EE3014 POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

UNIT I- INTRODUCTION
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY SOURCES

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES/ RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

A plenty of energy is needed to sustain

industrial growth and agricultural production. The existing sources of energy such as
coal, oil, uranium etc. may not be adequate to meet the ever increasing energy
demands. These conventional sources of energy are also depleting and may be
exhausted at the end of the century or beginning of the next century. Consequently
sincere and untiring efforts shall have to be made by the scientists and engineers in
exploring the possibilities of harnessing energy from several non- conventional energy
sources.

The various non-conventional energy sources are as follows:

1. Solar energy
2. Wind energy from biomass and biogas
3. Ocean thermal energy conversion
4. Tidal energy
5. Geothermal energy
6. Hydrogen energy
7. Fuel cells
8. Magneto-hydro-dynamic generator
9. Thermionic converter
10. Thermo-electric power.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014 POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

IMPORTANCE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

MAN AND ENERGY:

 ENERGY is the ability to do work.

 ENERGY is the primary and most universal

measure of all kind of work by human-beings
and nature.
 Energy: It is the capability to produce motion, force, work, change in
shape, change inform etc.

Energy exists in several forms such as:

 Chemical energy
 Nuclear energy
 Mechanical energy
 Electrical energy
 Internal energy
 Bio-energy in vegetables and animal bodies
 Thermal energy etc.

ADVANTAGES OF CONVECTIONAL/NON RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOURCES
 Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for
his sustenance and well- being ever since he came on the
earth a few million years ago.
 Primitive man required energy primarily in the form of food.
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014 POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

He derived this by eating plants or animals which he hunted.

Subsequently he discovered fire and his energy needs
increased as he started to make use of wood and other
biomass to supply the energy needs for cooking as well as for
keeping himself warm.
 With the passage of time man started to cultivate land for
agriculture. He added a new dimension to the use of energy
by domesticating and training animals to work for him. With
further demand for energy, man began to harness the wind for
sailing ships and for driving windmills, and the force of
falling water to turn waterwheels.

 Till this time, it would not be wrong to say that the sun was
supplying all the energy needs of man either directly or
indirectly and that man was using only renewable sources of
energy. Advantages of convectional/non renewable energy
sources
 The advantage of non-renewable energy is it's easy and cheap
to use.
 There is no better way to store transfer and use energy than
gasoline for powering motor vehicles.
 It's quick to pump fossil fuel into a car. It's stable in the tank
and a gas tank hold quite a bit, and a gasoline powered car is
cheap to manufacture.
 Coal is a ready-made fuel. It is relatively cheap to mine and to
convert into energy. Coal supplies will last longer than oil or
gas Oil is a ready-made fuel. Relatively cheap to mine and to
convert into energy. It is a relatively cheap form of energy.
 Natural Gas is a ready-made fuel. It's as lightly cleaner fuel
than coal or oil, emitting less carbon dioxide.
 Nuclear has a small amount of radioactive material
produces a lot of energy. And raw material are relatively
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014 POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

cheap and can last quite a longtime. It doesn't give off

atmospheric pollutants.

DISADVANTAGES OF CONVECTIONAL/NON RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOURCES
.
 They leave behind harmful by-products upon combustion,
thereby causing a lot of
 Pollution; mining of such fuels leads to irreversible damage to
the adjoining environment.
 Fossil fuels pollute the environment. They will eventually
run out. Prices for fossil fuels are rising, especially if the real
cost of their carbon is included. Burning fossil fuels produces
carbon dioxide, a major cause of global warming.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

UNIT I- INTRODUCTION
1. 2 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY
CONVERSION

Coal as thermal fuel

Coal is the raw fuel that provides 42% of the world‘s electricity. This
distinguishes coal as the world‘s primary energy source for electricity generation. The
name coal refers to a family of solid, organic fuels with different properties. Coal is
mainly composed of elemental carbon and is formed by the conversion of deposited
organic material. The lowest grade of coal formed is peat. Under the influence of high
pressures and temperatures, the peat is transform into the coal. Using coal to generate
power or heat is an old technique. The heat energy of these fuels is converted into
mechanical energy by suitable prime movers such as steam engines, steam turbines,
internal combustion engines etc.

Coal mining

There are two types of coal mining, strip mining and underground long wall
mining. The environmental impacts from surface versus underground mining are not
significantly different. The main difference between these two mining techniques is that
the surface mining subsystem results in a higher amount of airborne ammonia emissions
due to the production of ammonium nitrate explosives which are used at the mine.
Another important difference is that underground mining requires limestone which
emits a large amount of particulates during its production. The problematic pollutants
in emission of coal based generating plants are Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen oxides
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and certain hydrocarbons.

Oxides of sulphur (SO2)

Most of the sulphur present in the fossil is oxidized to SO2 in the combustion
chamber before being emitted by the chimney. In atmosphere it gets further
oxidized to H2SO4 and metallic sulphates which are the major source of concern
as these can cause acid rain,
impaired visibility, damage to buildings and vegetation. Sulphate concentrations
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

of 9-20 µg/m3 of air aggravate asthma, lung and heart disease.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Acidification

Acidification is one of the main problems arising from existing coal power. It
takes place during many steps in the life cycle of electricity produced by coal
combustion. Pumped mine water contains mud, dissolved sulphate and metal ions. It
is also acidic and, therefore, needs to be neutralizing before being discharged. Drainage
water from refuse piles with excavated and residual minerals can be very acidic,
particularly if the rocks contain pyrite (ferric sulphide) that undergoes oxidation
processes when exposed to the atmosphere. These oxidation processes take place in
natural environments, but are greatly accelerated by mining activities, especially when
no alkaline rocks are present to neutralize the acid formed.

Impact on biodiversity

The main environmental effect of electricity produced by coal combustion is

probably related to the ubiquitous emission of greenhouse gases. The release to the
atmosphere of such gases is larger from coal use than for any other fuel used for
generating electricity. It is a general contention that any additional increase of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will exacerbate global warming. This can lead to
rapid changes in local weather conditions and can thus have many and profound
influences on biodiversity. Organisms that cannot adapt or migrate successfully under
changing climate conditions will be adversely affected.

ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Developing renewable energy technologies that exploit the sun, the wind, and
geothermal energy is critical to addressing concerns about climate change and some
environmental issues. However, using renewable energy sources will not eliminate all
environmental concerns. Although renewable energy sources produce relatively low
levels of Green House Gas emissions and conventional air pollution, manufacturing and
transporting them will produce some emissions and pollutants. The production of some
photovoltaic (PV) cells, for instance, generates toxic substances that may contaminate
water resources. Renewable energy installations can also disrupt land use and wildlife
habitat, and some technologies consume significant quantities of water.
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

To develop sound policies, policy makers must understand the relative

environmental impacts of alternative energy sources, including how the impacts of
renewable energy technologies compare to those of fossil-fuel technologies and to
opportunities for improvements

in energy efficiency. Understanding the potential environmental impacts of renewable

energy technologies is also essential for identifying and pursuing designs,
manufacturing methods, project siting, utility operations, and so on to mitigate or offset
these effects.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Life cycle uses of energy

For renewable energy sources, net energy ratio (NER) is expected to be greater
than one, indicating a positive return over the fossil-fuel energy investment. For fossil-
fuel and nuclear technologies, NERs are smaller than one and essentially represent the
overall life cycle efficiency of the project. NERs are strongly influenced by a number
of underlying assumptions, such as plant capacity and life expectancy. For electricity
generation from wind and solar energy, the strength of the resource (which will affect
the capacity factor of the installed technology) is also a critical assumption. For silicon
PV specifically, the NER is highly dependent upon the thickness of the wafer and the
efficiency of the cell/module produced. NERs would be significantly higher for waste
biomass.

Local and regional air pollution

Most renewable energy technologies have much lower life cycle emissions of
conventional air pollutants than conventional coal and natural gas plants. One exception
is electricity generation from biomass, which can produce significant NOx, particulate
matter, and hazardous air pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
Although biomass has lower nitrogen content than fossil fuels, a substantial quantity of
NOx is formed whenever high-temperature combustion occurs in air, through oxidation
of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) at high temperatures. Although direct emissions of NOx
and SOx are expected to be low for geothermal power plants, flash and dry-steam
geothermal facilities can produce significant quantities of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from
geothermal reservoirs, unless steps are taken to decrease it.

Land and water use

The amount of land used is a rough substitute for other impacts of new
development, including impacts on ecosystems, cultural and historical resources,
scenery, and agricultural land. When the impacts on land use are measured simply by
the surface area they occupy during their life cycle, some renewable energy technologies
appear to have heavy land-use requirements. However, this approach does not take into

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

account the intensity of land use or whether the technology allows for simultaneous use
of land for other purposes. Whereas coal- fired power plants fully occupy the sites where
they are constructed, small-scale PV installations

may be placed on rooftops where they cause little or no interference with the primary
use of the land for commercial or residential buildings. Thus, smaller scale or
distributed solar technologies may have less of an impact on land use and habitat loss
than large-scale, central station plants. Land-use concerns may also be addressed by
deploying renewable energy systems on previously developed sites, rather than in
undeveloped areas.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Water is a scarce resource in large portions. Recent global circulation model

projections suggest that, if climate change proceeds as expected, under current business-
as-usual scenarios, freshwater supplies will become even scarcer in some parts of the
world. Electricity production using thermoelectric technologies requires vast amounts
of water, primarily for cooling. In is about 43 percent of existing thermoelectric
generating capacity uses once-through cooling, 42 percent uses re-circulating wet
towers, 14 percent uses re-circulating cooling ponds, and 1 percent uses dry cooling.
Water use by power plants is characterized by withdrawals and consumption. Although
consumption is sometimes emphasized over withdrawals, the latter is important,
because power plant operation may be constrained by the amount of water available for
withdrawal and power plant uses may compete with other demands for water.
Furthermore, water returns can be significant sources of thermal pollution and may
include discharges of chemical pollutants, such as chlorine or other biocides used in
cooling towers.

ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF DIFFERENT RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOURCES

All energy sources have some impact on our environment. Fossil fuels—coal,
oil, and natural gas—do substantially more harm than renewable energy sources by
most measures, including air and water pollution, damage to public health, wildlife and
habitat loss, water use, land use, and global warming emissions. However, renewable
sources such as wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, and hydropower also have
environmental impacts, some of which are significant. The exact type and intensity of
environmental impacts varies depending on the specific technology used, the
geographic location, and a number of other factors. By understanding the current and
potential environmental issues associated with each renewable energy source, we can
takes steps to effectively avoid or minimize these impacts as they become a larger
portion of our electric supply.

Environmental impacts of wind energy

Land use
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

The land use impact of wind power facilities varies substantially depending on
the site: wind turbines placed in flat areas typically use more land than those located in
hilly areas. However, wind turbines do not occupy all of this land; they must be spaced
approximately 5 to 10 rotor diameters apart (a rotor diameter is the diameter of the wind
turbine blades). Thus, the turbines themselves and the surrounding infrastructure
(including roads and transmission lines) occupy a small portion of the total area of a
wind facility. Offshore wind facilities, require larger amounts of space because the
turbines and blades are bigger than their land-based counterparts.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Wildlife and habitat

The impact of wind turbines on wildlife, most notably on birds and bats, has
been widely document and studied. A recent survey founded evidence of bird and bat
deaths from collisions with wind turbines and due to changes in air pressure caused by
the spinning turbines, as well as from habitat disruption. Offshore wind turbines can
have similar impacts on marine birds, but as with onshore wind turbines, the bird deaths
associated with offshore wind are minimal. Wind farms located offshore will also
impact fish and other marine wildlife.

Public health and community

Sound and visual impact are the two main public health and community concerns
associated with operating wind turbines. Most of the sound generated by wind turbines
is aerodynamic, caused by the movement of turbine blades through the air. There is
also mechanical sound generated by the turbine itself. Overall sound levels depend on
turbine design and wind speed. Some people living close to wind facilities have
complained about sound and vibration issues. Under certain lighting conditions, wind
turbines can create an effect known as shadow flicker. This annoyance can be
minimized with careful siting, planting trees or installing window sunshades, or
curtailing wind turbine operations when certain lighting conditions exist.

Water use

There is no water impact associated with the operation of wind turbines. As in

all manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture steel and cement for
wind turbines.

