()custom function for more details

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accAngleY = (atan(-1 * AccX / sqrt(pow(AccY, 2) + pow(AccZ, 2))) * 180 / PI) - 0.52; //

AccErrorX ~(0.5)

// === Read gyro data === //

previousTime = currentTime; // Previous time is stored before the actual time read

currentTime = millis(); // Current time actual time read

elapsedTime = (currentTime - previousTime) / 1000; // Divide by 1000 to get seconds

Wire.beginTransmission(MPU);

Wire.write(0x43); // Gyro data first register address 0x43

Wire.endTransmission(false);

Wire.requestFrom(MPU, 4, true); // Read 4 registers total, each axis value is stored in 2

registers

GyroX = (Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read()) / 32.8; // For a 1000dps range we have to divide first
the raw value by 32.8, according to the datasheet

GyroY = (Wire.read() << 8 | Wire.read()) / 32.8;

GyroX = GyroX + 1.85; //// GyroErrorX ~(-1.85)

GyroY = GyroY - 0.15; // GyroErrorY ~(0.15)

// Currently the raw values are in degrees per seconds, deg/s, so we need to multiply by
sendonds (s) to get the angle in degrees

gyroAngleX = GyroX * elapsedTime;

gyroAngleY = GyroY * elapsedTime;

// Complementary filter - combine acceleromter and gyro angle values

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angleX = 0.98 * (angleX + gyroAngleX) + 0.02 * accAngleX;

angleY = 0.98 * (angleY + gyroAngleY) + 0.02 * accAngleY;

// Map the angle values from -90deg to +90 deg into values from 0 to 255, like the values we are
getting from the Joystick

data.j1PotX = map(angleX, -90, +90, 255, 0);

data.j1PotY = map(angleY, -90, +90, 0, 255);

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6.4 robot arm code

#include <SoftwareSerial.h>

#include <Servo.h>

Servo servo01;

Servo servo02;

Servo servo03;

Servo servo04;

Servo servo05;

Servo servo06;

SoftwareSerial Bluetooth(3, 4); // Arduino(RX, TX) - HC-05 Bluetooth (TX, RX)

int servo1Pos, servo2Pos, servo3Pos, servo4Pos, servo5Pos, servo6Pos; // current position

int servo1PPos, servo2PPos, servo3PPos, servo4PPos, servo5PPos, servo6PPos; // previous

position

int servo01SP[50], servo02SP[50], servo03SP[50], servo04SP[50], servo05SP[50],

servo06SP[50]; // for storing positions/steps

int speedDelay = 20;

int index = 0;

String dataIn = "";Code language: Arduino (arduino)

void setup() {

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servo01.attach(5);

servo02.attach(6);

servo03.attach(7);

servo04.attach(8);

servo05.attach(9);

servo06.attach(10);

Bluetooth.begin(38400); // Default baud rate of the Bluetooth module

Bluetooth.setTimeout(1);

delay(20);

// Robot arm initial position

servo1PPos = 90;

servo01.write(servo1PPos);

servo2PPos = 150;

servo02.write(servo2PPos);

servo3PPos = 35;

servo03.write(servo3PPos);

servo4PPos = 140;

servo04.write(servo4PPos);

servo5PPos = 85;

servo05.write(servo5PPos);

servo6PPos = 80;

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servo06.write(servo6PPos);

}Code language: Arduino (arduino)

// Check for incoming data

if (Bluetooth.available() > 0) {

dataIn = Bluetooth.readString(); // Read the data as string

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CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

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After finishing the rover . One of the main challenge of this research was having
appropriate instruments available to test and integrate. As a member of developing
country this type of research is expensive as well as difficult for us to conduct.
Comparing to first world countries mars rovers costing, our total cost is half of them.
Comparing to the performances our results support existing mars rover performance
result. It is indeed a great contribution for planet exploration research. In future we have
a plan to make this system more advanced using efficient steering system, image
processing to map objects, making the system full autonomous with emotion
Intelligence system. We believe we will develop it more and will continue this research
for achieving greater goals. Life on mars was always an enigma to solve and now a day’s
mars rover research is contributing, supporting to explore life on mars. We believe
someday mongol pothik can be the next mars rover to land on planet mars. Further
studies on mars rover will help researchers at great exten

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[5] P.A. Jansma and R. Jones, “Advancing the Practice of Systems Engineering at JPL,” IEEE
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