Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Physical Science, University of Surrey

Unit 5. Reinforced concrete design – Flexure.

(Study time allocation – 15 hours)

Introduction.

In any elements the external forces acting on a section must be in equilibrium with the
internal forces and moments. In reinforced concrete, compression failure is brittle and
sudden, whereas the yielding of tension reinforcement provides a warning of failure, and
this form of failure, being safer is therefore the aim of design.

For a section designed for flexure alone (or primarily for flexure) , limiting the neutral
axis depth ensures that the tension steel reaches yield before the concrete fails in
compression.

A section can be designed for flexure alone when the design ultimate axial compressive
force in the member is small. The code requires that it does not exceed 0.08fckAc, where :

Ac is the area of the section

fck is the characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days.

Assumptions in RC design for flexure

 There is perfect bond between the concrete and steel, so the strain in the steel is
identical to that in the adjacent concrete.

 The strain distribution in the concrete in compression and the strains in the
reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, are derived from the
assumption that plane sections remain plane after bending. This means the strain
distribution through the depth of the section is linear.
εc
Neutral
axis

εs
 The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

 The stress in the concrete in compression may be derived from the short term
stress-strain diagram for concrete, or using a the simplified rectangular stress
block.

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 The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the stress strain diagram for
reinforcement.

Stress – strain diagram for concrete.

In unit two the actual stress-strain curve for concrete was presented. The code permits
this to be replaced by an „idealised‟ diagram when „routine‟ design of reinforced concrete
is undertaken. The actual stress strain relationship is used in plastic and non-linear
design or for the calculation of second order effects.

Stress – strain diagrams for design.

The code allows several of these.

1. The code recommends the idealised parabolic-rectangular stress-strain diagram.

In this, the design concrete strength fcd = αccfck/γc,
where.

γc - is the partial factor for concrete

αcc - is a coefficient which takes account of the long term loading effects on
the compressive strength of the concrete and the way the load is applied. Its value
may be assumed to be │0.85│, unless otherwise stated. [the NA to the code actually
states “0,85 for compression in flexure and axial loading and 1,0 for other
phenomena. However αcc may be taken conservatively as 0,85 for all phenomena].

ζc fck
Idealised diagram
fcd

Design diagram

εc2 εcu2 εc

Where :-

fck is the characteristic cylinder compressive strength of concrete at 28 days.

fcd is the design value of compressive strength of concrete.
εc2 is the strain at reaching the maximum strength (see Table 3.1)
εcu2 is the strain at ultimate load (see Table 3.1)

2. The idealised bi-linear stress strain diagram shown below is also recommended
for use in design. Clause 3.1.7.

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ζc fck
Idealised diagram
fcd

Design diagram

εc
εc3 εcu3
3. Rectangular stress-strain diagram.

The rectangular parabolic stress strain diagram (case 1 above), when applied to a
rectangular beam results in the following [(a), (b), (c)] :-

(b) (c) (d) (e)

(a) fcd ηfcd
εcu2 εcu3

x λx

neutral
axis

εs εs

Parabolic rectangular stress block Rectangular stress block

This is cumbersome to use so a rectangular stress block which gives almost the same
result is allowed. This is shown to the right of the diagram above [(a), (d), (e)]. The
values of η and λ ensure the parabolic – rectangular and rectangular stress blocks behave
identically and are given in the code as :-

λ = 0,8 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (3.19)

λ = 0,8 - (fck -50)/400 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa (3.20)
and
η = 1,0 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (3.21)
η = 1,0 - (fck -50)/200 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa (3.22)
Note: If the width of the compression zone decreases in the direction of the extreme compression fibre, the
value η fcd should be reduced by 10%.
Table 3.1 is given in Unit 2 but repeated here for convenience.

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A Note on Strains.

When using Table 3.1 the strains with a subscript of 3 {εc3 and εcu3} should be used in
conjunction with the rectangular stress block. The subscript “2” refers to the rectangular
parabolic stress block and subscript “1” is to be used when strain diagrams actually
represent concrete test specimens so would have a falling arm.

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Stress - strain diagram for steel.

From the geometry of the strain diagram the steel strain εs can be calculated :-

εcu2 (3)

εs

s   cu 2 / 3 (d  x) / x

To determine the stress from the strain we need a relationship between stress and strain.
The code uses a bi-linear stress strain diagram (Figure 3.8) and repeated below. The
horizontal line represented by B is used in the UK as noted in 2 below.

Es = 200GPa

For the definition of k see unit 3 – steel ductility

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For section design the diagram may be used in one of two ways.

1. Using the inclined top branch of the diagram with the steel strain εs limited to εud.
ζ

ftk
fyk idealised

fyd design

Es = 200GPa

εud ε

2. Using the horizontal branch of the design diagram so that the maximum stress in
the reinforcement is limited to fyd, with no limit to steel strain.

ftk
fyk

fyd
design

Es = 200GPa

εyd εud ε

The design values are obtained from the idealised characteristic diagram by dividing by γs
the partial factor for reinforcement so fyd = fyk/γs. The design strain εud is taken as 0.9εuk.
For design purposes this diagram may be used for both tension and compression. The
UK has adopted option 2

Example. If fyk = 500MPa and γs = 1.15, what is the steel strain when the stress reaches
its design yield strength fyd? E for steel is 200GPa

Design yield strength = 500 /1.15 = 435MPa

Design yield strain = stress/E = εyd = 435/200 x 103 = 0.002175.

This is an important value.

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Strain distribution at ultimate limit state.

The following extract from the code summarises the situation at ultimate limit state.

6.1 Bending with or without axial force

(3)P The compressive strain in the concrete shall be limited to εcu3 (or εcu2) depending on
the stress-strain diagram used, see 3.1.7 and Table 3.1 [and concrete stress blocks above].
The strains in the reinforcing steel shall be limited to εud (where applicable); see 3.2.7 (2)
and 3.3.6 (7) [and diagrams above] respectively.

(4) For cross-sections loaded by the compression force it is necessary to assume the
minimum eccentricity, e0 = h/30 but not less than 20 mm where h is the depth of the
section.

(5) In parts of cross-sections which are subjected to approximately concentric loading

(ed/h ≤ 0,1), such as compression flanges of box girders, the mean compressive strain in
that part of the section should be limited to εc2 (or εc3 if the bilinear relation of Figure
3.4 is used).

(6) The possible range of strain distributions is shown in Figure 6.1.

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In EC2 strain limits for elements under different forms of load are permitted. When
elements are predominantly under compression and likely to fail by crushing, the strain is
limited to εc2 (εc3). Failure will be catastrophic and a margin of safety is required. When
beams fail under flexure, failure occurs when the steel yields (under reinforced section).
In this instance EC2 is more generous in terms of concrete strain as failure by the steel
yielding is ensured. Also, the peak strain will only occur at the extreme fibre in the
concrete so reducing the risk. For situations intermediate between these two, the strain
profile is defined by assuming that the strain is 0.00175 [εc2 (εc3)] at half the depth of the
section as indicated by location C in Figure 6.1 of EC2

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Tension reinforcement (Singly reinforced concrete beams).

Assumptions
• Plane sections remain plane
• Stresses in the flexural compressive zone may be derived from a design curve
relating stress and strain.
• Alternatively a simple rectangular stress block may be used to calculate the
ultimate moment of resistance.
• The strain in the extreme compressive fibre εcu is defined at failure (εcu = 0.0035
for flexure in EC2).
• The tensile strength of the concrete is neglected.
• The stress in the reinforcement is calculated using an idealised bi-linear stress-
strain diagram.
• The rectangular stress block shown below may be used.
• For grades of concrete up to C50/60 [50 refers to cylinder characteristic strength,
60, cube characteristic strength], εcu= 0.0035,  = 1 and λ = 0.8.
• Concrete design strength fcd = αccfck/γc = 0.85fck/1.5
• fyd = fyk/1.15

Consider a rectangular section subject to an ultimate bending moment M.

fc = ηfcd
b εcu3

x λx
Fc
Neutral
axis
d z

As
εs Fs
Strain profile

If x is the distance to the neutral axis from the compression face, the strain profile will
look as shown.