Life-cycle global warming emissions

While there are no global warming emissions associated with operating wind
turbines, there are emissions associated with other stages of a wind turbine‘s life-cycle,
including materials production, materials transportation, on-site construction and
assembly, operation and

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

maintenance, and decommissioning and dismantlement. Estimates of total global

warming
emissions depend on a number of factors, including wind speed, percent of time the
wind is blowing, and the material composition of the wind turbine.

Environmental impacts of solar energy systems

Land use

Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar facilities can raise concerns
about land degradation and habitat loss. Total land area requirements vary depending
on the technology, the topography of the site, and the intensity of the solar resource.
Estimates for utility-scale PV systems range from 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt, while
estimates for

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

concentrated solar power (CSP) facilities are between 4 and 16.5 acres per megawatt.
Smaller scale solar PV arrays, which can be built on homes or commercial buildings,
also have minimal land use impact.

Water use

Solar PV cells do not use water for generating electricity. However, as in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture solar PV components.
Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP), like all thermal electric plants, require water
for cooling. Water use depends on the plant design, plant location, and the type of
cooling system. CSP plants that use wet-recirculation technology with cooling towers
withdraw between 600 and 650 gallons of water per megawatt-hour of electricity
produced. CSP plants with once-through cooling technology have higher levels of water
withdrawal, but lower total water consumption (because water is not lost as steam). Dry-
cooling technology can reduce water use at CSP plants by approximately 90 percent.
However, the exchanges to these water savings are higher costs and lower efficiencies.

Hazardous materials

The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number of hazardous materials,

most of which are used to clean and purify the semiconductor surface. These chemicals,
similar to those used in the general semiconductor industry, include hydrochloric acid,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, tri-chloroethane and acetone. The amount
and type of chemicals used depends on the type of cell, the amount of cleaning that is
needed, and the size of silicon wafer. Workers also face risks associated with inhaling
silicon dust. Thus, PV manufactures must follow the rules to ensure that workers are
not harmed by exposure to these chemicals and that manufacturing waste products are
disposed of properly.

Life-cycle global warming emissions

While there are no global warming emissions associated with generating

electricity from solar energy, there are emissions associated with other stages of the
solar life-cycle, including manufacturing, materials transportation, installation,
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

maintenance, and decommissioning and dismantlement. Most estimates of life-cycle

emissions for photovoltaic systems are between
0.07 and 0.18 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

Environmental impacts of geothermal energy systems

Water quality and use

Geothermal power plants can have impacts on both water quality and
consumption. Hot water pumped from underground reservoirs often contains high
levels of sulfur, salt, and other

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

minerals. Most geothermal facilities have closed-loop water systems, in which

extracted water is pumped directly, back into the geothermal reservoir after it has
been used for heat or electricityproduction. In such systems, the water is contained
within steel well casings cemented to the surrounding rock. Water is also used by
geothermal plants for cooling and re-injection. Depending on the cooling technology
used, geothermal plants can require between 1,700 and 4,000 gallons of water per
megawatt-hour. However, most geothermal plants can use either geothermal fluid
or freshwater for cooling; the use of geothermal fluids rather than freshwater clearly
reduces the plants overall water impact.

Air emissions

The distinction between open- and closed-loop systems is important with respect
to air emissions. In closed-loop systems, gases removed from the well are not exposed
to the atmosphere and are injected back into the ground after giving up their heat, so air
emissions are minimal. In contrast, open-loop systems emit hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide, ammonia, methane, and boron. Hydrogen sulfide, which has a distinctive
―rotten egg‖ smell, is the most common emission. Once in the atmosphere, hydrogen
sulfide changes into sulfur dioxide (SO2). This contributes to the formation of small
acidic particulates that can be absorbed by the bloodstream and cause heart and lung
disease. Sulfur dioxide also causes acid rain, which damages crops, forests, and soils,
and acidifies lakes and streams. However, SO2 emissions from geothermal plants are
approximately 30 times lower per megawatt-hour than from coal plants.

Some geothermal plants also produce small amounts of mercury emissions,

which must be mitigated using mercury filter technology. Scrubbers can reduce air
emissions, but they produce a watery sludge composed of the captured materials,
including sulfur, vanadium, silica

compounds, chlorides, arsenic, mercury, nickel, and other heavy metals. This toxic
sludge often must be disposed of at hazardous waste sites.

Land use

The amount of land required by a geothermal plant varies depending on the

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

properties of the resource reservoir, the amount of power capacity, the type of energy
conversion system, the type of cooling system, the arrangement of wells and piping
systems, and the substation and auxiliary building needs. The Geysers, the largest
geothermal plant in the world, has a capacity of approximately 1,517 megawatts and
the area of the plant is approximately 78 square kilometers, which translates to
approximately 13 acres per megawatt. Like the Geysers, many geothermal sites are
located in remote and sensitive ecological areas, so project developers must take this
into account in their planning processes.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Life-cycle global warming emissions

In open-loop geothermal systems, approximately 10 percent of the air emissions

are carbon dioxide and a smaller amount of emissions are methane, a more potent global
warming gas. Estimates of global warming emissions for open-loop systems are
approximately 0.1 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. In closed-
loop systems, these gases are not released into the atmosphere, but there are a still some
emissions associated with plant construction and surrounding infrastructure. Enhanced
geothermal systems, which require energy to drill and pump water into hot rock
reservoirs, have life-cycle global warming emission of approximately 0.2 pounds of
carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. To put this into context, estimates of life-
cycle global warming emissions for natural gas generated electricity are between 0.6
and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour and estimates for coal-
generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-
hour.

Environmental impacts of hydroelectric energy systems

Land use

The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely,
depending largely on the size of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the
land. Hydroelectric plants in flat areas tend to require much more land than those in
hilly areas or canyons where deeper reservoirs can hold more volume of water in a
smaller space. Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental
impact: it destroys forest, wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands.

Wildlife impacts

Dammed reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, such as agricultural

irrigation, flood control, and recreation, so not all wildlife impacts associated with dams
can be directly attributed to hydroelectric power. However, hydroelectric facilities can
still have a major impact on aquatic ecosystems. For example, though there are a variety
of methods to minimize the impact including fish ladders and in-take screens), fish and

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

other organisms can be injured and killed by turbine blades. Apart from direct contact,
there can also be wildlife impacts both within the dammed reservoirs and downstream
from the facility. Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than normal river water. As
a result, the reservoir will have higher than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients,
which can cultivate an excess of algae and other aquatic weeds. These weeds can crowd
out other river animal and plant-life, and they must be controlled through manual
harvesting or by introducing fish that eat these plants. In addition, water is lost through
evaporation in dammed reservoirs at a much higher rate than in flowing rivers.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Life-cycle global warming emissions

Global warming emissions are produced during the installation and dismantling
of hydroelectric power plants, but recent research suggests that emissions during a
facility‘s operation can also be significant. Such emissions vary greatly depending on
the size of the reservoir and the nature of the land that was flooded by the reservoir.
Small run-of-the-river plants emit between 0.01 and 0.03 pounds of carbon dioxide
equivalent per kilowatt-hour. Life- cycle emissions from large-scale hydroelectric
plants built in semi-arid regions are also modest: approximately 0.06 pounds of carbon
dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. However, estimates for life-cycle global warming
emissions from hydroelectric plants built in tropical areas are much higher. After the
area is flooded, the vegetation and soil in these areas decomposes and releases both
carbon dioxide and methane. The exact amount of emissions depends greatly on site-
specific characteristics. However, current estimates suggest that life-cycle emissions
can be over 0.5 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

Environmental IMPACTS of Biomass energy systems

Deforestation and land degradation

Biomass comprising traditional fuels constitutes about 50% of energy

consumption in developing countries. Deforestation leading to soil erosion, risks of
floods, desertification on account of clearing of forests and woodlands for agriculture
and livestock, and so on, are the common concerns of environmentalists at macro levels.
At a micro level, the concerns range from non-suitability of forest soils for
agricultural purposes, health problems due to smoke
caused by burning of fuel-wood, loss in soil fertility due to use of agricultural residues
and so on. Even a shift towards non-wood biomass fuels creates direct competition with
animals that rely upon crop remains and the plants for food. Imbalance between the
demand and production of fuel-wood is reported to be one of the primary factors
responsible for forest depletion. The increasing use of fuel-wood for meeting the
domestic and industrial needs of both rural and urban areas has contributed to forest
decline. The environmental impacts of urban fuel-wood consumption have been severe
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

due to commercial exploitation of fuel-wood for charcoal production. The demand for
charcoal in urban areas has spread deforestation, which begins at the surrounding areas
of urban centres and moving outwards.

Loss of soil nutrients

Agricultural residues constitute an important source of energy in rural areas of

developing countries when left on fields improves the fertility of the soil. The use of
agricultural residues for energy would thus be an issue if it reduces the fertility of the
soil. It is important to note that all residues do not have the same effect on the soil.
Some residues such as corncobs, rice husk, jute sticks, cotton stock, coffee pruning,
and coconut shells do not decompose easily

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

and have potential as energy sources. The choice of agricultural residues thus has an
impact on the environment. Cattle dung, similarly, though it is a fertilizer, loses its value
as fertilizer if burnt or left under the sun for a few days. The two categories of residues
from agriculture sector are crop residue and cattle dung. Currently crop residue of
cereals is largely used as food and woody residues are used as fuel. Burning of woody
crop residue may not lead to any significant loss of nutrients to soil. Burning of cattle
dung as fuel leads to loss of organic matter and other nutrients affecting crop production.

Environmental impacts of tidal energy systems

Understanding environmental impacts

In spite of the many benefits of exploiting tidal power, there are negative
impacts, as well. For example, the risk to the marine environment and marine
mammals is largely unknown. In order to operate tidal power stations appropriately
and analyze the potential contribution tidalpower can make in terms of renewable
energy, we must better understand the environmental impacts of this technology.
One important mention is the difference between environmental effects and
environmental impacts. On one hand, environmental effects refer to the wide range
of potential interactions between tidal energy equipment and the marine ecosystems.
On the other hand, environmental impacts are those particular effects that we know
for sure will cause deleterious ecological alterations.

Environmental impacts of Tidal energy

In many ways, the environmental impacts of harnessing tidal power are similar
to those of offshore wind power generation. Several assessments over the past few years
have identified the following potential environmental impacts. These indirect ecological
impacts would result from lengthy installation of offshore renewable energy projects.

 Changing of substrates, sediment transit and deposition;

 Alteration of waves and sea currents;
 Noise pollution during installation and operation;
 Alteration of ecosystems for regional organisms;

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

 Emission of harmful electromagnetic fields;

 Intrusion upon animal migrations; and
 Potential strikes by any moving parts of the tidal system.

Environmental impacts of Hydrogen-based energy systems

There is increasing interest in the role that hydrogen-based energy systems may
play in the future, especially in the transport sector. They appear to be an attractive
alternative to current fossil fuel-based energy systems in the future, since these have
been proven to affect climate due

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

to greenhouse gasses emissions. However, any future hydrogen-based economy would

need to assess the possible global environmental impacts of such alternative energy
production. Emissions of hydrogen lead to increased burdens of methane and ozone and
hence to an increase in global warming. Therefore, hydrogen can be considered as an
indirect greenhouse gas with the potential to increase global warming. The scientists
have estimated that the potential effects on climate from hydrogen-based energy
systems would be much lower than those from fossil fuel-based energy systems.
However, such impacts will depend on the rate of hydrogen leakage during its synthesis,
storage and use. The researchers have calculated that a global hydrogen economy with
a leakage rate of 1% of the produced hydrogen would produce a climate impact of
0.6% of the fossil fuel system it replaces. If the leakage rate was 10%, then the climate
impact would be 6% of that of the fossil fuel system.

Environmental Impacts of Hydrokinetic Energy systems

Hydrokinetic energy, which includes wave and tidal power, encompasses an

array of energy technologies, many of which are still in the experimental stages or in
the early stages of deployment. While actual impacts of large-scale operations have not
been observed, a range of potential impacts can be projected. For example, wave
energy installations can require large
expanses of ocean space, which could compete with other uses—such as fishing and
shipping— and cause damage to marine life and habitats. Some tidal energy
technologies are located at the mouths of ecologically-sensitive estuary systems, which
could cause changes in hydrology and salinity that negatively impact animal and plant
life.