Using the rectangular stress block gives :-

Fc = λxbfc

Where :
 Fc is the force in the concrete under compression
 λ is a factor which defines the height of the equivalent rectangular stress block. In
the UK this is 0.8 (the code recommends a value of 0.85) provided fck is below
50N/mm2. Otherwise see the notes earlier in this document.
 x is the depth from the compression face of the element to the neutral axis.

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 b is the overall width of the concrete element.

 fc is the compressive strength of concrete when using the rectangular stress block.

To determine fc with the rectangular stress block, the following formula is used. :-

fc = ηαccfck/γc [Clause 3.1.6 (1)]

Where
 η is a factor used to define the effective strength of the concrete. Another way of
thinking of this factor is that it makes the design strength of concrete fcd
compatible with the rectangular stress block. The notes on the rectangular stress
block above give values of η. In the UK this is usually 1.0 for concrete below
50N/mm2.
 αcc is a coefficient which takes into account the long term effects on the
compressive strength and of unfavourable ways in which the loads are applied. In
the UK this is taken as 0.85 although the code recommends a value of 1.0
 fck is the characteristic strength of concrete obtained using cylinders, and
 γc is the partial factor for concrete taken usually as 1.5.

The design tension force in the steel is Fs :-

Fs = Asfs

Where :-

 Fs is the force in the steel

 As is the cross section area of the reinforcement in tension and
 fs is is the stress in the steel

Note that in design fs ≤ fyd = fyk/γs γs =1.15 the recommended value. The “ ≤ ” occurs
because we can never match the area of bars to the precise required area of steel.

The distance z between Fc and Fs is defined as z, the lever arm.

In the above, there are two unknowns, x and As so two equations in x and As are needed
to be able to solve directly.

Determining x and As.

1. The forces acting on the section must balance.

Fc = Fs : λxbfc = Asfs = As fyk/γs

2. The applied moment must balance with the internal couple

M = Fsz = Fcz : M = Asfsz = (λxbfc)z

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3. Lever arm : z = d – 0.5λx

4. M = Asfs(d – 0.5λx )

5. M = (λxbηαccfck/γc)( d – 0.5λx )

6. Method of solution. Substitute Asfs from 1 into 4. Asfs can be evaluated when x
is found. Equation 5 which is a quadratic and when expanded gives the value of
x. As can then be determined by back substitution. Design procedures to speed
this up have been developed.

Strain Profiles.

This aspect of flexural design is examined to determine if a beam will fail

catastrophically or if the elements will slowly yield giving time for buildings to be
evacuated if necessary. The latter solution is preferable, beams designed in this manner
being denoted as under reinforced. If a beam fails catastrophically it is over reinforced.

Of importance is the strain in concrete, ecu2 (rectangular parabolic stress block) or ecu3
(rectangular stress block) which is the strain at ultimate load (see Table 3.1), The
value of this 0.0035 and applies to both stress blocks.
0.0035 0.0035 0.0035

x
x x
d

0.00018 0.001 0.002175

x = 0.95d x = 0.78d x = 0.617d

Stress in steel = Stress in steel = Stress in steel = 200

200000 x 0.00018 200 000 x 0.001 000 x 0.002175 =
= 36MPa = 200MPa 435 = 500/1.15 MPa

The above diagram illustrates the stress in the steel with various depths of neutral axis.
When x = 0.617d, the stress in the steel is 435MPa. Co-incidentally this value represents
design yield strength fyd for grade 500 steel = 500/1.15 = 435MPa.

At x = 0.95d and 0.78d, the stress in the steel is less than its maximum, so both these
sections will suffer a compressive failure in the concrete, which is brittle and sudden.
This type of failure should be avoided.

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When x = 0.617d, the steel and concrete reach their maximum design capacities at the
same time. The section is called a balanced section and is the optimal situation where the
designer makes the most of both materials. Further reductions in x will result in the steel
yielding slowly as failure progresses, the desired situation (under reinforced beam).

As x decreases further, so the strain in the steel increases, but there is a limit as to how
small x can become otherwise the strain values will be unsustainable. The only code
guidance on this, limits the steel strain to εud the ultimate design strain which is
recommended to be 0.9εuk where εuk is the strain at maximum force but this limit only
applies when the stress strain diagram has an inclined top branch. Nevertheless this will
give an indication of the steel behaviour. From test results, a reasonable value of εud is
0.025 for which x comes out as 0.123d for grade 500 steel. Generally x will be limited
by minimum reinforcement requirements or the designer. In practice the depth of the
neutral axis is limited to 0.95d

Characteristic steel strengths greater than 500MPa give a balanced neutral axis depth of
less than 0.617d and vice versa.

0.0035 0.0035
x
x
d

0.002175 0.025
x = 0.617d x = 0.123d when steel
strain limited to 0.025
Stress in steel
= 200 000 x 0.002175 = 435MP. a This is the the design yield strength fyd

Sections where the neutral axis depth is less than its depth in a balanced section, 0.617d
for high yield steel will exhibit yielding which should lead to tensile failure of the
reinforcement. This gives warning of failure and so sections should be designed in this
way whenever possible. The concise concrete code and the Concrete Centre recommend
x ≤ 0.45d.

Moment re-distribution and strain profiles.

When x = 0.617d, a balanced section is achieved. With moment redistribution, and for
concrete strengths less than 50MPa, the upper limit is however restricted to 0.45d, to
give a margin of safety for tensile failure. This ratio is reduced proportionally for
moment re-distributions up to 30% as noted in Unit 4.

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Practical approach to design

In EC2 limited assistance is given on procedures for design unlike in BS8110. The
approach given in the code to ensure the steel yields is to limit the neutral axis / effective
depth (x/d) ratio, and the technique of limiting K as given in BS8110 is not specifically
described. In this course, the EC2 approach is followed but adapted to include K factors.

Over and under reinforced beams.

A section where the tension reinforcement does not reach its design strength at failure,
because the neutral axis depth is greater than the balanced value, and which results in a
brittle failure of the concrete is referred to as over re-inforced.

A section where the tension reinforcement reaches its design strength before the concrete
reaches its limiting stain, because the neutral axis depth is less than the balanced value,
and which results in yielding of the steel, is referred to as under reinforced.

Design equations can be derived as follows:

To design singly reinforced beams in an office it is convenient to simplify the equations

given.
εcu3 fc = ηfcd
b

x λx
Fc
Neutral
axis
d z
As
εs Fs

For concrete less than 50N/mm2 strong :-

From above,
Fc = λxbfc
fc = ηαccfck/γc [Clause 3.1.6 (1)]

λ = 0.8 [Clause 3.1.7 (3)]

η = 1.0 [Clause 3.1.7 (3)]
αcc = 0.85 [Clause 3.1.6 (1) and NA]
γc = 1.5

So Fc = (0.8)(x)(b)(0.85)(fck)/1.5 = 0.453fckbx
And Fs = As fyk/γs = 0.87Asfyk

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Now taking moments about the centre of the reinforcement,

M = 0.453 fck b x z (eqn 1)
But z = d - 0.4 x
 x = 2.5(d - z)
& M = 0.453 fck b 2.5(d - z) z
= 1.1333 (fck b z d - fck b z2)
Let K = M / (fck b d 2)
 0 = 1.1333 [(z/d)2 – (z/d)] + K
0 = (z/d)2 – (z/d) + 0.88235K
Solving the quadratic equation:
z/d = [1 + (1 - 3.529K)0.5]/2
z = d [ 1 + (1 - 3.529K)0.5]/2
So the lever arm for an applied moment is known
Take moments about the centre of the compression force
M = 0.87As fyk z
Rearranging
As = M /(0.87 fyk z)
The required area of reinforcement can now be calculated. However, it is often
considered good practice to limit the depth of the neutral axis to avoid „over-
reinforcement‟ (i.e. to ensure that the reinforcement is still behaving elastically at
failure). A theoretical limiting value for K can be calculated (denoted K‟) as follows.

cu3 = 0.0035 = Concrete strain

s = 500 / (1.15 x 200 x 103) = 0.002175 = reinforcement strain

From strain diagram:

x = 0.0035 d /(0.0035 + 0.002175)
= 0.617 d (reducing to 0.6 for safety)
From eqn 1 above:
M = 0.453 fck b x z
M‟ = 0.453 fck b 0.6 d (d – 0.4 x 0.6 d)
= 0.207 fck b d2
 K‟ = 0.207
This K value applies for zero re-distribution of moments. K will change with increasing
re-distribution in accordance with x ≤ d( - k1)/k2 (Eq 5.10a) from which the following
values of K can be derived. The final column includes the practical limit where x/d ≤
0.45 is used. When x/d = 0.45, k‟ = 0.167..

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Percent Redistribution K’ Theoretical K’ [UK procedure]

redistribution (%) ratio
0 1.00 0.207 0.167
5 0.95 0.195 0.167
10 0.9 0.182 0.167
15 0.85 0.168 0.167
20 0.8 0.153 0.153
25 0.75 0.137 0.137
30 0.7 0.120 0.120

Compression reinforcement.

d2
εcu3 fc = ηfcd
b
Fs2
As2 xlim
Neutral λxlim
Fc
axis
εs2
d z2
z
As
εs Fs

The majority of beams used in practice are singly reinforced. These beams can be
designed using the formula derived above. In some cases, compression reinforcement is
added to:
1. Increase section strength where section dimensions are restricted i.e. where K>K‟
2. To reduce long term deflection
3. To decrease curvature/deformation at ultimate limit state.

To overcome particularly, the first point above, ie to ensure the neutral axis depth is not
greater than the maximum design value xlim, the neutral axis depth must be reduced. This
ensures an under reinforced section. This can be achieved by adding reinforcement in the
compression zone to compensate for reduced compressive force provided by the concrete.
If the element size is fixed it may be necessary to include compression reinforcement to
ensure failure is by yielding of the reinforcement.

Consider the Figure above.

As2 lies within the rectangular concrete stress block, so the compressive stress in the
concrete must be subtracted from fs2 over its area. Because the steel yields at higher
stresses than the concrete but also as they both have the same strain, the stress which the
steel carries is reduced by the stress the concrete is carrying. This saves us subtracting
the area of the compression reinforcement from the area of compression concrete.

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Fs2 = As2(fs2 – fc)

As with the singly reinforced beam, and using the rectangular stress block :-

Fc = λxlimbfc

Where :
 Fc is the force in the concrete under compression
 λ is a factor which defines the height of the equivalent rectangular stress block. In
the UK this is 0.8 (the code recommends a value of 0.85) provided fck is below
50N/mm2. Otherwise see the notes earlier in this document.
 xlim is the maximum allowed depth from the compression face of the element to
the neutral axis. (UK requirement x/d < 0.45)
 b is the overall width of the concrete element.
 fc is the compressive strength of concrete.

To determine fc with the rectangular stress block, the following formula is used. :-

fc = ηαccfck/γc [Clause 3.1.6 (1)]

Where
 η is a factor used to define the effective strength of the concrete. Another way of
thinking of this factor is that it makes the design strength of concrete fcd
compatible with the rectangular stress block. The notes on the rectangular stress
block above give values of η. In the UK this is usually 1.0 for concrete below
50N/mm2.
 αcc is a coefficient which takes into account the long term effects on the
compressive strength and of unfavourable ways in which the loads are applied..
In the UK this is taken as 0.85 although the code recommends a value of 1.0
 fck is the characteristic strength of concrete obtained using cylinders, and
 γc is the partial factor for concrete taken usually as 1.5.

Total compressive force.

= Fc + Fs2

Compressive stress in steel.

The compressive stress in the steel is dependant on the strain εs2, and is derived from the
stress – strain diagram.

From geometry, εs2/(x-d2) = εcu3/x

Rearranging : εs2 = εcu3(1 – d2/x)

Stress in steel fs2 = E εs2

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Stress in steel (used in design) fs = E εs2 - fc

The design tension force in the steel is Fs :-

Fs = Asfs

Where :-

 Fs is the design force in the steel

 As is the cross section area of the reinforcement in tension and
 fs is is the stress in the steel (design)

Note that fs ≤ fyd = fyk/γs γs =1.15 the recommended value.

The distance z between Fc and Fs is defined as z, the lever arm, that between Fs and Fs2 as
z2.

An examination of these equations indicates there are two unknowns, As and As2. We
know x as a balanced section is assumed.

Determining As and As2.

1. The forces acting on the section must balance.

Fs = Fc + Fs2 Asfs = λxlimbfc + As2fs2

2. The applied moment M must balance with the internal couple = Fcz + Fs2z2

M = Fcz + Fs2z2 = λxlimbfcz + As2fs2z2

3. If the lever arm z is expressed in terms of d and xlim, z2 in terms of d and d2, then
:-

z = d – 0.5λxlim
z2 = d-d2

Substitute z and z2 from 3. into 2. which enables As2 to be calculated, and using this value
in 1, enables As to be found.

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Singly and doubly reinforced beams.

When a beam requires only tension reinforcement to resist loads, it is said to be singly
reinforced, when it requires both tension and compression reinforcement it is said to be
doubly reinforced. The moment of resistance of the singly reinforced beam is Fcz or Fsz,
that of the doubly reinforced beam, Fcz + Fs2z2.

Moment re-distribution.

When a bending moment at a section is reduced by re-distribution, the depth to the

neutral axis must be limited to ensure the section has adequate ductility. However, this
may mean that the bending moment exceeds the moment of resistance of the section
provided by the limited area of concrete in compression. Therefore compression
reinforcement must be provided.

Example of this principle.

This example will answer the question :-

How will the amount of reinforcement provided with re-distribution compare to the
amount of tension reinforcement required if the depth to the neutral axis had not been
limited, and is this desirable?

Consider a typical span of a continuous beam of rectangular cross section with concrete
of strength 40MPa. The left hand support moment has been reduced to 70% of its design
ultimate value to produce equal span and support moments M. Will this mean equal
reinforcement?

M
0.3d

0.6d

LH support Mid span

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Limitations of neutral axis depth.

The limiting depth to the neutral axis will be found in accordance with the NA of EC2
using x ≤ ( - k1)d/k2. .

This formula can be used if an elastic analysis has been undertaken and equilibrium is
maintained before and after redistribution. Further, it can be applied to continuous beams
or slabs predominantly subject to flexure and with adjacent spans in the range 0.5 – 2.0.

Hence depth to neutral axis : -

Left hand support (0.7 – 0.4)d = 0.3d [Clause 5.5 (4)]

Span (1.0 – 0.4)d = 0.6d [Clause 5.5 (4)]

Case 1. M = 100kNm. Calculations show for this moment, the neutral axis depth is less
than 0.3d so the area of steel required for both sections is the same. Obviously tension
over the support is at the top of the beam.

0.6d
0.3d

LH support Mid span

Case 2. M = 200kNm. Doubling the moment results in the neutral axis depth just
exceeding 0.3d. Both sections require similar amounts of tension reinforcement but the
support section requires a small amount of compression reinforcement
0.6d
0.3d

LH support Mid span

M = 300kNm. Trebling the moment results in the neutral axis depth exceeding 0.6d.
Both sections require compression reinforcement with more in the support.
Lever arm
Lever arm

0.6d
0.3d
support

span

LH support Mid span

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More tension reinforcement is required in the span because the lever arm is lower.
The applied moment is balanced by the internal couple which is the product of

Asfs and the lever arm z

The stress in the steel is at its design strength in both sections because the steel has
yielded
x/d ≤ than for a balanced section

Therefore, the greater the value of z, the smaller As will have to be to balance M.

By limiting the neutral axis depth :-

1. We need to begin to provide compression reinforcement at a lower moment

2. but provide less tension reinforcement as the moment increases.