Greenhouse gas emissions (GHG)

Compared to fossil-fuel-based electricity generation, renewable energy

technologies offer a major advantage in lower emissions of CO2 and other GHGs. In
addition, all forms of renewable electricity production are expected to have significantly
lower life cycle GHG emissions than electricity production from conventional coal and
natural gas plants. Renewable energy would have less of an advantage if carbon capture
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

and sequestration were included with fossil-fuel power plants, or if energy storage
systems, such as battery energy storage, compressed air energy storage, or pumped
hydro storage, were included as part of renewable energy systems. GHG emissions for
some renewable technologies are difficult to estimate. For example, emissions from bio-
power vary, depending on which feedstock is used and the assumptions about their
production. Most CO2 emission (CO2e) values for bio-power range from 15 to 52 g
CO2e/kWh for biomass derived from cultivated feed-stocks, excluding emissions
associated with initial land conversion. If carbon capture and storage were added to bio-
power systems, there would also be large reductions in CO2e values.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

UNIT1-INTRODUCTION
1.3-QUALITATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT RENEWABLE ENERGYRESOURCES

Solar energy

Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies use mirrors to concentrate

(focus) the sun's light energy and convert it into heat to create steam to drive a turbine
that generates electrical power. CSP technology utilizes focused sunlight. CSP plants
generate electric power by using mirrors to concentrate (focus) the sun's energy and
convert it into high-temperature heat. That heat is then channeled through a
conventional generator. The plants consist of two parts: one that collects solar
energy and converts it to heat, and another that converts the heat energy to
electricity.

Solar photovoltaic technology basics

Solar cells, also called photovoltaic (PV) cells by scientists, convert sunlight
directly into electricity. PV gets its name from the process of converting light (photons)
to electricity (voltage), which is called the PV effect. Traditional solar cells are made
from silicon, are usually flat-plate, and generally are the most efficient. Second-
generation solar cells are called thin-film solar cells because they are made from
amorphous silicon or non-silicon materials such as cadmium telluride. Thin film solar
cells use layers of semiconductor materials only a few micrometers thick. Because of
their flexibility, thin film solar cells can double as rooftop shingles and tiles, building
facades, or the glazing for skylights. Third-generation solar cells are being made from
a variety of new materials besides silicon, including solar inks using conventional
printing press technologies, solar dyes, and conductive plastics. Some new solar cells
use plastic lenses or mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto a very small piece of high
efficiency PV material. The PV material is more expensive, but because so little is
needed, these systems are becoming cost effective for use by utilities and industry.
ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Solar PV array module

Construction and Working of PV / Solar Cell

The basic element of a PV System is the photovoltaic (PV) cell, also called a
Solar Cell. An example of a PV / Solar Cell made of Mono-crystalline Silicon. This
single PV / Solar Cell are like a square but with its four corners missing (it is made this
way). A PV / Solar Cell is a semiconductor device that can convert solar energy into
DC electricity through the Photovoltaic effect (Conversion of solar light energy into
electrical energy). When light shines on a PV / Solar Cell, it may be reflected, absorbed,
or passes right through. But only the absorbed light generates electricity.

PV module / panel and PV array

To increase their utility, a number of individual PV cells are interconnected

together in a sealed, weatherproof package called a Panel (Module). For example, a 12
V Panel (Module) will have 36 cells connected in series and a 24 V Panel (Module) will
have 72 PV Cells connected in series To achieve the desired voltage and current,
Modules are wired in series and parallel into what is called a PV Array. The flexibility
of the modular PV system allows designers to create solar power systems that can meet
a wide variety of electrical needs.

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

PV Cell, Module and Array

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

The cells are very thin and fragile so they are sandwiched between a transparent
front sheet, usually glass, and a baking sheet, usually glass or a type of tough plastic.
This protects them from breakage and from the weather. An aluminum frame is fitted
around the module to enable easy fixing to a support structure.

Construction of a typical Mono-crystalline PV /

Solar Panel

Bypass diodes

As mentioned, PV / Solar cells are wired in series and in parallel to form a PV /

Solar Panel (Module). The number of series cells indicates the voltage of the Panel
(Module), whereas the number of parallel cells indicates the current. If many cells are
connected in series, shading of individual cells can lead to the destruction of the shaded
cell or of the lamination material, so the Panel (Module) may blister and burst. To avoid
such an operational condition, Bypass Diodes are connected anti-parallel to the solar
cells as in Figure. As a result, larger voltage differences cannot arise in the reverse-
current direction of the solar cells. In practice, it is sufficient to connect one bypass
diode for every 15-20 cells. Bypass diodes also allow current to flow through the PV
module when it is partially shaded, even if at a reduced voltage and power. Bypass
diodes do not cause any losses, because under normal operation, current does not flow
ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

through them.

Parallel PV cell with bypass

diodes

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Photovoltaic Power Systems

Photovoltaic (PV) technology converts one form of energy (sunlight) into

another formof energy (electricity) using no moving parts, consuming no
conventional fossil fuels, creating no pollution, and lasting for decades with very
little maintenance. The use of a widely available and reasonably reliable fuel
source—the sun—with no associated storage or transportation difficulties and no
emissions makes this technology eminently practicable for powering remote scientific
research platforms. The completely profitable nature of the technology also lends
itself well to varying power requirements–from the smallest autonomous research
platforms to infrastructure-based systems. Based on semiconductor technology,
solar cells operate on the principle that electricity will flow between two
semiconductors when they are put into contact with each other and exposed to light
(photons). This phenomenon is known as the photovoltaic effect.

Wind energy

Wind energy is energy from moving air, caused by temperature (and therefore
pressure) differences in the atmosphere. Irradiance from the sun heats up the air, forcing
the air to rise. Conversely, where temperatures fall, a low pressure zone develops.
Winds (i.e. air flows) balance out the differences. Hence, wind energy is solar energy
converted into kinetic energy of moving air.