In beams we need to provide continuity reinforcement for tying requirements and link
hanger bars to support and anchor the links. The compression reinforcement, thus
performs a dual role and is, therefore, not wholly additional to requirements.

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Flanged sections.

Up to this point, only rectangular sections have been considered as they are the simplest
to start with and develop principles.

Definition of T or L flanged beams.

Flanges

Webs

Shaded sections
analysed

If there is a flange at the bottom in tension, it is ignored in design because we assume in

the analysis that the reinforcement carries all the tension forces.

Flanged sections can be considered as being “rectangular” which are effectively widened
but in reality the distribution of the stress across the width of he flange will not be
uniform. The code allows an “effective width” of compression flange to be used,
assuming that the compressive stresses are distributed evenly across it.

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Determining the effective width of flanged beams.

The following extract from the code summarises this.

5.3.2.1 Effective width of flanges (all limit states)

(1)P In T (or inverted L) beams the effective flange width, over which uniform conditions
of stress can be assumed, depends on the web and flange dimensions, the type of loading,
the span, the support conditions and the transverse reinforcement.

(2) The effective width of flange should be based on the distance l0 between points of
zero moment, which may be obtained from Figure 5.2.

Note: The length of the cantilever, l3, should be less than half the adjacent span and the ratio of adjacent
spans should lie between 2/3 and 1,5.

(3) The effective flange width beff for a T beam or L beam may be derived as:
beff =Σbeff,i +bw ≤ b (5.7)

where
beff,i =0,2bi +0,1l0 ≤0,2l0 (5.7a)
and
beff,i ≤bi (5.7b)
(for the notations see Figures 5.2 above and 5.3 below).

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(4) Where great accuracy is not required, a constant width may be assumed over the
whole span. The value applicable to the span section should be adopted.

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Flanged continuous beams.

A flanged section can be so designed only if the flange is in compression. The

continuous flanged beam shown can only be designed as a flanged beam in the span.

l0

Design as : Rectangular flanged Rectangular

Flanged sections Tension reinforcement.

Neutral axis in the web.

b εcu3 fc = ηfcd
x Fc λx
hf

d z

As
εs Fs
bw

If the position of the neutral axis x, or if the rectangular stress block is used, its depth λx,
is within the flange depth, then the section is analysed as a rectangular beam whose width
is taken as the effective flange width beff. To check this actually requires an assumption
at the outset that the beam is rectangular and of width equivalent to the effective width of
the flange. If through the design procedure the neutral axis depth (or λx if rectangular
stress block is used) falls within the flange depth then the design is correct. If not then
design in accordance with the Neutral axis not being within the web.

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Neutral axis not within the web.

The condition for this is x > hf or if a rectangular stess block is used, λx > hf

To undertake the design divide the concrete in compression into two adjacent rectangular
areas say, one in the flange, the other in the web.

b εcu3 fc = ηfcd
x Ff
hf λx
Fw
d
zf zw
As
εs Fs
bw

Forces in Concrete [Concrete < 50N/mm2].

Ff = hfbfc

Fw = (λx – hf)bwfc

Where :
 Ff is the force in the concrete in the flange under compression
 Fw is the force in the concrete in the web under compression
 λ is a factor which defines the height of the equivalent rectangular stress block. In
the UK this is 0.85 (the UK NA recommends a value of 0.85) provided fck is
below 50N/mm2. Otherwise see the notes earlier in this document.
 x is the depth from the compression face of the element to the neutral axis.
 b is the width of the concrete element, taken as the effective width beff
 bw is the width of the web of the beam.
 fc is the compressive strength of concrete.

To determine fc with the rectangular stress block, the following formula is used. :-

fc = ηαccfck/γc [Clause 3.1.6 (1)]

Where
 η is a factor used to define the effective strength of the concrete. Another way of
thinking of this factor is that it makes the design strength of concrete fcd
compatible with the rectangular stress block. The notes on the rectangular stress
block above give values of η. In the UK this is usually 1.0 for concrete below
50N/mm2.

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 αcc is a coefficient which takes into account the long term effects on the
compressive strength and of unfavourable ways in which the loads are applied..
In the UK this is taken as 0.85 although the code recommends a value of 1.0
 fck is the characteristic strength of concrete obtained using cylinders, and
 γc is the partial factor for concrete taken usually as 1.5.

The design tension force in the steel is Fs :-

Fs = Asfs

Where :-

 Fs is the force in the steel

 As is the cross section area of the reinforcement in tension and
 fs is is the stress in the steel

Note that fs ≤ fyd = fyk/γs γs =1.15 the recommended value.

Designing the beam.

1. The forces in the concrete must balance the force in the steel.

Fs = Ff + Fw : Asfs = hfbfc + (λx – hf)bwfc

2. The applied moment M must balance the internal couple :

M = Ffzf + Fw zw = hfbfczf + (λx – hf)bwfczw

3. The lever arms are expressed in terms of the geometry.

zf = d – 0.5hf : zw = d – 0.5hf – 0.5λx

4. Substitute zf and zw from 3. into 2. Solve the quadratic in x. Using the value of x
find As from 1.

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Flanged sections – Compression reinforcement.

It is possible to provide compression reinforcement in flanged sections but this is

normally indicative of poor design. In such circumstances the depth of construction
should be increased.

If compression reinforcement is necessary, the procedure is similar to that for a

rectangular beam. The basic formula follow :-
d2
b εcu3 Fs2 fc = ηfcd
hf As2 x Ff λx
Fw
d
zf zw
As
εs Fs
z2

Forces in Concrete [Concrete < 50N/mm2].

Ff = hfbfc

Fw = (λx – hf)bwfc

Where :
 Ff is the force in the concrete in the flange under compression
 Fw is the force in the concrete in the web under compression
 λ is a factor which defines the height of the equivalent rectangular stress block. In
the UK this is 0.8 (the code recommends a value of 0.85) provided fck is below
50N/mm2. Otherwise see the notes earlier in this document.
 x is the depth from the compression face of the element to the neutral axis.
 b is the width of the concrete element, taken as the effective width beff
 bw is the width of the web of the beam.
 fc is the compressive strength of concrete.

To determine fc with the rectangular stress block, the following formula is used. :-

fc = ηαccfck/γc [Clause 3.1.6 (1)]

Where
 η is a factor used to define the effective strength of the concrete. Another way of
thinking of this factor is that it makes the design strength of concrete fcd
compatible with the rectangular stress block. The notes on the rectangular stress
block above give values of η. In the UK this is usually 1.0 for concrete below
50N/mm2.

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 αcc is a coefficient which takes into account the long term effects on the
compressive strength and of unfavourable ways in which the loads are applied..
In the UK this is taken as 0.85 although the code recommends a value of 1.0
 fck is the characteristic strength of concrete obtained using cylinders, and
 γc is the partial factor for concrete taken usually as 1.5.

The design tension force in the steel is Fs :-

Fs = Asfs

Where :-

 Fs is the force in the steel

 As is the cross section area of the reinforcement in tension and
 fs is is the stress in the steel

Note that fs ≤ fyd = fyk/γs γs =1.15 the recommended value. Because design is
imprecise, fs ≤ fyd. In other words we design with a bit of tolerance.

Fs2 = As2fs2 where fs2 is found from the strain diagrams.

Designing the beam.

1. The forces in the concrete must balance the force in the steel.

Fs = Ff + Fw + Fs2 : Asfs = hfbfc + (λx – hf)bwfc + As2fs2

2. The applied moment M must balance the internal couple :

M = Ff zf + Fw zw + Fs2 z2 = hfbfczf + (λx – hf)bwfczw + As2 fs2 z2

3. The lever arms are expressed in terms of the geometry.

zf = d – 0.5hf : zw = d – 0.5hf – 0.5λx : z2 = d - d2

x will be its limiting value, so substitute values from 3. into 2 and expand to find As2.
Substitute this value into 1. to find As.

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Other Section shapes.

There are 2 objectives when unusual shapes are analysed.

1. Calculate the area of concrete in compression

2. Find the position of the centroid of the concrete in compression.

Consider the section below.