Characteristics

As the wind power is proportional to the cubic wind speed, it is crucial to have
detailed knowledge of the site-specific wind characteristics. Even small errors in
estimation of wind speed can have large effects on the energy yield, but also lead to
poor choices for turbine and site. An average wind speed is not sufficient. Site-specific
wind characteristics related to wind turbines include:
Mean wind speed: Only interesting as a headline figure, but does not tell how
often high wind speeds occur.
ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Wind speed distribution : diurnal, seasonal, annual patterns

Turbulence: short-term fluctuations
Long-Term Fluctuations
Distribution Of Wind Direction
Wind Shear (Profile)

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Wind turbine types

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

Horizontal axis wind turbines, also shortened to HAWT, are the common style
that most of us think of when we think of a wind turbine. A HAWT has a similar
design to a windmill; it has blades that look like a propeller that spin on the
horizontal axis. Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the top of a tower, and they must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines
are pointed by a simple wind vane placed square with the rotor (blades), while large
turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor to turn the turbine
into the wind. Most large wind turbines have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation
of the rotor into a faster rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed
upwind of the tower. Wind turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from
being pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a
considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount.

Advantages

The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

High efficiency since the blades always moves perpendicularly to the

wind, receiving power through the whole rotation.
In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most proposed airborne
wind turbine designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions,
requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the
cycle.
Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Disadvantages

Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades,

gearbox, and generator.
Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft
and brake assembly) being lifted into position.
Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas,
disrupting the appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating local
opposition.
HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the
blades toward the wind.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)

Vertical axis wind turbines, as shortened to VAWTs, have the main rotor shaft
arranged vertically. The main advantage of this arrangement is that the wind turbine
does not need to be pointed into the wind. This is an advantage on sites where the wind
direction is highly variable or has turbulent winds. With a vertical axis, the generator
and other primary components can be placed near the ground, so the tower does not
need to support it, also makes maintenance easier. The main drawback of a VAWT
generally creates drag when rotating into the wind.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often

installed nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop.
The wind speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given
size turbine. Air flow near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which
can introduce issues of vibration, including noise and bearing wear which may increase
the maintenance or shorten its service life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a
rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof and these can double the
wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is
approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind
energy and minimum wind turbulence.

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Advantages

No yaw mechanisms are needed.

A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to
maintain the moving parts.
VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.
VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.

VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations

where rooftops, mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind
and increase wind velocity.

Disadvantages

Most VAWTs have an average decreased efficiency from a common

HAWT, mainly because of the additional drag that they have as their
blades rotate into the wind.
Versions that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that
funnel wind into the collector area.
Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower
and do not take advantage of higher wind speeds above.

Component of a wind turbine

Rotor

The part of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the rotor.
The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which
rotate about an axis (horizontal or vertical) at a rate determined by the wind speed and
the shape of the blades. The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is attached to
the main shaft.

Drag Design

Blade designs operate on either the principle of drag or lift. For the drag design,
ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

the wind literally pushes the blades out of the way. Drag powered wind turbines are
characterized by slower rotational speeds and high torque capabilities. They are useful
for the pumping, sawing or grinding work. For example, a farm-type windmill must
develop high torque at start- up in order to pump, or lift, water from a deep well.

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Lift Design

The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables airplanes, kites
and birds to fly. The blade is essentially an airfoil, or wing. When air flows past the
blade, a wind speed and pressure differential is created between the upper and lower
blade surfaces. The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to "lift" the
blade. When blades are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift is
translated into rotational motion. Lift-powered wind turbines have much higher
rotational speeds than drag types and therefore well suited for electricity generation.
Tip Speed Ratio

The tip-speed is the ratio of the rotational speed of the blade to the wind speed.
The larger this ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind turbine rotor at a given wind
speed. Electricity generation requires high rotational speeds. Lift-type wind turbines
have maximum tip-speed ratios of around 10, while drag-type ratios are approximately
1. Given the high rotational speed requirements of electrical generators, it is clear that
the lift-type wind turbine is most practical for this application.

Generator

The generator is what converts the turning motion of a wind turbine's blades into
electricity. Inside this component, coils of wire are rotated in a magnetic field to produce
electricity. Different generator designs produce either alternating current (AC) or direct
current (DC), and they are available in a large range of output power ratings. The
generator's rating, or size, is dependent on the length of the wind turbine's blades
because more energy is captured by longer blades. It is important to select the right type
of generator to match your intended use. Most home and office appliances operate on
120 volt (or 240 volt), 60 cycle AC. Some appliances can operate on either AC or DC,
such as light bulbs and resistance heaters, and many others can be adapted to run on DC.
Storage systems using batteries store DC and usually are configured at voltages of
between 12 volts and 120 volts. Generators that produce AC are generally equipped
with features to produce the correct voltage (120 or 240 V) and constant frequency (60
ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

cycles) of electricity, even when the wind speed is fluctuating.

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Components of a wind turbine

Transmission

The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range
between 40 rpm and 400 rpm, depending on the model and the wind speed. Generators
typically require rpm's of 1,200 to 1,800. As a result, most wind turbines require a
gear-box transmission to
increase the rotation of the generator to the speeds necessary for efficient electricity
production. Some DC-type wind turbines do not use transmissions. Instead, they have
a direct link between the rotor and generator. These are known as direct drive systems.
Without a transmission, wind turbine complexity and maintenance requirements are
reduced, but a much larger generator is required to deliver the same power output as the
AC-type wind turbines.

Towers

The tower on which a wind turbine is mounted is not just a support structure. It
also raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the ground and so it can reach
the stronger winds at higher elevations. Maximum tower height is optional in most
cases, except where zoning restrictions apply. The decision of what height tower to use
will be based on the cost of taller towers versus the value of the increase in energy
ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

production resulting from their use.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WIND POWER

ADVANTAGES

The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured

efficiently.
Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause
green house gases or other pollutants.

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SYSTEMS

Although wind turbines can be very tall each takes up only a small plot of
land.
Many people find wind farms an interesting feature of the landscape.
Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can
use wind turbines to produce their own supply.

DISADVANTAGES

More noise
Threatening to Wildlife.
Wind is Unpredictable.
Limited Resource.
Inefficient.
Poor Television Reception.
Installation Cost is high.

ROHIINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

UNIT1-INTRODUCTION
1.4 QUALITATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES: OCEAN,
BIOMASS, FUEL CELL.