εcu3 fc = ηfcd
Fc1 Fc3 Fc λx
x
Fc2
d z
z1
z2 z3
As εs Fs

1. Concrete areas. These are easy simply being rectangles.

Fc1 + Fc2 + Fc3 = Fc = Fs

2. Centroid of Concrete.

Fc1z1 + Fc2z2 + Fc3z3 = Fcz = M

Substitute values for Fc1-3 in terms of stress and dimensions and for z1-3 in terms of
dimensions. Solve for x and As as previously.

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Examples of tensile design.

In all the following examples (and those given in the self assessment questions) use the
simplified rectangular stress block and fyd = 500/1.15MPa throughout. Concrete
strengths are limited to 50MPa to simplify the calculations and hence εcu3 = 0.0035. Take
η = 1.0, λ = 0.8 and αcc = 0.85 throughout.

1. A rectangular section has b = 375mm, d = 550mm, As = 1600mm2 and fck =

30MPa. What is the neutral axis depth to the nearest mm when the steel has just
yielded.

375 0.0035 fc

x 0.8x
Fc
Neutral
axis
550
As
εs Fs

fc = fck/1.5

Force in concrete Fc = Force in steel Fs

As the steel has yielded, therefore fs = 500/1.15 = 435MPa

Stress in concrete fc = αccfck/γc = 0.85 x 30 / 1.5 = 17MPa

Depth of rectangular stress block = 0.8x

Fc = Fs thus b (0.8 x) fc = Asfs

Therefore x = 1600 x 435 /(375 x 0.8 x 17)

x = 136mm.

x/d = 0.247 which is ≤ 0.45d so OK

Hence the steel has yielded.

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2. A simply supported beam has a span of 7.1m, a permanent load of 16kN/m and a
variable load of 16kN/m. The width of the beam is 400mm and fck = 45MPa. If
steel equivalent to 1% of the effective area of the beam is provided, what is the
minimum effective depth of the beam? To achieve the minimum effective depth
the steel must be on the point of yielding.

400 0.0035 fc

x 0.8x
Fc
Neutral
axis
?
As
εs Fs

fc = fck/1.5

Moment = wl2/8 = (16 x 1.35 + 16 x 1.5) x 7.12/8 = 287kNm

Assume the steel has yielded therefore, fs = 500/1.15 = 435MPa (true if x ≤ 0.45d)
Stress in concrete fc = αccfck/γc = 0.85 x 45 / 1.5 = 25.5MPa
Force in concrete Fc = Force in steel Fs
Fc = Fs thus b(0.8x)fc = Asfs = 0.01bdfs [0.1 represents 1% - see question]
Therefore x = (0.01 x 435d)/(0.8 x 25.5) = 0.21d (<45d)
Lever arm z = d – 0.4x = d – 0.4 x 0.21d = 0.915d
M = Asfsz = 0.01bd x 435 x 0.915d
287 x 106 = 0.01 x 400 x 435 x 0.915d2
d2 = 287 x 106 /1592
d = 425mm

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3. A rectangular section has b = 275mm, d = 550mm, and fck = 40MPa. When the
neutral axis depth is at 0.3d, M = 520kNm. If M is increased to 620kNm what
area of compression steel is required if d2 = 45mm? Note, for for the neutral axis
to be limited to 0.3d, there could be up to 30% re-distribution of moments
275
0.0035 fc
d2 Fs2
As2 x 0.8x
Fc
Neutral
axis
550
As
εs Fs

fc = fck/1.5

Neutral axis depth = 0.3d = 0.3 x 550 = 165mm

Strain in compression reinforcement εs2 = (165 – 45) x 0.0035 / 165 = 0.00255
Therefore stress, fs2 = Es x εs2(≤435) = 200000 x 0.00255 = 510MPa ≤ 435MPa
{Note fc = αccfck/γc}
Effective stress in compressive reinforcement
= fs2- fc = 435 – 0.85 x 40/1.5 = 412MPa
The additional moment is balanced by the moment provided by the compression
reinforcement, so taking moments about the tension steel gives :
As2 x 412 x (550 – 45) = (620 – 520) x 106
As2 = 480mm2
To balance this As will need to be increased by the same area.

In the self assessment questions, design problems more likely to occur in a consultants
office are presented.

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Bond and anchorage.

Bond between reinforcement and concrete is essential if the full forces assumed in design
are to be utilised. It can be achieved in a number of ways including using a length of
straight bar, using hooks and 180o bends. Clauses 8.4 – 8.5 from the code and the
subsequent examples illustrate the requirements.

8.4 Anchorage of longitudinal reinforcement

8.4.1 General
(1) P Reinforcing bars, wires or welded mesh fabrics shall be so anchored that the bond
forces are safely transmitted to the concrete avoiding longitudinal cracking or spalling.
Transverse reinforcement shall be provided if necessary.

(2) Methods of anchorage are shown in Figure 8.1 (see also 8.8 (3)).

(3) Bends and hooks do not contribute to compression anchorages.

(4) Concrete failure inside bends should be prevented by complying with 8.3 (3).

(5) Where mechanical devices are used the test requirements should be in accordance
with the relevant product standard or a European Technical Approval.

(6) For the transmission of prestressing forces to the concrete, see 8.10.

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8.4.2 Ultimate bond stress

(1)P The ultimate bond strength shall be sufficient to prevent bond failure.
(2) The design value of the ultimate bond stress, fbd, for ribbed bars may be taken as:
fbd = 2,25 η1 η2 fctd (8.2)
where:
fctd is the design value of concrete tensile strength according to 3.1.6 (2)P [See below].
Due to the increasing brittleness of higher strength concrete, fctk,0,05 should be limited here
to the
value for C60/75, unless it can be verified that the average bond strength increases
above this limit
η1 is a coefficient related to the quality of the bond condition and the position of the bar
during concreting (see Figure 8.2):
η1 = 1,0 when „good‟ conditions are obtained and
η1 = 0,7 for all other cases and for bars in structural elements built with slip-forms,
unless it can be shown that „good‟ bond conditions exist
η2 is related to the bar diameter:
η2 = 1,0 for φ ≤ 32 mm
η2 = (132 - φ)/100 for φ > 32 mm

Clause 3.1.6(2)P. The value of the design tensile strength, fctd, is defined as
fctd = αct fctk,0,05 / γC (3.16)
where:
γC is the partial safety factor for concrete, see 2.4.2.4, and
αct is a coefficient taking account of long term effects on the tensile strength and of
unfavorable effects, resulting from the way the load is applied.
Note: The value of αct for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex. The
recommended value is 1,0, and the NA approves this.

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8.4.3 Basic anchorage length

(1)P The calculation of the required anchorage length shall take into consideration the
type of steel and bond properties of the bars.

(2) The basic required anchorage length, lb,rqd, for anchoring the force As.ζsd in a straight
bar assuming constant bond stress equal to fbd follows from:
lb,rqd = (φ / 4) (ζsd / fbd) (8.3)
Where ζsd is the design stress of the bar at the position from where the anchorage is
measured from.
Values for fbd are given in 8.4.2.

(3) For bent bars the basic anchorage length, lb,rqd and the design length, lbd, should be
measured along the centre-line of the bar (see Figure 8.1a).

(4) Where pairs of wires/bars form welded fabrics the diameter, φ, in Expression (8.3)
should be replaced by the equivalent diameter φn = φ√2.