Ocean Power
Tidal Energy Generation

Tidal energy, just like hydro energy transforms water in motion into a clean
energy. The motion of the tidal water, driven by the pull of gravity, contains large
amounts of kinetic energy in the form of strong tidal currents called tidal streams. The
daily ebbing and flowing, back and forth of the oceans tides along a coastline and into
and out of small inlets, bays or coastal basins, is little different to the water flowing
down a river or stream. The movement of the sea water is harnessed in a similar way
using waterwheels and turbines to that used to generate hydro electricity. But because
the sea water can flow in both directions in a tidal energy system, it can generate power
when the water is flowing in and also when it is ebbing out. Therefore, tidal generators
are designed to produce power when the rotor blades are turning in either direction.
However, the costs of reversible electrical generators are more expensive than single
direction generators.

Different Types of Tidal Energy Systems

Tidal Barrage
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Tidal Barrage:

A Tidal Barrage is a type of tidal power generation that involves the construction
of a fairly low dam wall, known as a ―barrage‖ and hence its name, across the
entrance of a tidal inlet or basin creating a tidal reservoir. This dam has a number of
underwater tunnels cut into its width allowing sea water to flow through them in a
controllable way using ―sluice gates‖. Fixed within the tunnels are huge water turbine
generators that spin as the water rushes past them generating tidal electricity. Tidal
barrages generate electricity using the difference in the vertical height between the
incoming high tides and the outgoing low tides. As the tide ebbs and flows, sea water is
allowed to flow in or out of the reservoir through a one way underwater tunnel system.
This flow of tidal water back and forth causes the water turbine generators located
within the tunnels to rotate producing tidal energy with special generators used to
produce electricity on both the incoming and the outgoing tides.

Tidal Stream

TIDAL STREAM

A Tidal Stream Generation system reduces some of the environmental effects of

tidal barrages by using turbine generators under the surface of the water. Major tidal
flows and ocean currents, like the Gulf Stream, can be exploited to extract its tidal
energy using underwater rotors and turbines. Tidal stream generation is very similar in
principal to wind power generation, except this time water currents flow across turbines
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

rotor blades which rotates the turbine, much like how wind currents turn the blades for
wind power turbines. In fact, tidal stream generation areas on the sea bed can look just
like underwater wind farms. Tidal streams are formed by the horizontal fast flowing
volumes of water caused by the ebb and flow of the tide as the profile of the sea bed
causes the water to speed up as it approaches the shoreline.

Advantages and disadvantages of Tidal Energy

Advantages

Tidal energy is a renewable energy resource because the energy it

produces is free and clean as no fuel is needed and no waste bi-products
are produced.
Tidal energy has the potential to produce a great deal of free and green
energy.
Tidal energy is not expensive to operate and maintain compared to other
forms of renewable energies.
Low visual impact as the tidal turbines are mainly if not totally
submerged beneath the water.
Low noise pollution as any sound generated is transmitted through the
water.
Tidal barrages provide protection against flooding and land damage.
Large tidal reservoirs have multiple uses and can create recreational
lakes and areas where before there were none.
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is not always a constant energy source as it depends on the

strength and flow of the tides which themselves are affected by the
gravitational effects of the moon and the sun.
Tidal Energy requires a suitable site, where the tides and tidal streams are
consistently strong.
Must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital,
construction and maintenance costs.
High power distribution costs to send the generated power from the
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

submerged devices to the land using long underwater cables.

Danger to fish and other sea-life as they get stuck in the barrage or sucked
through the tidal turbine blades.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Wave energy

Waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the ocean. In many
areas of the world, the wind blows with enough consistency and force to provide
continuous waves along the shoreline. Ocean waves contain tremendous energy
potential. Wave power devices extract energy from the surface motion of ocean waves
or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Wave power varies considerably
in different parts of the world. While an abundance of wave energy is available, it
cannot be fully harnessed everywhere for a variety of reasons, such as other competing
uses of the ocean (i.e. shipping, commercial fishing, naval operations) or environmental
concerns in sensitive areas. Therefore, it is important to consider how much resource is
recoverable in a given region.

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTLC)

Closed-Cycle of OTLC

Closed-cycle systems use fluids with a low boiling point, such as ammonia, to
rotate a turbine to generate electricity. Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat
exchanger, where the low-boiling-point fluid is vaporized. The expanding vapor turns
the turbo-generator. Cold deep seawater—which is pumped through a second heat
exchanger—then condenses the vapor back into a liquid that is then recycled through
the system.

Open-Cycle of OTLC

Open-cycle systems use the tropical oceans' warm surface water to make
electricity. When warm seawater is placed in a low-pressure container, it boils. The
expanding steam drives
a low-pressure turbine attached to an electrical generator. The steam, which has left its
salt behind in the low-pressure container, is almost pure, fresh water. It is condensed
back into a liquid by exposure to cold temperatures from deep-ocean water.

Hybrid OTLC

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Hybrid systems combine the features of closed- and open-cycle systems. In a

hybrid system, warm seawater enters a vacuum chamber, where it is flash-evaporated
into steam, similar to the open-cycle evaporation process. The steam vaporizes a low-
boiling-point fluid (in a closed-cycle loop) that drives a turbine to produce electricity.

Complementary Technologies

OTEC has potential benefits beyond power production. For example, spent cold
seawater from an OTEC plant can chill fresh water in a heat exchanger or flow directly
into a cooling system. OTEC technology also supports chilled-soil agriculture. When
cold seawater flows through underground pipes, it chills the surrounding soil. The
temperature difference between

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

plant roots in the cool soil and plant leaves in the warm air allows many plants that
evolved in temperate climates to be grown in the subtropics.

Biomass power plants

The most common types of boilers are hot water boilers and steam boilers. Wood
chips, residues and other types of biomass are used in the boilers, in the same way as
coal, natural gas and oil. Fuel is stored in a bunker for further transport to the boiler. In
the boiler, water is heated to high temperature under pressure. Steam from the boiler
powers the turbine, which is connected to the generator. Steam has passed through the
turbine, heats area heat ing water, which is distributed through the area heating
network's piping. Co-firing biomass with coal (replacing a portion of coal with biomass)
is an effective method of using biomass for energy purposes and to reduce CO2
emissions. Coal plants can be made suitable to replace part of the coal by biomass or
even to convert fully to biomass – turning a coal plant into a 100% renewable energy
plant.