8.4.4 Design anchorage length

(1) The design anchorage length, lbd, is:
lbd = α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 lb,rqd ≥ lb,min (8.4)
where α1 , α2 , α3, α4 and α5 are coefficients given in Table 8.2:

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α1 is for the effect of the form of the bars assuming adequate cover (see Figure 8.1).
α2 is for the effect of concrete minimum cover (see Figure 8.3)

a) Straight bars b) Bent or hooked bars c) Looped bars

cd = min (a/2, c1, c) cd = min (a/2, c1) cd = c
Figure 8.3: Values of cd for beams and slabs

α3 is for the effect of confinement by transverse reinforcement

α4 is for the influence of one or more welded transverse bars ( φt > 0,6φ) along the design
anchorage length lbd (see also 8.6)
α5 is for the effect of the pressure transverse to the plane of splitting along the design
anchorage length

The product (α2α3α5) ≥ 0,7 (8.5)

lb,rqd is taken from Expression (8.3)

lb,min is the minimum anchorage length if no other limitation is applied:
- for anchorages in tension: lb,min > max{0,3lb,rqd; 10φ; 100 mm} (8.6)
- for anchorages in compression: lb,min > max{0,6lb,rqd; 10φ; 100 mm} (8.7)

(2) As a simplified alternative to 8.4.4 (1) the tension anchorage of certain shapes shown
in Figure 8.1 may be provided as an equivalent anchorage length, lb,eq. lb,eq is defined in
this figure and may be taken as:
- α1 lb,rqd for shapes shown in Figure 8.1b to 8.1d (see Table 8.2 for values of α1 )
- α4 lb,rqd for shapes shown in Figure 8.1e (see Table 8.2 for values of α4).
where
α1 and α4 are defined in (1)
lb,rqd is calculated from Expression (8.3)

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Table 8.2: Values of α1, α2, α3, α4 and α5 coefficients

8.5 Anchorage of links and shear reinforcement

(1) The anchorage of links and shear reinforcement should normally be effected by
means of bends and hooks, or by welded transverse reinforcement. A bar should be
provided inside a hook or bend.
(2) The anchorage should comply with Figure 8.5. Welding should be carried out in

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accordance with EN ISO 17660 and have a welding capacity in accordance with 8.6 (2).

Other details on the anchorage of welded bars etc is in the code

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Self assessment questions.

1. A rectangular section has b = 375mm, d = 575mm, and fck = 40MPa. No re-

distribution has been undertaken. What area of steel is required when the neutral
axis is at its limiting depth, and what moment of resistance to the nearest kNm
will this provide?

2. A doubly reinforced rectangular section has fck = 30MPa, As = 2638mm2, d2 =

55mm, d = 500mm and b = 375mm. The neutral axis depth is limited to 0.3d.
What is the stress in the compression reinforcement and the area of the
compression steel?

3. A rectangular section of width 300m and effective depth 500mm is subject to a

moment of 440kNm. If fck = 35MPa, what is the depth of the neutral axis x
(mm)?

4. A continuous beam spans 7.5 metres between supports. For one load case, the
bending moment at the supports is 440kNm whilst that at mid span is 308kNm.
For a second load case, the bending moment at the supports is 308kNm whilst that
at mid span is 440kNm. Determine the main reinforcement needed in the beam at
the support and mid span with “0” and 30% re-distribution of moments. The
beam is to be 300mm wide and has an effective depth of 400mm. Take d2 as
50mm. Use C40/50 and fyk = 500MPa.

5. Consider the beam in Figure Q5. The bending moment for a particular load case
has a value of zero, 2.0m from the supports. Determine the anchorage length
required from this point and hence produce a section over the supports showing
the main reinforcement. Assume α3 = 0.85. No external pressures exist.

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2.0m

X
A

225mm
35
25

280

FIGURE Q5
25
35

SECTION AA
35 25 40 25 40 25 35

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Learning outcomes.

At the end of this unit you should be conversant with :

 The idealized and actual stress blocks for both concrete and reinforcing steel.
 The strain distribution likely in reinforced concrete under predominantly
compressive conditions, when flexure dominates and in intermediate situations.
 The design of singly reinforced concrete beams.
 The design of doubly reinforced concrete beams.
 The need to limit the depth of the neutral axis in beams.
 The impact of moment redistribution on beam design.
 Over and under reinforced beams.
 Designing flanged beams.
 Designing oddly shaped beams.
 Determining bond and anchorage lengths in reinforced concrete elements.

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Solutions to self assessment questions.

Question 1
A rectangular section has b = 375mm, d = 575mm, and fck = 40MPa. No re-distribution
has been undertaken. What area of steel is required when the neutral axis is at its limiting
depth, and what moment of resistance to the nearest kNm will this provide?
375 0.0035 fc

x 0.8x
Fc
Neutral
axis
575 fc = fck/1.5
As
εs Fs

Limit to neutral axis depth. The theoretical limit is 0.617d but the Concrete Centre
originally suggested a value of 0.6d be selected when there is no re-distribution. Now
the UK suggest 0.45d. Carry out the design for both cases..

Concrete centre recommendation

Limit to neutral axis depth = 0.6d = 345mm.
As this is less than 0.617, the steel will have yielded.
Therefore fs = 500/1.15 = 435MPa
Stress in concrete = fc = αccfck/γc = 0.85 x 40 / 1.5 = 22.7MPa
Force in concrete Fc = force in steel Fs
b(0.8x)fc = Asfs
As = 375 x 0.8 x 345 x 22.7 / 435 = 5393mm2
Lever arm z = d – 0.4x = 575 – 0.4 x 345 = 437
Moment of resistance = Asfsz
= 5393 x 435 x 437 / 106 = 1025kNm
Current UK recommendation.
Limit to neutral axis depth = 0.45d = 259 mm.
As this is less than 0.617, the steel will have yielded.
Therefore fs = 500/1.15 = 435MPa
Stress in concrete = fc = αccfck/γc = 0.85 x 40 / 1.5 = 22.7MPa
Force in concrete Fc = force in steel Fs
b(0.8x)fc = Asfs
As = 375 x 0.8 x 259 x 22.7 / 435 = 4055 mm2
Lever arm z = d – 0.4x = 575 – 0.4 x 259 = 471.4 mm
Moment of resistance = Asfsz
= 4055 x 435 x 471.4 / 106 = 831.5 kNm

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Question 2.
A doubly reinforced rectangular section has fck = 30MPa, As = 2638mm2, d2 = 55mm, d =
500mm and b = 375mm. The neutral axis depth is limited to 0.3d. What is the stress in
the compression reinforcement and the area of the compression steel?

375 0.0035 fc
Fs2
As2 x 0.8x
Fc
Neutral
axis
500
As
εs Fs

fc = fck/1.5

x = 0.3d = 150mm
Tension steel has yielded (0.3d < 0.617d) therefore fs = 500/1.15 = 435MPa
Stress in concrete fc = αccfck/γc = 0.85 x 30 / 1.5 = 17MPa
Strain in compression reinforcement εs2 = (150 – 55) x 0.0035 / 150 = 0.0022
Therefore stress fs2 = E x εs2 (≤435) = 200000 x 0.00222 = 444 so use 435 MPa
Forces are in equilibrium Fc + Fs2 = Fs
thus b(0.8x)fc + As2(fs2 – fc) = Asfs
375 x 0.8 x 150 x 17 + As2 x (435 – 17) = 2638 x 435
As2 = 915mm2

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Question 3.
A rectangular section of width 300m and effective depth 500mm is subject to a moment
of 440kNm. If fck = 35MPa, what is the depth of the neutral axis x (mm)?

300 0.0035 fc

x 0.8x
Fc
Neutral
axis
500
As
εs Fs

fc = fck/1.5

Stress in concrete = αccfck/γc = 0.85 x 35 / 1.5 = 19.8MPa

Depth of rectangular stress block = 0.8x
z = (500 – 0.4x)
Taking moments about the tension steel Fcz = M
b(0.8x)fc z = M
300 x (0.8x) x 19.8 x (500 – 0.4x) = 440 x 106
Expanding and re-arranging gives :
1904x2 – 2380000x + 440 x 106 = 0
Solving the quadratic gives : x = 226mm

x/d = 226/500 = 0.45 so the beam is at the point of requiring double reinforcement.

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Question 4.
A continuous beam spans 7.5 metres between supports. For one load case, the bending
moment at the supports is 440kNm whilst that at mid span is 308kNm. For a second load
case, the bending moment at the supports is 308kNm whilst that at mid span is 440kNm.
Determine the main reinforcement needed in the beam at the support and mid span with
“0” and 30% re-distribution of moments. The beam is to be 300mm wide and has an
effective depth of 400mm. Take d2 as 50mm. Use C40/50 and fyk = 500MPa

Derivation of δ prior to undertaking example.

Moment at a sec tion after redistribution

  1.0
Moment at a sec tion before redistribution
According to the U.K. NA and Clause 5.4 of EC2,
x
  k1  k 2 bal
d
And k1 = 0.4, k2 = 1.0, so
x
  0.4  k 2 bal
d
Now at balance,
M bal  (0.453 f ck bxbal ) zbal
M (0.453xbal ) z bal
and K bal  2bal 
bd f ck d2
x z
K bal  0.453 bal bal
d d
z 1 0.8 xbal   x 
But bal   d    1  0.4 bal   1  0.4(  0.4) 
d d 2   d 
Hence K bal  0.453(  0.4)(1  0.4  0.16)  0.453(  0.4)(1.16  0.4 )
K bal  0.453(1.16  0.4 2  0.464  0.16 )  0.453(1.32  0.4 2  0.464)
K bal  0.598  0.181 2  0.210
When δ = 1.0 (no redistribution) Kbal = 0.208. The UK now recommends K never exceed
0.167. Further, the depth to the neutral axis is limited to 0.45d.

Case of “0” re-distribution. Support

M = 440.0kNm
b = 300mm
d = 400mm
fck = 40

K = M/(bd2fck) = 0.23
δ = 1.0, so
K‟ = 0.598 δ – 0.18 δ2 – 0.21 = 0.208 but set at 0.167.
K > K‟

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As2 = (M – M‟)/fsc(d – d2)

M‟ = K‟bd2fck = 0.167 x 300 x 4002 x 40 x 10-6 = 320.64kNm
xu = (δ – 0.4)d = 0.6 x 400 but limited to 0.45d = 180mm
fsc = 700(xu – d2)/xu = 700(180 – 50)/180 = 506 NOT ≤ fyd = 500/1.15 = 434.8MPa so
fsc = 434.8 MPa
Alternative calculation :
εs2 = εcu3(1-d2/x) = 0.0035(1-50/180) = 0.00253
so fsc = 200000 x 0.00253 = 506 MPa
As2 = (M – M‟)/fsc(d – d2) = (440 – 320.64)106/(434.8(400 – 50) = 784.3mm2
z = d[0.5 + 0.5(1-3.53K‟)0.5] = 282.1
As1 = M‟/(fydz) + As2fsc/fyd
= 320.64 x 106/(434.8 x 282.1) + 784.3 x 434.8/434.8 = 3398.4 mm2.

Case of “0” re-distribution. Mid span

M = 440.0kNm
b = 300mm
d = 400mm
fck = 40

K = M/(bd2fck) = 0.23
δ = 1.0, so
K‟ = 0.598 δ – 0.18 δ2 – 0.21 = 0.208 but limited to 0.167
K > K‟
As2 = (M – M‟)/fsc(d – d2)
M‟ = K‟bd2fck = 0.167 x 300 x 4002 x 40 x 10-6 = 320.64 kNm
xu = (δ – 0.4)d = 0.6 x 400 but limited to 0.45d = 180 mm
fsc = 700(xu – d2)/xu = 700(180 – 50)/180 = 506 NOT ≤ fyd = 500/1.15 = 434.8 MPa
fsc = 434.8 MPa
As2 = (M – M‟)/fsc(d – d2) = (440 – 320.64)106/(434.8(400 – 50) = 784.3 mm2
z = d[0.5 + 0.5(1-3.53K‟)0.5] = 282.1
As1 = M‟/(fydz) + As2fsc/fyd
= 320.64 x 106/(434.8 x 282.1) + 784.3 x 434.8/434.8 = 3398.4 mm2.

Case of “30%” re-distribution. Support

M = 440 – 132 = 308kNm
b = 300mm
d = 400mm
fck = 40

K = M/(bd2fck) = 0.16
δ = 0.7, so
K‟ = 0.598 δ – 0.18 δ2 – 0.21 = 0.12 < 0.167 so OK
K > K‟
As2 = (M – M‟)/fsc(d – d2)
M‟ = K‟bd2fck = 0.12 x 300 x 4002 x 40 x 10-6 = 230kNm
xu = (δ – 0.4)d = 0.3 x 400 = 120mm

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fsc = 700(xu – d2)/xu = 700(120 – 50)/120 = 408 ≤ fyd = 500/1.15 = 434.8MPa

fsc = 408MPa
As2 = (M – M‟)/fsc(d – d2) = (308 – 230)106/(408(400 – 50) = 546.2mm2
z = d[0.5 + 0.5(1-3.53K‟)0.5] = 351.8
As1 = M‟/(fydz) + As2fsc/fyd
= 230 x 106/(435 x 351.8) + 546.2 x 408/435 = 2015mm2.

Case of “30%” re-distribution. Mid span

The worst moment of 440kNm from load case 2 is not exceeded when the moment at
the support is redistributed so the area of reinforcement is identical to the case with
“0” redistribution.

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SUMMARY.

Moment Support Support reinforcement (mm2) Span Span reinforcement (mm2)

redist. (%) moment moment
kNm Tensile Comp. TOTAL kNm Tensile Comp. TOTAL
0 440 3295 269 3564 440 3295 269 3564
30% - span 308 2015 546 2561 440 3295 269 3564
and
support

Note. If the depth to the neutral axis is limited to 0.45d different results will be obtained.

Main tensile and compression reinforcement in Concrete beams.

Symbol Formula
K M /(bd 2 f ck )
K’ 0.598δ – 0.18δ2 – 0.21 ≤ 0.167
Assuming depth to neutral axis = 0.45d
If K ≤ K’ = 0.167 then beam is singly reinforced and
z d[0.5 + (0.25 – K/1.133)0.5 ≤ 0.95d
fyd fyk/γs
As M/(0.87fykz). {Note 0.87 = 1/1.15 = 1/γs}
If K > K’ then beam is doubly reinforced. Beyond this
course.
Symbol Definition
M Design moment applied to beam
b Width of beam.
fck Characteristic strength of concrete determined using cylinders
δ Redistribution ratio = 1.0
As1 Area of main tensile reinforcement
d Effective depth of beam
fyk Characteristic strength of steel. Taken as 500N/mm2
fyd Design strength of steel = fyk/ γs.
γs Partial factor for steel = 1.15
As Area of tensile reinforcement

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Question 5.
Consider the beam in Figure 5. The bending moment for a particular load case has a
value of zero, 2.0m from the supports. Determine the anchorage length required from
this point and hence produce a section over the supports showing the main reinforcement.
Assume α3 = 0.85. No external pressures exist. Note the bond anchorage length needs to
be determined for both the top and bottom steel. Concrete strength is C45/55. Assume
the cross sectional area of transverse reinforcement is 0.4 x area of the main
reinforcement at that location

2.0m

X
A

225mm
35
25

280

25
35

35 25 40 25 40 25 35

SECTION AA

FIGURE 5

Solution.
Top steel
Step 1. Ultimate design bond stress fbd for ribbed bars = fbd = 2,25 η1 η2 fctd
η1 = 0.7 (see Figure 8.2):
η2 = 1,0 (φ ≤ 32 mm)
fctd = αct fctk,0,05 / γC = [1.0 x (0.7 x 3.8)]/1.5 = 1.77 (Cl. 3.16)
where:
• γC - Partial factor for conc. [Usually = 1.5] (Cl.4.2.4)
• αct – Coeff - Allows for long term effects on tensile strength & of unfavorable
effects, from how loads are applied.

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• αct – From NA = 1.0, the recommended value is 1,0.

• fctk;0,05 = 0,7×fctm (5% fractile) [Table 3.1]
fbd = 2,25 η1 η2 fctd = 2.25 x 0.7 x 1.0 x 1.77 = 2.79

Step 2. Basic anchorage length (Cl 8.4.3)

Anchorage length as if a straight bar = lb,rqd = (φ / 4) (ζsd / fbd)
= (25/4) x ((500/1.15)/2.79) = 974mm
Where
ζsd - design stress in bar at position from where anchorage starts.
ζsd = fyk/ γs
fbd - ultimate design bond stress

Step 3. Design anchorage length (Cl. 8.4.4)

lbd = α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 lb,rqd ≥ lb,min
where α1 , α2 , α3, α4 and α5 - coefficients given in Table 8.1,Table 8.2 & Figure 8.3
Finding α1 - Allows for form of bars assuming adequate cover. Table 8.2, Figure 8.1,
Figure 8.3. Bars are straight so α1 = 1.0

Finding α2 – Allows for the effect of concrete cover. (Figure 8.3 and Table 8.2)
α2 = 1-0.15(cd – φ)/ φ
cd = min(a/2, c1, c) [Figure 8.3] = min(105/2, 35, 35) = 35mm
α2 = 1-0.15(cd – φ)/ φ = 1 – 0.15(35 – 25)/25 = 0.94

α3 – You may assume this = 0.85 but I have worked it out as an additional exercise.

Finding α3 – Confinement reinforcement (Table 8.2 and Figure 8.4). α3 = 1 – Kλ

K = 0.1 (Figure 8.4). λ = (ΣAst – ΣAst,min)/As
Where ΣAst = 0.4 (2 x 3.142 x 252/4) = 392.8mm2. [Cross sectional area of transverse
reinforcement along design anchorage length lbd.]
ΣAst,min = 0.25 x 490.4 = 122.7mm2 [Cross sectional area of the minimum transverse
reinforcement = 0.25As for beams and 0 for slabs.]
As = 490.94mm2 [Area of a single anchored bar with maximum bar diameter.]
So λ = (ΣAst – ΣAst,min)/As = (392.8 – 122.7)/490.94 = 0.55
α3 = 1 – Kλ = 1 – 0.1 x 0.55 = 0.945

Finding α4 - Allows for influence of welded transverse bars ( φt > 0,6φ) along the design
anchorage length lbd (see Table 8.2). [ = 1.0 no effect]

Finding α5 - Allows for pressure transverse to the plane of splitting along the design
anchorage length. Not applicable.

Hence lbd = α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 lb,rqd = 1.0 x 0.94 x 0.945 x 1 x 1 x 974 = 865 (778mm if α3 =

0.85) mm ≥ lb,min
lb,min = Min anchorage length tension = max{0,3lb,rqd; 10φ; 100 mm}
= max{0,3 x 974 = 292, 10 x 25 = 250, 100 mm} = 292mm.
Use a bar anchorage length of 865 mm in top of beam.

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Bottom steel
Step 1. Ultimate design bond stress fbd for ribbed bars = fbd = 2,25 η1 η2 fctd
η1 = 1.0 (see Figure 8.2):
η2 = 1,0 (φ ≤ 32 mm)
fctd = αct fctk,0,05 / γC = [1.0 x (0.7 x 3.8)]/1.5 = 1.77 (Cl. 3.16)
where:
• γC - Partial factor for conc. [Usually = 1.5] (Cl.4.2.4)
• αct – Coeff - Allows for long term effects on tensile strength & of unfavorable
effects, from how loads are applied.
• αct – From NA = 1.0, the recommended value is 1,0.
• fctk;0,05 = 0,7×fctm (5% fractile) [Table 3.1]

fbd = 2,25 η1 η2 fctd = 2.25 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.77 = 3.98

Step 2. Basic anchorage length (Cl 8.4.3)

Anchorage length as if a straight bar = lb,rqd = (φ / 4) (ζsd / fbd)
= (25/4) x ((500/1.15)/3.98) = 683mm
Where
ζsd - design stress in bar at position from where anchorage starts.
ζsd = fyk/ γs
fbd - ultimate design bond stress

Step 3. Design anchorage length (Cl. 8.4.4)

lbd = α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 lb,rqd ≥ lb,min
where α1 , α2 , α3, α4 and α5 - coefficients given in Table 8.1,Table 8.2 & Figure 8.3
Finding α1 - Allows for form of bars assuming adequate cover. Table 8.2, Figure 8.1,
Figure 8.3. Bars are straight so α1 = 1.0

Finding α2 – Allows for the effect of concrete cover. (Figure 8.3 and Table 8.2)
α2 = 1-0.15(cd – φ)/ φ
cd = min(a/2, c1, c) [Figure 8.3] = min(20, 35, 35) = 20mm
α2 = 1-0.15(cd – φ)/ φ = 1 – 0.15(20 – 25)/25 = 1.03 but α2 ≤ 1.0 and ≥ 0.7 so α2 = 1.0

α3 – I have calculated this and not used the assumption

Finding α3 – Confinement reinforcement (Table 8.2 and Figure 8.4). α3 = 1 – Kλ
K = 0.1 (Figure 8.4). λ = (ΣAst – ΣAst,min)/As
Where ΣAst = 0.4 (3 x 3.142 x 252/4) = 589.13mm2. [Cross sectional area of transverse
reinforcement along design anchorage length lbd.]
ΣAst,min = 0.25 x 490.4 = 122.7mm2 [Cross sectional area of the minimum transverse
reinforcement = 0.25As for beams and 0 for slabs.]
As = 490.94mm2 [Area of a single anchored bar with maximum bar diameter.]
So λ = (ΣAst – ΣAst,min)/As = (589.13 – 122.7)/490.94 = 0.95
α3 = 1 – Kλ = 1 – 0.1 x 0.95 = 0.905

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Finding α4 - Allows for influence of welded transverse bars ( φt > 0,6φ) along the design
anchorage length lbd (see Table 8.2). [ = 1.0 no effect]. {Table 8.2 intimates α4 = 0.7 but
logic suggests this should occurs only when welded fabric is used. If there are no welds
then we should not take this advantage and α4 = 1.0}

Finding α5 - Allows for pressure transverse to the plane of splitting along the design
anchorage length. Not applicable.

Hence lbd = α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 lb,rqd = 1.0 x 1.0 x 0.905 x 1 x 1 x 683 = 618mm ≥ lb,min

lb,min = Min anchorage length tension = max{0,3lb,rqd; 10φ; 100 mm}
= max{0,3 x 618 = 185.4, 10 x 25 = 250, 100 mm} = 250mm.
Use a bar anchorage length of 618mm for bottom steel.

Bar areas, perimeters and spacing

Sectional areas of groups of bars (mm2)
Bar size Number of bars
(mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6 28.3 56.6 84.9 113 142 170 198 226 255 283
8 50.3 101 151 201 252 302 352 402 453 503
10 78.5 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 113 226 339 452 566 679 792 905 1020 1130
16 201 402 603 804 1010 1210 1410 1610 1810 2010
20 314 628 943 1260 1570 1890 2200 2510 2830 3140
25 491 982 1470 1960 2450 2950 3440 3930 4420 4910
32 804 1610 2410 3220 4020 4830 5630 6430 7240 8040
40 1260 2510 3770 5030 6280 7540 8800 10100 11300 12600

Perimeters and weights of bars

Bar size (mm) 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40
Perimeter(mm) 18.85 25.1 31.4 37.7 50.2 62.8 78.5 100.5 125.6
Weight (kg/m) 0.222 0.395 0.616 0.888 1.579 2.466 3.854 6.313 9:864
Bar weights based on density of 7850 kg/m3 .

Sectional areas per metre width for various bar spacings (mm2 )
Bar size Spacing of bars
(mm) 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
6 566 377 283 226 189 162 142 113 94
8 1010 671 503 402 335 287 252 201 168
10 1570 1050 785 628 523 449 393 314 262
12 2260 1510 1130 905 754 646 566 452 377
16 4020 2680 2010 1610 1340 1150 1010 804 670
20 6280 4190 3140 2510 2090 1800 1570 1260 1050
25 9820 6550 4910 3930 3270 2810 2450 1960 1640
32 16100 10700 8040 6430 5360 4600 4020 3220 2680
40 25100 16800 12600 10100 8380 7180 6280 5030 4190

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