Biomass used for electricity generation

Forest products: Woody biomass from multi-functional forests constitutes the

majorityof today's biomass. Pellets and briquettes are manufactured by compressing
by-products fromthe forestry industry, such as sawdust, bark or small diameter wood.
They are easy to transport and therefore suitable for export.

Waste, by-products and residues: Residues include manure, sewage, sludge

and other degradable waste. Liquid biomass waste, such as manure, household waste
and sewage plant residues, can be digested to biogas.

Energy crops: Energy crops are not used on a large scale for electricity or heat
production today. As demand for sustainable biomass increases over time, such energy
crops may play a more important role in the future. Examples include woody short
rotation forestry/crops such as eucalyptus, poplar and willow. But also herbaceous
(grassy) energy crops such as miscanthus can be used. Especially with the use of energy
crops, it is important to ensure these plantations are established and managed in a
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

sustainable manner.

Fuel cell

Fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to
create electricity by an electrochemical process. A single fuel cell consists of an
electrolyte sandwiched between two thin electrodes (a porous anode and cathode).
Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel, is fed to the anode where a catalyst separates
hydrogen's negatively charged electrons from positively charged ions (protons). At the
cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases, with species such as
protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions, respectively.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the membrane to the
positively charged cathode; they must travel around it via an electrical circuit to reach
the other side of the cell. This movement of electrons is an electrical current. The
amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon several factors, such as fuel
cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it operates, and the pressure at which the
gases are supplied to the cell.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE
ENERGY SYSTEMS

EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

UNIT I- INTRODUCTION
1.5: QUALITATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES:
HYDROGEN ENERGY SYSTEMS AND HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS.

Hydrogen energy

Hydrogen can be considered as a clean energy carrier similar to electricity.

Hydrogen can be produced from various domestic resources such as renewable energy
and nuclear energy. In the long-term, hydrogen will simultaneously reduce the
dependence on foreign oil and the emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.

Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier

Hydrogen is considered as a secondary source of energy, commonly referred

to as an energy carrier. Energy carriers are used to move, store and deliver energy in
a form that can be easily used. Electricity is the most well-known example of an
energy carrier. Hydrogen as an important energy carrier in the future has a number of
advantages. For example, a large volume of hydrogen can be easily stored in a number
of different ways. Hydrogen is also considered as a high efficiency, low polluting fuel
that can be used for transportation, heating, and power generation in places where it is
difficult to use electricity. In some instances, it is cheaper to ship hydrogen by pipeline
than sending electricity over long distances by wire.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Fuel cells directly convert the chemical energy in hydrogen to electricity, with
pure water and heat as the only byproducts. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are not only
pollution-free, but a two to three fold increase in the efficiency can be experienced when
compared to traditional combustion technologies.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE
ENERGY SYSTEMS

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Fuel cells can power almost any portable devices that normally use batteries. Fuel
cells can also power transportation such as vehicles, trucks, buses, and marine vessels,
as well as provide auxiliary power to traditional transportation technologies. Hydrogen
can play a particularly important role in the future by replacing the imported petroleum
we currently use in our cars and trucks.

HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Environmentally friendly power generation technologies will play an important

role in future power supply. The renewable energy technologies include power
generation from renewable energy sources, such as wind, PV(photovoltaic), MH(micro
hydro), biomass, ocean wave, geothermal and tides. In general, the key reason for the
deployment of the above energy systems are their benefits, such as supply security,
reduced carbon emission, improved power quality, reliability and employment
opportunity to the local people. Since the renewable energy resources are intermittent
in nature therefore, hybrid combinations of two or more power generation technologies,
along with storage can improve system performance. Hybrid Renewable Energy
System (HRES) combines two or more renewable energy resources with some
conventional source (diesel or petrol generator) along with storage, in order to fulfill the

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE
ENERGY SYSTEMS

demand of an area. The intensity of the different energy sources into time is not the
same. In general, when one of the sources is intensive, the other tends to be extensive,
i.e. the sources complement one another. The distribution into time and the intensity of
the energy sources depend on the meteorological conditions of the chosen area, on the
season, on the relief, etc. The following definition of a hybrid system with renewable
energy sources can be suggested. This is a power system, using one renewable and one
conventional energy source or more than one renewable with or without conventional
energy sources, that works in ―stand alone‖ or ―grid connected‖ mode.

Hybrid Wind and Solar Electric Systems

A hybrid renewable energy system utilizes two or more energy production

methods, usually solar and wind power. The major advantage of solar / wind hybrid
system is that when solar and wind power production is used together, the reliability of
the system is enhanced. Additionally, the size of battery storage can be reduced slightly
as there is less reliance on one method of power production. Often, when there is no
sun, there is plenty of wind. It is ideally suited to remote homes, schools and other off-
grid applications. They can also be retrofitted to existing diesel-generator systems to
save on high fuel costs and minimize noise.

Because the peak operating times for wind and solar systems occur at different
times of the day and year, hybrid systems are more likely to produce power when need
it. Many hybrid systems are stand-alone systems, which operate "off-grid" -- not
connected to an electricity
distribution system. For the times when neither the wind nor the solar system are
producing, most hybrid systems provide power through batteries and/or an engine
generator powered by conventional fuels, such as diesel. If the batteries run low, the
engine generator can provide power and recharge the batteries. Adding an engine
generator makes the system more complex, but modern electronic controllers can
operate these systems automatically. An engine generator can also reduce the size of the
other components needed for the system. Keep in mind that the storage capacity must
be large enough to supply electrical needs during non-charging periods. Battery banks
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE
ENERGY SYSTEMS

are typically sized to supply the electric load for one to three days. Since hybrid systems
include both solar and wind power, they allow the power user to benefit from the
advantages provided of both forms of energy.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 EE3014-POWER ELECTRONICS FOR RENEWABLE
ENERGY SYSTEMS

Advantages of Hybrid Energy System

Reductions in size of diesel engine and battery storage system, which can
save the fuel and reduce pollution.
Improves the load factors and help saving on maintenance and replacement costs.
The cost of electricity can be reduced by integrating diesel systems with
renewable power generation.
Renewable hybrid energy systems can reduce the cost of high-availability
renewable energy systems.

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING