Exploring the spatial needs of Autistic individuals in the built environment:

Towards a Learning Centre for Durban

by

ROMAN NAIDOO

213523799

Supervisor

Lawrence Ogunsanga

A Dissertation Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

Requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture to

The School of Built Environment and Development Studies

University of KwaZulu-Natal

Durban, South Africa

March 2020
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The journey to become an architect begun as a childhood dream and has grown to one of my life’s
greatest goal, I thank God for being the light to my path and guiding me through every storm I faced
to get this far!

To my family for the constant encouragement, support and love, my friends I made along the journey
for the good memories and stories we share. To my parents who shaped me into the person I am
today. To my elder siblings for always being there for me in times of need and support and the love
they have brought in my life through their family.

To every person that played a vital role and motivated me to overcome many circumstances without
each and every person along the journey this would have not been possible.

To Daphne Kisten for the support and kindness along this journey. The constant motivation and
assistance. Most importantly the good conversation, the laughs and for keeping me motivated and to
always believe in myself, I thank you!

To my supervisor Mr. Lawrence Ogunsanga, a special thank you for the interest in my research and
study, for believing in me and the guidance and support toward this career accomplishment.

ii
 ABSTRACT

This study looks at the neurological condition of autism which impairs an individual’s perception to
interact with people and the built environment. Recently autism has become a frequent subject of
study in various fields this includes architecture, and architecture for Autism. Through research it
has shown individuals with autism experience sensory and perceptual difficulties and therefore
require special spatial needs and consideration in order for them to be able to manage their condition
within the built environment. Most centres for autism deal only with the social, imaginative and
communicative difficulties experienced disregarding the specific spatial, sensory and perceptual
difficulties. The approach taken by this study includes concise literature review precedent studies,
case study and semi structured online interviews. The study has shown that autistic individuals
experience multiples sensory and perceptual difficulties both in learning and social spaces. The
theoretical framework explores the paradigm of phenomenology which responds to the sensory
stimulation and socio-spatial theory which addresses the importance of the public interface and its
role in public awareness towards the autistic community.

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CONTENTS

DECLARATION - PLAGIARISM ..................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................. ii

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................ x

CHAPTER ONE | RESEACH BACKGROUND AND METHODOLOGY ..................................... 1

1.1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1.2. Motivation/ Justification of the study ....................................................................................... 2

1.2. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ............................................. 3

1.2.1. Definition of the problem ......................................................................................................... 3

1.2.2. Aims.......................................................................................................................................... 3

1.2.3. Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 3

1.3. SETTING OUT THE SCOPE ..................................................................................................... 4

1.3.1. Delimitation of Research Problem ........................................................................................... 4

1.3.2. Definition of Terms .................................................................................................................. 4

1.3.3. Stating the Assumptions ........................................................................................................... 5

1.3.4. Key Questions........................................................................................................................... 5

1.3.5. Hypothesis ................................................................................................................................ 6

1.4. CONCEPTS AND THEORIES ................................................................................................... 6

1.4.1. Phenomenology ........................................................................................................................ 6

1.4.2. Perception theory ...................................................................................................................... 7

1.4.3. Architectural Psychology ......................................................................................................... 7

1.4.5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 8

1.5. RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIAL ............................................................................. 8

1.5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 8

iv
1.5.2. Research Philosophy and Strategy ........................................................................................... 9

1.5.3. Secondary Data Collection ....................................................................................................... 9

1.5.4. Primary Data Collection ......................................................................................................... 10

1.5.5. Research Material ................................................................................................................... 11

1.5.6. Research Analysis................................................................................................................... 11

1.5.7. Summary ................................................................................................................................. 12

1.5.8. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 13

CHAPTER TWO | THE SPATIAL INTERPRETATION OF AUTISTIC INDIVIDUALS AND

THEIR NAVIGATION THROUGH THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ............................................ 14

2.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 14

2.2. THE SOCIAL IMPAIRMENTS OF ASD ................................................................................ 14

2.2.1. Social Disconnection .............................................................................................................. 15

2.2.2. Communication in Autistic Behaviour ................................................................................... 16

2.2.3. Environmental Alienation....................................................................................................... 18

2.3. SENSORY STIMULATION ..................................................................................................... 20

2.3.1. The Sense of Modalities ......................................................................................................... 21

2.3.1.1. The sense of sight ................................................................................................................ 21

2.3.1.2. The sense of sound .............................................................................................................. 22

2.3.1.3. The sense of smell ............................................................................................................... 23

2.3.1.4. The sense of touch ............................................................................................................... 23

2.3.1.5. Vestibular and Kinaesthetic ................................................................................................. 24

2.3.2. Sensory Design Theory .......................................................................................................... 26

2.3.2.1. Sensory integration .............................................................................................................. 26

2.3.2.2. Sensory Integrative Dysfunction ......................................................................................... 27

2.3.2.3. Sensory integration techniques ............................................................................................ 28

2.3.3. Neuro-Typical Design ............................................................................................................ 29

2.4. THE IMPACT OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON AUTISTIC INDIVIDUALS ............ 31

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2.5. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 33

CHAPTER THREE | ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK PERSPECTIVE IN RESPONSE TO

SPATIAL NEEDS OF AUTISTIC INDIVIDUALS........................................................................ 34

3.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 34

3.2. PARADIGM OF PHENOMENOLOGY.................................................................................. 36

3.2.1 Sense of Place .......................................................................................................................... 36

3.2.2. Enactivism through Sense-making ......................................................................................... 37

3.3. PERCEPTION THEORY .......................................................................................................... 38

3.3.1. The Process of Perception ...................................................................................................... 38

3.3.1.1. Intensity- Hypersensitive ..................................................................................................... 39

3.3.1.2. Hyposensitivity .................................................................................................................... 39

3.3.1.3. Sensory Overload ................................................................................................................ 40

3.3.1.4. Gestalt Perception ................................................................................................................ 41

3.3.1.5. Fragmented Perception ........................................................................................................ 41

3.3.1.6. Delayed Processing.............................................................................................................. 42

3.3.1.7. Distorted Perception ............................................................................................................ 42

3.3.1.8. Sensory Shutdown ............................................................................................................... 43

3.3.1.9. Compensation ...................................................................................................................... 43

3.3.2. Perception and education ........................................................................................................ 44

3.4. SOCIO-SPATIAL THEORY .................................................................................................... 45

3.5. SENSORY DESIGN ................................................................................................................. 46

3.5.1. Acoustics ................................................................................................................................ 46

3.5.2. Spatial Sequencing ................................................................................................................. 47

3.5.3. Escape Spaces ......................................................................................................................... 48

3.5.4. Compartmentalization ............................................................................................................ 49

3.5.5. Transition ................................................................................................................................ 50

3.5.6. Sensory Zoning ....................................................................................................................... 51

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3.5.7. Safety ...................................................................................................................................... 51

3.6. INTEGRATIVE SENSORY ARCHITECTURE ...................................................................... 51

3.6.1. Controlled Environments ........................................................................................................ 52

3.6.2. Sensory Saturated Spaces ....................................................................................................... 52

3.6.3. Public Interface ....................................................................................................................... 52

3.7. ECOLOGICAL SENSORY RESPONSE ................................................................................. 52

3.7.1. Connection with Nature .......................................................................................................... 53

3.7.2. Visual and Non-visual Connection with Nature ..................................................................... 54

3.7.3. Presence of Water ................................................................................................................... 54

3.7.4. Sensory Garden....................................................................................................................... 55

3.8. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 56

CHAPTER FOUR | PRECEDENT STUDIES ............................................................................. 57

4.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 57

4.2. NEW STRUAN CENTRE FOR AUTISM ............................................................................... 57

4.2.1. Acoustics ................................................................................................................................ 58

4.2.2. Spatial Sequencing ................................................................................................................. 59

4.2.3. Escape Spaces ......................................................................................................................... 60

4.2.4. Compartmentalisation ............................................................................................................. 60

4.2.5. Transition ................................................................................................................................ 61

4.2.6. Sensory Zoning ....................................................................................................................... 62

4.2.7. Integration with Nature ........................................................................................................... 63

4.2.8. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 64

4.3. EDEN AUTISM SERVICES, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY.................................................. 65

4.3.1. Acoustics ................................................................................................................................ 66

4.3.2. Spatial Sequencing ................................................................................................................. 67

4.3.3. Escape Spaces ......................................................................................................................... 67

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4.3.4. Compartmentalisation ............................................................................................................. 68

4.3.5. Transition ................................................................................................................................ 68

4.4. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 69

CHAPTER FIVE | CASE STUDY ............................................................................................... 70

5.2. ACTION IN AUTISM, DURBAN NORTH, HAIG ROAD..................................................... 70

5.2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 70

5.2.2. Spatial Sequencing ................................................................................................................. 71

5.2.3. Sensory Zoning ....................................................................................................................... 72

5.2.4. Connection to Nature .............................................................................................................. 73

5.2.5. Transition ................................................................................................................................ 74

5.2.6. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 75

CHAPTER SIX | ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................... 76

6.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 76

6.2. OUTLINING THEMES OF PRIMARY DATA ANALYSIS .................................................. 78

6.2.1. Theme 1- Sensory saturated environments ............................................................................. 78

6.2.2. Theme 2- Sense of calm and order ......................................................................................... 79

6.2.3. Theme 3- Natural setting and outdoor interface ..................................................................... 80

6.2.4. Theme 4- Sense of awareness through an integrated public sphere ....................................... 81

6.3. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 82

CHAPTER SEVEN | CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................... 83

7.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 83

7.2. RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................................................... 86

7.2.1. Controlled spaces .................................................................................................................... 86

7.2.2. Balance between hypo and hyper sensitive environments ..................................................... 87

7.2.3. Modulation.............................................................................................................................. 89

7.2.4. Site Selection Guidelines ........................................................................................................ 89

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7.3. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 90

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 91

APPENDICES .................................................................................................................................. 96

ix
LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER TWO
Figure 2.1. Diagram showing different levels on the ASD spectrum (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 2.2. Communication consideration (Source: Yates, 2016)

Figure 2.3. Multiple sensory input (Source: www.cooperhewitt.org)

Figure 2.4. Information communicated to the brain through various sense
(Source: http://www.aknamarquez.com/)
Figure 2.5. Reversible figure ground effect (Source: Coren, 1999:297).
Figure 2.6. Information interpreted through sound (Source: https://wordsinspace.net/)

Figure 2.7. Beeswax walls of St Ignatjus Chapel, Seattle, by Steven Holl (Source: Olsen, 1997:50)

Figure 2.8. Tactile wall at Hazelwood School (Source: Rodger, 2007: 30)

Figure 2.9. Le Corbusier's Concept of Promenade Architecturelle in the Design of Villa Savoye
(Source: Samuel, 2010: 115 123)
Figure 2.10. sawatari-ishi, ‘steps in the marsh', in the garden of the Heian Shrine in Kyoto, Japan
(Source: https://japon-fr.com/)
Figure 2.11. Diagram showing the steps to sensory perception
Source: (https://www.emaxhealth.com/)
Figure 2.12. Image of different sensory profiles, hyper and hyposensitive
(Source: https://theenthusiasticlife.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sensory-in-lunch-room-
768x768.png,)
Figure 2.13. Sensory input illustration (Source: https://childsuccesscenter.com/)
Figure 2.14. Sensory output illustration (Source: https://eatingoffplastic.wordpress.com/)

Figure 2.15. Design and wellbeing: Bridging the empathy gap between neurotypical designers and
autistic adults by Katie Gaudion, Ashley K. Hall (Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/ )

Figure 2.16. Image of a world cloud illustrating design challenges and design principles
(Source: Magda, 2015; 68)
Figure 2.17. Image of person and person in a wheelchair with caption (Source:
https://blog.senedd.wales/2016/07/07/not-every-disability-is-visible-invisible-disabilities/)

x
CHAPTER THREE
Figure 3.1. Conceptual framework on the theoretical perspective used in this architectural study as
shown below: (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 3.2. Diagram showing the Phenomenology trilogy in architecture (Source: Habib, Sahhaf,
2012; 46)

Figure 3.3. The process of perception (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 3.4. A neurotypical view compared to hypersensitive (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 20)

Figure 3.5. A neurotypical view compared to hyposensitive (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 21)

Figure 3.6. A neurotypical view compared to sensory overload (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 22)

Figure 3.7. A neurotypical view compared to gestalt perception (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 23)

Figure 3.8. A neurotypical view compared to fragmented perception (Source: Leestma, 2015, P.
24)

Figure 3.9. A neurotypical view compared to delayed processing (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 25)

Figure 3.10. A neurotypical view compared to delayed processing (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 26)

Figure 3.11. A neurotypical view compared to sensory shutdown (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 27)

Figure 3.12. Background noises in a typical classroom (Source:

https://www.acousticalsurfaces.com/, Accessed: August 2020)

Figure 3.13. Image symbolic of the spatial sequence design principle.

(Source:https://www.autism.archi/aspectss, Accessed: August 2020)

Figure 3.14. A time out escape space for students (Source: https://www.todaysparent.com/)

Figure 3.15. Compartmentalized study of a classroom showing synchronized use of various stations.
(Source: Mostafa, 2008).

Figure 3.16. The different transition zones (Source: https://www.utas.edu.au/)

Figure 3.17. Different methods of integrating the environment on sensory perception

(Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/)

Figure 3.18. Visual connection with nature (Source: https://za.pinterest.com/)

xi
Figure 3.19. Wading pool showing a sense of relaxed environment (Source: http://architecture-
corner.blogspot.com/)
Figure 3.20. Illustration of integrated sensory garden (Source: https://www.henshaws.org.uk/)

CHAPTER FOUR
Figure 4.1. Locality map (Source: https://earth.google.com/)
Figure 4.2. External façade of the building (Source: https://www.archdaily.com/)

Figure 4.3. Ariel view of New Struan Centre (Source: https://earth.google.com/)

Figure 4.4. Sketch section of main circulation space (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 4.5. Floor Plan layout (Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/)

Figure 4.6. Atrium circulation spine of the building (Source: https://www.aitken-

turnbull.co.uk/project/centre-autism-new-struan/)

Figure 4.7. Transitional space (Source: http://www.designhub.it/)

Figure 4.8. External sketch of the entrance of the centre. (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 4.9. Internal view of a classroom (Source: https://www.archdaily.com/)

Figure 4.10. Outdoor gym area (Source: https://www.scottishautism.org/)

Figure 4.11. Outdoor play area (Source: https://www.archdaily.com/)

Figure 4.12. Locality map (Source: https://earth.google.com/)

Figure 4.13. Eden Autism Services entrance (Source: https://kssarchitects.com/)

Figure 4.14. Site map (Source: https://earth.google.com/)

Figure 4.15. Interior view of classroom (Source: https://kssarchitects.com/)

Figure 4.16. Site plan (Source: https://oddgraphic.com/)

Figure 4.17. Zoning plan of facility (Source: https://www.architecturalrecord.com/)

Figure 4.18. Main circulation space of the centre (Source: https://www.vjscozzariandsons.com/)

CHAPTER FIVE
Figure 5.1. Central courtyard activity space (Source: https://www.actioninautism.org.za/about-us)
Figure 5.2. The sketch above shows a sketch layout site plan (Source: Author, 2020)

xii
Figure 5.3. Image of the open central courtyard (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 5.4. Image of one of the sensory rooms (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 5.5. (Image above shows sensory stimulation methods and activities for learner to engage
in Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 5.6. Image of garden and nursery (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 5.7. Image of children’s play area (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 5.8. View of main circulation space (Source: Author, 2020)

CHAPTER SEVEN
Figure 7.1. Simple sketch of typical folding stacks doors (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 7.2. Sketch of sliding panels (Source: Autor, 2020)

Figure 7.3. Image of typical classroom with acoustic ceiling panels

Figure 7.4. Image of typical interactive outdoor space for autistic individuals.

(Source: http://autismrocksfife.org/new-gallery)

Figure 7.5. Image showing a seat textured with grass and colour palette depicting different
emotions. (Source: http://autismrocksfife.org/new-gallery)

Figure 7.6. Sketch showing interactive levels (Source: Author, 2020)

Figure 7.7. Typical example of modulation (Source: Author, 2020)

xiii
CHAPTER ONE | RESEACH BACKGROUND AND METHODOLOGY

1.1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 Background

Autism has shown through research to be one of fastest rising developmental disability.
Approximately one percent of the entire world population has been diagnosed with autism
spectrum disorder. Through early diagnosis and proper treatment and facilities can make it
possible and allow the individual to adapt to normal life without feeling out of place, lost and
confused. Individuals with ASD feel much more relaxed and calmer in spaces that promote a
sense of inclusion and considerations to their specific needs as a result this enhances their well-
being and their ability to overcome their learning and social difficulties. However, the
traditional care centre acts as an isolated utopia and is not enough for social demands and the
treatment of autism.

Wilkes (2005) reports that: “some individuals, such as those with Autism Spectrum Disorders
(ASD's), experience these built environments with impaired perceptions. These individuals
find it difficult to make sense of the world, which in turn affects their abilities to cope,
experience and relate to their surrounding environments. Everyday experiences, which the
majority of people take for granted, for people with ASD become negative and upsetting
experiences” (Wilkes, 2005). The result of the environment being unbearable on people with
ASD leads them to withdraw from society and seek little or no interaction with others and their
surroundings.

South Africa does not provide much awareness on this disorder and neither does the built
environment cater to their needs. The city of Durban does not have a centre that caters for the
specific needs of those in the ASD spectrum or much awareness and information easily
available to its community.

1
1.1.2. Motivation/ Justification of the study

The built environment has made progress towards universal design by acknowledging physical
disabilities, and not “readily visible “impairments. According to Smith (2009), the physical
environment can support people with impairments, therefore it is important to establish that the
aim of the approach should not be to “fix” as if the users are diseased or deficient. “It is more
productive to consider the particular situation, as a relationship between person and place that
needs to be understood, in order to improve an autistic individual’s quality of life through the
design of the physical environment” (Smith 2009, p. 221)

Therefore, the main motivations of this study are as follows:

Autism impairs the ability to communicate and socially interact with people. This impairment
has an impact on an autistic individual’s everyday activities and acts as a constraint. Another
challenge is the inability to adapt to new environments without experiencing trauma as one
becomes overwhelmed. Autistic individuals experience a sensory overload resulting in the
inability to function. A sensitive, inclusive approach needs to be considered when designing
environments. Inclusive spaces created through the built environment can act as a filter,
reducing the negative impact of adjusting to new environments and socially interacting with
people.

Due to the impairments experienced in Autism, it forces individuals to be completely

dependent on supportive structures such as specialised care or family. In a specialised school,
autistic behavioural and communication issues are addressed, but the concentrated focus on
their impairments leaves much more to be considered, in order for an autistic to become a
functioning entity in society. It is imperative for the learning process that has commenced in
primary education to proceed into secondary, and also further develop into adulthood to allow
an autistic individual to continue development and breaking restrictive barriers

The education system within South Africa provides very minimum support for ASD and non-
visual disabilities and therefore has left many parents and care givers lacking financial support
and knowledge about the condition of ASD in order to provide a fruitful and fulfilled future for
their children. The city of Durban is a major node and provides various transport routes to many
suburbs and peri-urban settlements therefore, provides a great opportunity towards a centre for
the needs of ASD through awareness and exposure. The centre will become a resource hub to
main stream schools and the public.

2
1.2. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.2.1. Definition of the problem

A few young adult autistic individuals, who were fortunate to attend high school, graduate with
the hope of moving out of their parent’s homes, and to become self-supporting individuals
through job seeking prospects, however, reality soon dawns upon them that there is barely any
employment scope suitable for their criteria. In most young adult autistic, cases especially those
who are considered to be “low-functioning” are able to obtain the minimum skills and
knowledge to function, but the time in which it takes to obtain this, creates a gap between
autistic individuals and others in the job market. Employment is one of the concerns but
housing is just as important, as naturally is the urge to be independent comes with age.

It is essential for the needs of young adult autistic individuals to be given a platform to access
their basic rights and to equip them with “life skills”. The built environment and on-going
research need to further explore the autistic needs of individuals that go beyond adolescence.

1.2.2. Aims

• The main aim of the study is to implement the understanding of spatial needs of
individuals with Autism into a learning centre that caters for the Autistic individuals
going from adolescents into adulthood.
• Explore the impact, benefits and understand the concept of perceptual architecture and
its relationship with the built environment.

1.2.3. Objectives

• To explore the spatial needs of individuals with ASD.

• Understand the nature of ASD and the current response to facilities provided for those
who suffer from ASD.
• To apply architectural theory and sensory design principles to cater for those with
impaired perception.
• To explore the impact that the built environment has on autistic users.

3
1.3. SETTING OUT THE SCOPE

1.3.1. Delimitation of Research Problem

This study shall explore the spatial needs of autistic individuals and how could the built
environment aid in developing comfortable and adaptable spaces that would enhance the
quality of life for individuals that suffer from ASD. The scope of the research is not one that
will indulge in medical remedies or divert this study’s focus of it being an architectural
response to the recommendation of people with ASD. The sense of taste and its role in human
perception is not much interest in the field of architecture therefore will not be discussed in
detail in the scope of this study.

The main issues the proposal will primarily focus on is the lack of awareness that there is within
the role of architecture and the design of a special needs centre for those who suffer from ASD.
The research aims to understand the needs of individuals with ASD and how architecture could
provide a learning centre that would create social inclusion and awareness on this growing
disorder and bring more awareness to the city of Durban. The research will examine current
Autism centres within the CBD of Durban and highlight the issues and key factors, this will
aim to create inclusivity and awareness to the city and involve people to learn more about this
rapid growing disorder.

1.3.2. Definition of Terms

Autism Spectrum Disorder: It is the overall term for a group of the main five developmental
disorders (Autistic Disorder, Asperger's Syndrome, Rett's
Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder and Pervasive
Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. Refer to
Appendix A for more detail) that affect a person's ability to
interact, communicate, relate, play, imagine and learn. The term
is used interchangeably with Pervasive Developmental Disorder.

Built environment: refers to components of the architecture that includes private and
public buildings as well as parks, urban squares and
playgrounds.

4
Senses: Any of the body’s main faculties, such as sight, hearing, smell,
taste, or touch, by which humans and animals perceive stimuli
originating from outside or inside the body.

Sensory stimulation: Arousal of the brain through any of the sensory modes.

Experiential: Something that is experiential originated from the real world -

from experience. Experiential things can be seen, touched, and
verified.

Perceptual: relating to the ability to interpret or become aware of something

through the senses.

1.3.3. Stating the Assumptions

The main assumption of this dissertation is that there is a lack in knowledge and provision for
those in the ASD spectrum within the built environment. There is not enough awareness and
importance given to the rising disorder in the context to the general public of Durban and those
in underprivileged environments. They therefore live their lives without being correctly
diagnosed and go through life feeling excluded and lost in the world.

1.3.4. Key Questions

Main question

• How can an autistic individual’s perception of space be enhanced through the design of
his/her physical environment?

Sub-questions

• What psychological influence does architecture have on an autistic individual’s

perception of space?

5
 • What architectural concepts respond to the spatial needs of autistic individuals and their
perception of space
• What facilities are required to enhance spatial quality of space for autistic individuals?

1.3.5. Hypothesis

Conditions which are supportive of those who are diagnosed with ASD can impact on the
design outcome of the built environment. Spaces become a platform where social dynamics
occur. Architectural design which is conversant by these dynamics will inform the built
environment to be more supportive of those who challenged.

1.4. CONCEPTS AND THEORIES

Albert Einstein wrote, “Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a
tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid.”

People with Autism have impaired perceptions that need extra guideness with sensory
development. Little things that people take for granted on an everyday basis are challenging
and strenuous on the brain of those who suffer from Autism which leads to aggressive and
undesirable behaviour. The need for sensory architecture in such an environment is critically
essential to the development of people with these special needs and care. Research shows that
the epidemic of ASD is growing and the current statistic shows that “1 out of every 150
children is estimated to fall in the Autism spectrum regardless of their socio-cultural and
economic aspects” (Mostafa, 2008).

1.4.1. Phenomenology

Phenomenology can be seen has the study of human experience and perception. Horvath states
that: “These experiences are derived from the response of human senses to the elements, stimuli
and spaces that surround them” (Horvath, 2010). People can be sensory stimulated through the
built environment as well as natural setting. For example, Norberg-Schulz (1980) states:
“phenomenology's potential in architecture has the ability to make the environment meaningful
through the creation of specific places”. For Merleau-Ponty (1962) describes phenomenology
as the nature of an individual perceptual connection with the world in unification with their
experiences.

6
1.4.2. Perception theory

Perception theory studies the understanding of how people observe the space they come in
contact with and their experience as a whole. Walter Gropius theorized (cited in Barr, 1970)
states: “that by understanding the nature of what people experience and the way they perceive
it. The potential influence of man-made design on human feelings and thinking can be better
understood”. Philosopher Taylor Carmen (2008) also explains that one can differentiate
between two characteristics of perception: one being a sensory dimension which contracts with
passive sense experiences, and the other being the active motor dimension which deals with
the five bodily actions. In everyday experiences the sensory motor dimension is always
experienced as one unified unit that provides a seamless continuous experience. These
ambiences and perceptions are considered further over the theories of phenomenology.

Perception can be seen as a relation to emotion and sense. Many people perceive spaces
differently and can be referred to as irrational and subjective (Schaap, 2010). There are three
major concepts according to Kreij’s thesis, which are hapticity, kinesthesia and synaesthesia
(Van Kreij, 2008).

1.4.3. Architectural Psychology

Humans observe the world through their senses. These are our tools in everything we
experience and they communicate to our brain to express how we feel. Small enclosed spaces
will signal through our senses fear and anxiety, where as too open spaces without a sense of
scale will trigger a sense of isolation and a feeling of placelessness. A loud noise creates a sense
of shock, while build-up and anticipation create a sense of excitement. According to Reeves
thesis, senses are “referred to as modalities of sensation” (Reeves, 2012). These modalities are
distinguished as five sensory modalities; visual, audacity, tactile, olfactory and gustatory.
These senses are split up into the following groups; distance senses which are: seeing and
hearing, skin senses such as; touch, taste and smell and finally the deep senses which are:
kinaesthetic and vestibular (Hochberg, 1964). The deep senses will be explored in the
perception theory as it deals with Autism.

7
1.4.5. Conclusion

The theoretical framework is primarily focused on the needs of Autistic and enhancing spatial
quality that addresses human perception and senses that would enhance the quality of life for
people suffering from ASD. These theories will set the foundation of understanding space and
the concept of space within the place. They deal specifically with the human senses and
experience man has with the environment. The above-mentioned theorist has explored and
understood the importance of connecting man with his environment to create a holistic
experience. To deal with the topic of this thesis, there first needs to be an understanding of
what is wrong within the current situation of spatial planning and learning environments that
has been set by global standards.

1.5. RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIAL

1.5.1. Introduction

This research is one that is exploratory and qualitative, this is employed to investigate the
current spatial quality and environment provided for those who suffer from Autism within the
South African context and form a basis of identifying the spatial needs of those who live within
this spectrum of ASD. The methods of research in this proposal are divided into secondary and
primary research. The secondary data will be collected in the form of a literature review and
precedent studies to explore the current body of knowledge. In the secondary data theoretical
and conceptual frameworks of phenomenology, perception theory and architectural psychology
will be explored, the precedent studies will focus on buildings that currently relate to these
theories. Both methods aim to find a coalition between the quality of spaces conducive to the
needs of those suffering from ASD and the built form. The primary data will be done remotely
via desktop study through in-depth interviews. This research will be used to provide a deeper
understanding through analysis of first-hand experience of the condition.

8
1.5.2. Research Philosophy and Strategy

The research philosophy and strategy will be set out by gathering secondary data, such as;
literature on the study, current writings and studies such as Journals and current articles. This
method of research will allow the author to get sufficient knowledge and in-depth
understanding of the current issues and methods. There would be a need to then understand the
correlation between the social issue and the architectural theory, therefore study will use an
interpretive research philosophy that will respond to the social integration aspect. The
interpretive approaches are subjective and will be based on the social problem of integration of
Autistic individuals within the built environment. The study will further use the qualitative
approach through primary and secondary data collection. A qualitative study is about
engagement; therefore, the study will seek to record the current issues and problems that are
experienced by Autistic individuals within the built environment. Toward an outcome of
designing a learning centre.

1.5.3. Secondary Data Collection

Literature Review:

The literature review is essential to this study as it will provide a foundation and footing for
this research, it will analyse and discuss the current scope of knowledge on the research topic.
Published references such as books, journals and newspaper articles etc. will be looked at as
well as unpublished references such as websites and theses. The relevant references will
provide an understanding into Autism and Autistic needs in general, the lack of public
knowledge available within the context of South Africa and substantially low architectural
response to environments that address psychological needs will form a solid understanding of
the research topic.

Precedent studies:

Precedent studies will be looked at to analyse the existing built environment and the
approached taken to create a responsive and meaningful architecture to human perception. The
buildings selected are of relevance to the research, including buildings that employ sensory and
perceptual methods and show a fine example of responsiveness to human needs and spaces that
respond to human senses and modalities. The precedents will be investigated further to
ascertain methods other architects have used to create buildings that respond to people and
allow this interaction to take place.

9
1.5.4. Primary Data Collection

Case study:

The Case study will be done through analysis and findings done by previous study and research
of local buildings that facilitate and accommodates people living with ASD. An analysis will
be carried out to investigate how people use the facility and if the facility provides suitable
learning spaces and enhanced environments that accommodate the needs of an Autistic
individual and for the people of that area. The case study also aims to investigate the
architectural approaches employed to design a facility that allows for public interaction. The
architectural design will be compared against the literature review to form an understanding of
the social and architectural aspects of the research.

Online Interviews:

Thorough interviews will be carried out remotely to form a deeper understanding of the
research problem. These interviews will take place through a video communication medium.
The interviewees are selected in terms of knowledge of ASD and their daily experience
working with autistic individuals.

The interviews will be conducted with:

• Three educators from a local school that specializes in the needs of autistic individuals.
The educators will be interviewed to give an insight into the communicative, social
and sensory perception difficulties experienced by autistic individuals and the design
requirements of learning spaces.
• A chairperson of the local Autistic Centre and relevant personnel with the experience
that can provide an understanding of the concerns of the communities and families of
the autistic individuals. The facility will also provide information and statistics in terms
of Autism in Durban.
• A therapist at a local Autism Centre as they have experience working with autistic
individuals daily and will provide insight into the design requirements of spaces for
autistic individuals.

10
1.5.5. Research Material

The research materials will be a combination of the primary and secondary data collected which
will include interviews and surveys as empirical data. Secondary sources books, journals,
newspaper articles, research papers, internet searches and archives will be used to approach
and facilitate the process of carrying out this study.

• An Interview schedule will be carried out that includes a formal set of questions
directed at the interviewee. These questions are structured to give a better understanding
of the points highlighted in this research.
• Photographic evidence that has been previously captured by other study’s as well as
satellite images such as google map and gis. will be used by the author to analyze the
case study.

1.5.6. Research Analysis

The analysis of the information provided from the interviews and questionnaires will be
recorded using descriptive statistics method. This method is used to summarise data in ways
that it can be meaningful and useful to aid in the outcome of the study. The data recorded would
be presented in form of tables and analytical charts. The secondary data collected will be
analyzed through thematic and content analysis and presented in form of pictures, text and
narrative.

11
 Objectives Research Data Sample Data Data Analysis Data
Question Sources size Collection Method Presentation
Methods Forms and Style
1.5.7. Summary

To determine the What are the specific Specialist in 8-10 Questionnaires Thematic analysis, Tables, analytical
spatial needs of spatial needs of Autistic care discourse analysis charts
Autistic individuals Autistic individuals?

To understand the What are the Autistic 3-5 Interviews Thematic analysis, Themes, Pictures
nature of ASD and current conditions centres discourse analysis
the current response and quality of personals
to facilities provided spaces in an
for those who suffer Autism facility in
from ASD. Durban?

To understand how What is the impact Published 2 Case study Thematic analysis, Themes, Pictures,
sensory architecture of sensory design work, discourse analysis, Text/ Narrative
can impact on the within the built Journals and document analysis
lives and improve form and newspaper
the quality of life of development of articles
people suffering people with
from autism special needs?

12
1.5.8. Conclusion

This section has created a sense of structure to the research background and set out parameters
and guidelines including methodology, the theoretical and conceptual of the literature review
is aimed to assist the reader in the direction and outcome of this study. The combined primary
and secondary sources will formulate a brief and as well as direct the design to the most
appropriate architectural intervention, which will fully address the research problems. The
research established will help inform spatial criteria, schedule of accommodation,
philosophical understanding, urban response and architectural requirements for the proposed
design outcome to meet the needs of its users.

Chapter two creates a basis of understanding of the psychological implications of the built
environment. The literature review begins by defining psychology as the study of the mind and
behaviour and investigates the contributing factors which influence behaviour such as ones
sensory stimulus and perception of surrounding environment. A study of autism models assist
in procuring the diagnostic procedure and impairments which categorises an individual as
autistic. The model is further analysed and literature begins to indicate that the models lack
consideration of the cognitive and sensory processing difficulties autistic individuals’
experience. The literature review attempts to analyse the gap in literature and is able to find
these sensory processing difficulties relevant to the built environment.

Chapter three explores architectural concepts responding to highlighted problems in the

previous chapters. These concepts will be implemented through specific theories.

Chapter four and five investigates case studies and precedents which emphasise the highlighted
issues and uses the theoretical framework as a basis to analyse the existing and possible
architectural solutions.

Chapter six analyses the findings of the case studies and precedent studies. These findings are
analysed in relation to common themes discovered in the research process.

Chapter seven reviews the research compiled in this dissertation in response to the main
research problem and concludes important findings relevant to the design project.

13
CHAPTER TWO | THE SPATIAL INTERPRETATION OF AUTISTIC
INDIVIDUALS AND THEIR NAVIGATION THROUGH THE BUILT
ENVIRONMENT

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Architecture plays an active role in the learning process rather than just a neutral backdrop.
There are many factors of architecture that informs a conducive and productive learning
environment such as; proportion, size, legibility of space and way-finding that helps soothe and
relax a student. A space without purposeful design can cause the complete opposite such as
stress and anxiety. Spatial planning and meaningful architecture can fine-tune sensory intake
and reduce distraction. While architecture does not necessarily provide learning content, it does
provide a learning context that can either support or detract from one’s ability to learn (Yates,
2016).

This chapter aims to understand the spatial and sensory needs associated with autism through
understanding various autistic behavioural traits and sensory process perceived by autistic
individuals in the built environment. The literature review will inform the principles and
guidelines of an inclusive design towards a learning centre for Durban. Renate and Geoffrey
Caine make the case that students do not detach the learning content from the context and can
be strongly influenced by their immediate experience and the space around them. The writers
recommend that students are better equipped to learn if their spatial context supports a state of
“relaxed alertness”. This can be seen when an individual feels motivated while experiencing a
sense of wellbeing and safety. The role of the Architect is therefore vital in the shaping of these
physical spaces which makes it possible for individuals with a range of needs to learn.

While all students have specific needs with their learning environment, those with ASD have
spatial and sensory needs that are regularly left un-addressed in learning spaces. Hence
architects and educators need to view the learning environment as an important player in the
process of learning and must respond to the specific needs of its users. Anne Taylor argues that
the learning environment is therefore a “silent curriculum” as it can influence either a positive
or negative educational outcome.

2.2. THE SOCIAL IMPAIRMENTS OF ASD

Autism spectrum disorder is known as a developmental disability that causes social,

communication and behavioural challenges (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Therefore, autistic individuals often communicate differently from their peers. This spectrum

14
Lorna Wing through Frith’s discovery developed an Analysis on the work of Kanner and
Asperger, compiling a list of similar symptoms amongst the different study group and was able
to prove that both findings were based on the same syndrome. These symptoms could be
categorised into features of social interaction, two-way social communication, and imaginative
activities. These features are known as the Triad of Impairments (Bogdashina, 2006).

Four groups were created by Wing to categorise Autistic individuals according to their social
interaction impairments.

Group one is the Aloof group which individuals are unresponsive and indifferent as they do
not react to social interaction with other people.

Group two is the Passive group may accept social interaction; however, they will not initiate
any form of socialism

Group three is the Active group they initiate and participate in social interaction willingly but
their approach is inappropriate. They may be ignorant to how people respond to their approach.

Group four is the Stilted group are usually high functioning autistic individuals who are
comfortable with socialising and communicating. What makes them different is their formal
and stilted manner of approach.

These social groups provide a range from non-social to excessive social traits. Therefore, social
interactive spaces need to bridge the gap and find a balance to support a coherent relationship
that would welcome and immobilise individuals to communicate without feeling over-
whelmed and isolated by their environment and their senses.

2.2.2. Communication in Autistic Behaviour

Individuals with ASD and others that fall inside the spectrum have difficulties and encounters
challenges in communicating. They also demonstrate behavioural challenges that can prevent
them from successfully participating in everyday activities. Most individuals with ASD are
graphic learners. This means that they recognize what they see better than what they hear
(Hodgdon, 2001). Communication impairments play a vital role in a student’s life and can be
a major disadvantage in the ability to learn and comprehend information. While traditional
educational programs focus on developing expressive communication skills, slight attention is

16
focused on training the individual’s skill to understand the communication in their life. It is
essential to recognize the difficulties for an individual to successfully take in and understand
information, which can be a substantial challenge in a student’s life.

Autistic individuals experience many difficulties in communication and are affected by a

widespread of skills which includes the individual ability to:

• comprehend social communicative skills

• recognize environmental signs
• Understand and follow directions
• accomplish self-management or organizational responsibilities
• develop and show effective sensitive communication.
According to Lorna Wing the impairments in social communication vary amongst autistic
individuals, where some are capable of communicating whilst others may not. The list is as
follows:

1.Those who are capable of speech may not use their ability to communicate effectively. Their
ability to speak does not align with wanting to communicate and experiencing any form of
pleasure from it.
2. The means of communication is seen only as a method to express their needs, but there is no
emotional connection or expression in their form of communication.
3. The inability to coordinate their speech with facial expressions, gestures, and body language.
4. Individuals with good communication and comprehension abilities are efficient but lack a
range of vocabulary and have a pedantic understanding and use of words.
(Wing as cited in Bogdashina, 2006)

17
Autism Spectrum Disorder symtoms and communication consideration:

Figure 2.2. Communication consideration (Source: Yates, 2016)

2.2.3. Environmental Alienation

Pallasmaa states that: “contemporary architecture is in search for visual and aesthetic beauty,
has resulted in environments that have no meaning, do not cater for their user's needs and
disconnects these users from the 'genius loci', the sense of the place” (Pallasmaa, 2005).
Individuals experience a disconnection or alienation from the environments they inhabit. The
disconnection from an environment can weaken one’s sense of self and result to mental and
psychological disconnection which can cause mental and physical illness. People spend the
majority of their lives within the built environment and if the psychological and physical needs
are not met this can cause a negative impact on their well-being.

The human factor should be a vital part of the design process in the built environment.
Structures can no longer only meet the physical requirements that people need such as shelter
and thermal comfort but also the need to offer support to emotional and specialised needs.

18
Peoples moods are affected by spatial quality, visual character, acoustic property, texture,
colour, and geometry. When taken into thought the built environment should results in spaces
that are more conducive to production, well-organized and comfortable. Rapoport (1995)
explains: “that the design of any environment must be based on the psychological impact of
such an environment on people, their moods, behaviour and social interaction." He emphasizes
on humans aspect being the centre of the design process.

Image below shows the multiple sensory input the environment has on an individual:

Figure 2.3. Multiple sensory input (Source: www.cooperhewitt.org)

19
For young children and teenagers with autism, the environment is a key factor and is important
to be sufficiently balanced to stimulate and enable to connection. A person can become
disengaged from a task at hand and not relate to the world at a sensory level, if the environment
is “under-stimulating” Environments can also be over-stimulating and distract its users from
keeping focused to the task, therefore it is important for architecture to create a balanced
environment that responds to the user’s needs.

2.3. SENSORY STIMULATION

Sensory stimulation can be seen as a method or tool to provide a sensory input. This stimulation
may take any form of sensory input, this may include sound, light, touch, smell, taste and
vestibular. These sensory inputs are used for improving ASD symptoms with sensory
stimulation.

Figure 2.4. Information communicated to the brain through various sense

(Source: http://www.aknamarquez.com/)

Autistic individuals have problems processing sensory information. Some people may feel
overstimulated or a sense of sensory overload, while others people with ASD experience under-
stimulation. These conditions are listed under the category of a sensory modulation disorder.

20
Most individuals won’t notice but there are people who experience overstimulation, or what is
known as hyper-reactivity. Overstimulation can cause distraction and make it difficult for an
individual to focus on lessons and task at hand. This condition can make it difficult for an
individual to focus on any kind of stimulation due to the constant flow of sensory data.

Study has shown that there are specific forms of sensory stimulation that can assist individuals
within the spectrum. There are certain methods and tools that can help soothe individuals and
act as a stable centre that helps them organize the information they are receiving. Sensory
stimulation is a process that can help autistic individuals focus and cope with their environment
around them.

2.3.1. The Sense of Modalities

2.3.1.1. The sense of sight

Sight is the preferred channel of movement and comprehension with the physical world. It is
the sense that allows judgment for distances and orientation in the physical world. People make
visual interaction between positive and negative elements.

The field of sight consist of diverse elements. They may differ from profile, size and colour.
To understand the complex structure of the visual fields, humans establish elements into two
opposite groups. Ching states: “These groups are positive elements that are perceived as figures
and negative elements which provides a background for the figures” (Ching, 1979). The image
can be defined as something which an individual directs their attention too. It can be perceived
as something bright and having more intensity that its background. Therefore Ching states:
“human perception and understanding of an architectural composition depends on how they
interpret the visual interaction between positive and negative elements”. (Ching, 1979).

Figure 2.5. Reversible figure ground effect (Source: Coren, 1999:297).

21
Pallasmaa states: “The differential between focused peripheral and vision. Architecture
continues to be interested on focused vision but the essences and quality of an architectural
environment depends fundamentally on peripheral vision which surrounds a person in space.
The peripheral vision transforms retinal gestalt in spatial bodily experiences” (Pallasmaa,
2005). Outlying vision integrates people with space, while a specific vision makes people
spectators of space.

2.3.1.2. The sense of sound

Sound creates a three-dimensional atmosphere and enhances a person’s spatial experience.

Hearing is an interesting sense in architecture. It allows for creation of spatial experiences.
Sound is predictable by rhythm, if there is a rhythm of flow, people will move at a relaxed
pace, but if there is an unpredictable rhythm it encourages haste (Augustin, 2009). The time it
takes the sound to bounce back indicates the size of space and shape, the tone and can indicate
the type of materials, its textile quality and structure. A space is "understood and appreciated
through its echo as much as through its visual shape" (Pallasmaa, 2005: 50). Architecture uses
the forces of nature to create a sense of ‘zen’ and tranquillity.

Figure 2.6. Information interpreted through sound (Source: https://wordsinspace.net/)

The image above indicates the amount of information that is received through the sound
modalities and the impact it can rely on the rest of the senses. Although sound plays a vital role
in how individuals perceive their environment, it has been sadly neglected in a contemporary
aesthetic society. “Some consider sound to be an unwanted noise and believed that is needed
to be suppressed” (Wilson,1984).

22
2.3.1.3. The sense of smell

The sense of smell is one of the longest senses to register to the brain, but when it reaches it
lasts the longest than the other sense. The olfactory sense is regarded as the sense that has the
most effect emotionally to the body. People relate to smell with memories. A certain smell can
trigger a memory or make a space very undesirable.

Modern methods tend to cover up and “clean up scents” instead of expressing its great potential
(Lehman, 2012). Hall (1966) explains that olfaction’s provide a sense of ambience to an
environment. The shift of smells can help a person find themselves within spaces and
differentiate different spaces according to their memories.

2.3.1.4. The sense of touch

Touch fits people’s experience of the surrounding with themselves. These tactile experiences
provide information of spaces, it gives a sense of texture, weight, densities and temperature
(Chow, 2009). An example of this can be seen in the works of Steven Holl and how he
expresses this by covering a wall surface with beeswax, surrounded with a gold leaf prayer
text, creating a rich experiential environment (Hall, 2008; Olsen, 1997).

Figure 2.7. St Ignatjus Chapel, Seattle, by Steven Holl (Source: Olsen, 1997:50)

23
A school in Hazelwood (2009) encourages children to use touch as a means of finding there
way different textured walls differentiate different spaces and classroom within the school.

Figure 2.8. Hazelwood School (Source: Rodger, 2007: 30)

As with the other senses of smell and sound, the contemporary society has given little concern
to the vital role of touch in the built environment. Pallasmaa explains that architecture may
seduce and amuse the eye, but it should also offer for the sense of touch and experience of
people’s bodies.

2.3.1.5. Vestibular and Kinaesthetic

Kinaesthesia is understood as; “a sense mediated by end organs that lie in the muscles, tendons,
and joints and are stimulated by bodily movements and tensions.” (as cited in van Kreij,
2008:19). Kinaesthesia doesn’t directly relate to the sensory system such as giving the body
emotion. However, it does impact on the senses people experience. This takes place through
their position and motions. Kinaesthesia deals directly with people’s movement inside a space
and this can impact on the way people perceive the built environment. This can be seen in Le
Corbusier’s idea of the promenade in which he describes that human perception of space
changes progressively depending on their location (cited in De Vega, 2009). Careful planning
that creates a connection between spaces and allows for a gradual exploration can control and
enhance users experience.

The concept can be seen clearly in: Le Corbusier’s design of Villa Savove (1931). The
individual spaces are programmed to lead the user from one space to the other, while providing
a gradual transitional allowing the spaces to create a seamless flow.

24
Figure 2.9. The Concept of Promenade by Le Corbusier's Architecturelle in the Design of Villa Savoye
(Source: Samuel, 2010: 115 123)
The user is confronted by dominant central ramp upon entrance, the central ramp which directs
the user up through the building, whereas a spiral staircase is positioned away from the
entrance, which discourages immediate use. (Refer to the image)

“The vestibular system, situated in the inner ear, provides information regarding where the
body is in space and its speed, direction and movement in relation to the pull of gravity”
(Wilkes, 2005). This can be seen as what is responsible for a person’s posture and balance.

Figure 2.10. stepping stones in garden of the Heian Shrine in Kyoto, Japan (Source: https://japon-
fr.com/)
The spatial organisation of the stepping stones in a rhythmic pattern allows people to participate
with its journey through the space. “Their body is considered as a tool for spatial interpretation
thus, its movement and orientation determine peoples experience and perception of the built

25
environment”. (Hall, 1966). The contemporary spaces and the built environment provide very
little enthusiasm or sensory variation and almost no opportunity to create kinaesthetic range of
spatial experiences. The modern age of technology and transportation left people distant from
their movement and journey through spaces from one space to another.

2.3.2. Sensory Design Theory

2.3.2.1. Sensory integration

Herbert states: “The common characteristic of autistic individuals is their difficulty with
sensory processing and their inability to make sense of sensory experience. Individuals with
autism show signs of orientating responses, filtering incoming stimulation, processing and
interpreting sensory information, especially information that is complex and requires multiple
modalities” (Herbert, 2003). There are three main components that comprise of sensory
integration theory; Integrative dysfunction, normal sensory integration functioning and
intervention program that uses sensory integration techniques.

Dr. A. Jean Ayres is an occupational therapist that developed Sensory integration theory
(Herbert, 2003). Ayres defines sensory integration as: “a neurological process that organises
sensations from a person's body and from their surrounding environment. Information from all
the senses needs to be integrated in order for suitable responses to be elicited” (Whitman &
DeWitt, 2011). Sensory integration occurs when stimulation is received, organised, formulated
and interpreted to form an emotion and behaviour output. (The process shown in a diagram on
the next page).

26
Figure 2.11. Diagram showing the steps to sensory integration.
Source: (https://www.emaxhealth.com/)

2.3.2.2. Sensory Integrative Dysfunction

Paron-Wildes states: “Individuals that experience difficulties with sensory integration may
experience deficit associated with one of their sense while experiencing no problems with their
other senses” (Paron-Wildes, 2008). Sensory integration dysfunction takes place in almost 80
percent of individuals with autism. An individual with autism suffers from one or more of the
following sensory related problems; hyposensitivity, hypersensitivity, sensory overload,
sensory fixations, unusual sensory attractions and sensory tune-outs (Whitman & DeWitt,
2011). Sensory dysfunction can make it difficult for autistic individuals to understand the built
environment. Daily experiences, that neuro-typical people take for granted, can be negative
and upsetting for those who suffer with ASD. These feelings not only are unpleasant but can
be accompanied by pain, stress anxiety and fear. Those with ASD create a series of behavioural
dissipations and managing strategies to evade these negative sensory experiences.

27
 Sensory strengths and challenges in a cafeteria-simplified:

Figure 2.12. Image of different sensory profiles, hyper and hyposensitive

(Source: https://theenthusiasticlife.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sensory-in-lunch-room-
768x768.png,)

2.3.2.3. Sensory integration techniques

Sensory integration therapy provides appropriate graded sensory experiences to facilitate

adaptive behaviour. When attempting a task autistic individual are aggravated by simple
stressors therefore it evokes multiple emotions. “The aim of the techniques works with the
senses calming or arousing the individual, creating the optimum level of arousal for performing
specific task. The therapy involves gentle exposure to various stimuli” (Wilkes, 2005)
Appropriate structured physical environments that facilitate unique processing patterns allow
for those with ASD to overcome these negative sensory experiences and cope with everyday
changes in a positive manner.

These integration techniques make use of simple learning environments. This eliminates any
distractions that can divert an individual’s attention. The easy and predicable surroundings can
give the person with a sense of safety and security. The process will then gradually increase in

28
complexity without causing too much anxiety or stress. Once the individual starts to show a
positive response the slow introduction to sensory inputs are then implemented in a suitable
manner (Wilkinson, 2010). Beaver states that: “sensory rooms and gardens are used to
stimulate, develop and balance the sensory systems of individuals with sensory problems and
have shown great strides in the development of certain individuals” (Beaver, 2010). These are
structured according to separate sensory zones has individuals with ASD find it difficult to
focus on more than sense at a time. Larkey states: “Individuals with sensory difficulties do not
explore their environments in the same way as neurotypical person. Consequently, individuals
with ASD have limited environmental experiences and are fearful of change. Sensory programs
encourage people with ASD to interact with their environment thus, reducing the fear
associated with it” (Larkey,2007).

Figure 2.13. Sensory input illustration Figure 2.14. Sensory output illustration
(Source: https://childsuccesscenter.com/) (Source: https://eatingoffplastic.wordpress.com/)

2.3.3. Neuro-Typical Design

Neuro-typical design theory is an opposing theory to sensory design theory. Kern states that
the latest global research on the sensory processing difficulties do indicate that it influences an
autistic individual’s “modalities and multisensory processing systems” (Kern as cited in Henry,
2011). Autistic individuals need a sensory controlled environment, through neuro-typical
design approach they will be able to concentrate whilst developing and refining their skills.
The environments that are controlled will need adjacent sensory saturated environments as this
will help individuals practice their skills in different areas and not become adapted to one
specific, controlled environment. This will allow their minds to transition into real life setting
much easier and be encouraged to implement their acquired skills outside the classroom.

29
The diagram below shows design methods that can be used in a three-stage design

Figure 2.15. Design and wellbeing by Katie Gaudion, Ashley K. Hall

(Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/ )

According to Leestma (2015), both theories have valid approaches and principles, however, it
is important to implement both theories to balance and counteract the opposing gaps outlined
by each of the theory’s proponents. The both theories applied together plays a role in the
development and acquiring of skills in autistic individuals through the built environment. This
study is tasked with implementation of both theories addressing the questions and concerns.
Through the approach of sensory architecture has brought light to successfully obtaining the
balance of creating three types of environment in one learning facility. The controlled
environment, the sensory saturated spaces and the public environment. Sensory and neuro-
typical design will develop an architectural framework to generate a response to the sensory
difficulties experienced by autistic individual.

30
2.4. THE IMPACT OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ON AUTISTIC INDIVIDUALS

Autism has always been diagnosed from an analysis and measured by their impairments, but
to fully understand how those with ASD perceive the world around them, we need to listen to
their experiences and views. Through literature published by autistic individuals, authors
derived that sensory perception difficulties influence the way in which they interact in
environments. Norberg- Schulz defines existential space as a “concept of space” which allows
an individual to create an image of his surroundings. The experience, understanding and
perception of space i.e. the environment is unique to each individual (Serrano, 2011).

Figure 2.16. Image of a world cloud illustrating design challenges and design principles
(Source: Magda, 2015; 68)

In generating an image of the environment many cognitive processes are being enabled and
this allows one to engage with the environment on various sensory levels. Those who have
sensory difficulties their perception becomes distorted of the reality of their environment. One
of these sensory difficulties is explored by Baumers and Heylighen (2010) through an analysis
of published literature from autistic individuals explaining their perception of the world and
has identified that many individuals perceive the physical space as a fixed entity with
expectations that it never changes. Within this physical entity individuals seek security
however the physical space is ever changing, contradicting with the need to seek a sense of
grip.
The built environment continues to be designed following universal codes which may include
the consideration to disabled bodies, but this lacks the consideration for non-visible

31
impairments. When designing there is always a desired atmosphere or perception created.
However, the perception desired commonly lacks the consideration of users with non-visible
impairments. The cognitive process of perception has an enormous effort to gain understanding
of the environment, through the overwhelming amount of sensory information needing to be
processed. This struggle often results in self-stimulated behaviour, such as repetitive
movements or utterances which is used as a mechanism to endure this sensory overload (Smith
as cited in Pilar et al, 2011)

Figure 2.17. Image of person and person in a wheelchair with caption (Source:
https://blog.senedd.wales/2016/07/07/not-every-disability-is-visible-invisible-disabilities/)

Through the understanding of the social, communicative and behavioural impairments,

architects with the aid from psychologist have been able to develop architectural concepts in
response to creating environments that is inclusive of autistic users. Some of the contributors
to the development of this design criteria has been Christopher Beaver (2006), Simon
Humphreys (2008), Ian Scott (2009), Baumers and Heylighen (2010) and Magda Mostafa
(2015). The architectural concepts that have been found to be most relevant to this research
and aim, is a combination of concepts or principles by Humphrey and Mostafa. The
architectural aim to create a sense of calm, order, and simplicity as indicated by Humphrey and
Mostafa but also carefully highlighted by Osgood that only focusing on the sensory challenges
may lead to designing environments that create isolated success within these customised
environments (Henry, 2011). Using Sensory Design Theory as a basis Mostafa has derived an
Autism ASPECTSS Design Index to create a sensory inclusive and responsive environment
(Mostafa, 2015). These autism inclusive architectural concepts will be emphasized later on in
this study.

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2.5. CONCLUSION

To conclude, the literature review explored the sensory and phycological impairments of
autistic individuals and allowed the study grasp the basic impairments outlined by existing
theories and models on autism. The focal argument amongst the literature has been based upon
the spatial needs and perception of space by autistic users. This guided the literature review to
explore the sensory perceptions and profile of those with ASD, through published sources that
expressed the voices of autistic individuals. This has successfully and evidently expressed the
important role of architecture within this spectrum.

The research which is based on the sensory experience and perception of autistic individuals
as they experience the built environment. It will allow the creation of an architectural response
to the spatial needs of autistic individuals. This chapter has set a foundation that further on in
the study will build and use to apply the appropriate architectural theories and themes that will
set the guidelines and principles towards an architectural model for a learning centre for
Durban.

33
CHAPTER THREE | ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK PERSPECTIVE IN
RESPONSE TO SPATIAL NEEDS OF AUTISTIC INDIVIDUALS

3.1. INTRODUCTION

The previous chapter is used as a foundation to gain an in-depth understanding of the vital role
of the built environment and its relation to autistic needs and behaviour. Chapter three will
provide an outline of the specific spatial needs, understanding the sensory input from
surrounding environments, architectural theory and concepts related to sensory design and
architectural psychology. “Architecture and Autism Recent research have indicated that autism
is growing at almost epidemic proportions” (Hill & Frith, 2003). A large amount of the
architectural community still ignores this growing epidemic in learning environments by the
simple exclusion of the need for sensory stimulation and non-visible disabilities such as
Autism.

Only until recent, individuals that previously displayed symptoms of ASD were admitted in
psychiatric facilities and institutions due to lack of knowledge and awareness about the
condition. (Beaver, 2010). Beaver states that: “these establishments paid no heed to the quality
of the environment, using corridors with rows of doors on each side, shiny surfaces which
reflect noise, inadequate spaces for children to feel comfortable, flickering florescent lighting,
multiple changes in level and complicated building layouts where it is easy to get lost. All
features that are deeply confusing and frustrating to the autistic mind” (Beaver, 2010). Autistic
individuals that experience negative impact of the built environment such as frustration and
distress end up resulting in common challenging behaviours associated with ASD.

The design should answer to the requirements of its users that it come with interaction. The
nature of the requirements of individuals with ASD are complex and not fully understood, to
design suitable environments for the needs of those with ASD, their treatment models and
specialised needs must be understood.

For one to better understand this disorder and to design for the spatial needs of autistic
individuals, one has to study the theories and principles outlined in the past related to the
mechanism of autism.

34
Figure 3.1. Conceptual framework on the theoretical perspective used in this architectural
study as shown below: (Source: Author)

Sensory and cognitive difficulties

Transitional issues

- cognitive
- social
- self
- quality of life

Architecture for Autism

- Controlled Environment: Addressing sensory

difficulties
- Sensory saturated: Positive sensory stimulation
- Public environment: Engaging with society

Social sensory Architecture

Paradigm of Phenomenology

Perception Theory Socio- Spatial Theory

Sensory design

35
3.2. PARADIGM OF PHENOMENOLOGY

The philosophy of phenomenology was initiated by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger
(Habib, Sahhaf, 2012). The philosophy was approached from an architectural perspective
through the work of Christian Norberg-Schulz, to which he developed it into a framework of
Existence, Space and Architecture. He quantified space as “existential space” and also defined
the “spirit of place” as the genius loci. The existential space was divided into various levels of
geography and landscape, urban level, the house and the thing. The house remains the central
node of this theory and justifies that the house is the central component of one’s existence. It
is the place from which one understands and interprets his connection to the world (Norberg-
Schulz as cited in Habib et al, 2012).

Existence, Space
and Architecture

Concept of Genius
dwelling Loci

Figure 3.2. Diagram showing the Phenomenology trilogy in architecture (Source: Habib, Sahhaf,
2012; 46)

3.2.1 Sense of Place

Meaning and memory encapsulate a certain place which can be different from specific
individuals, these meaning and memories can be associated in either a positive or negative
manner dependent on the character of the individual. The physical and atmospheric
characteristics of a place gives a space meaning. Norberg-Schulz explains that the centre of
one’s existence of space is their house and the aspect that makes up their sense of place derives
their identity and quintessence in the world. This expresses the influence space has on an
individual and their construct of the world. “Even visual perceptions are fused and integrated
into the haptic continuum of the self; my body remembers who I am and where I am located in
the world” (Pallasmaa, 2005, pg. 11). Individuals make various attachments with space through
engaging experiences, memories and choices. Quality of spaces can be defined by the

36
characteristics of its environment such as; noises, lighting, tones, the ability to feel secure and
visual elements.

These qualities influence an individual’s experience which creates a sense of space that is
perceived by the individual of their environment. A “sense of space” of an individual’s personal
experience is influenced through their sensory processes of smell, touch, hearing, imagination,
and anticipation (Vanclay et al, 2008, pg. 4-7). These are the processes in which autistic
individuals find most challenging in everyday life.

3.2.2. Enactivism through Sense-making

Enaction refers to the sense-making aspect of cognitive processes and how we use the sensory
processes to connect to the world to facilitate our needs and objectives (Jaegher, 2013).
Pallasmaa (2005, pg. 64) states that we interpret the world through our senses and bodily
existence and the world around us becomes organised around our body. Hanne De Jaegher
paper on embodiment and sense-making in autism explores the influence of autism
impairments has on the sense-making of their surrounding world. The interpretation of sense-
making in Jaegher’s research is that sense-making is based on fulfilling our needs and goals
through our bodily processes of organising and maintaining, whilst still having a developing
perspective of the world (Jaegher, 2013).

Architecture has the responsibility to act as a response to the transitional phase through creating
a built environment where an autistic individual can experience a sense of belonging and
develop a self-identity in the neuro-typical world. Sensory inclusivity and interactive
architecture for autistic individuals is justified through the theory of Phenomenology. The
theory acts as a paradigm which supports the theories of perception and socio-spatial theory
which conveys the fundamental principles of Phenomenology.

A learning environment needs an approach that “integrates the cognitive, social,

communicative, embodied, interactive, experiential, and affective components of autism”
(Jaegher, 2013, pg.3). The enactive approach is applied by the use of the bodies various
networking processes which includes the cognitive process to connect to the world which is
the same approach that can be applied to learning environments of autistic individuals. This
approach can also be used to include one’s experiential sphere as an integral process of
connecting to the world.

37
3.3. PERCEPTION THEORY

The relationship between humans and the environment are connected through various
perceptions. Through understanding these perceptions one can understand how humans
experience space and the built environment around them. Norberg-Schulz (1965) states that:
“by better understanding the process of perception a deeper understanding of the experience of
architecture can be attained”.

3.3.1. The Process of Perception

The built environment consists of various elements and stimuli. The place is not just made up
of individual rooms, buildings or outdoor spaces but the total environment. “The phenomena
of experiencing these places through the senses of sight, sound, touch, smell and taste is known
as perception” (Hesselgren, 1975).

There are two kinds of perception distinguished by philosopher Taylor Carmen (2008) one is
the inactive sensory dimension of sense experiences, the other is an active motor dimension,
which relates to bodily actions. These two kinds of perceptions do not work on their own but
rather work simultaneously with one and the other (Seamon, 2010:6). Individuals with ASD
often have a deficiency with this perceptual process, they find it difficult to acquire the same
continuous experiences of their surroundings. (Joiner, 2007) The diagram below shows how
external information permits through certain areas of the brain and how sensory perceptions
are linked and assured to universal types of things in memory.

The perception of the pencil, for example, is joined with the concept of writing.

Stimulus Sensation Interpretation Comprehension

A pencil (an object) A piece of thin A pencil I can write/

round wood draw with it

Figure 3.3. The process of perception (Source: Author)

38
The physical medium for autistic individuals is perceived as normal and function properly such
as the ears or eyes. It is the progression of perception which differ and doesn’t work in the
order alike to neuro-typical individuals so the environment is supposed different. According to
Leestma: “The different types of perceptions experienced by autistic individuals can cause
some kind of psychological pain to the individual such distress, anxiety, fear of confusion and
cause the person to act in abnormal ways when they are trying to block out the unwanted
stimuli. Some of the most common difference in sensory perception are intensity, sensory
overload, gestalt perception, fragmented perception, delayed perception, distorted perception,
sensory shutdowns, and compensation” (Leestma, 2015).

3.3.1.1. Intensity- Hypersensitive

Hypersensitivity is when the canal between the stimulus and brain is too open; therefore, the
brain receives too much information for it to handle. To block out this hypersensitivity the
individual will either rock themselves, swing back and forth, hit their ears, twist, flip or spin.

Figure 3.4. A neurotypical view compared to hypersensitive (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 20)

3.3.1.2. Hyposensitivity

Hyposensitivity is the opposite of hypersensitivity; this is where the channel is not open enough
and does not let in as much information as needed and the brain is deprived. The individual is
incapable to feel their own body and withdraw from the environment around them. For autistic
individuals to get their nervous system working again they might bang doors, seek out loud
noises or self-injury.

39
 Figure 3.5. A neurotypical view compared to hyposensitive (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 21)

3.3.1.3. Sensory Overload

Sensory overload is when the environment becomes too unbearable for the individual and is
unable to take in all the information. The nervous system of an autistic individual does not
function fully filter out the irrelevant information such as patterns on walls, feeling of clothing
or people moving. The brain processes all the information at once therefore creating a sensory
overload. Sensory overload for autistic individuals can be triggered by “bright lights,
fluorescent lights, colours and patterns makes the body react as if being attacked or bombarded,
resulting in such physical symptoms as headaches, anxiety, panic attacks or aggression”.

Figure 3.6. A neurotypical view compared to sensory overload (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 22)

40
3.3.1.4. Gestalt Perception

Gestalt perception is when an individual is unable to differentiate foreground and background

information, therefore information is perceived as “a whole” instead of an amalgamation of
different items. A person that experiences visual gestalt finds it difficult to focus on an
individual parts of a scene and find it difficult to separate it from the whole picture. A slight
change in detail can cause difficulty for an individual with a gestalt perception to adjust. An
example of this if an image on the wall is not square or a piece of equipment has been moved
this changes the gestalt of the entire scene and the setting will feel unfamiliar and therefore can
cause anxiety, tension and frustration.

Figure 3.7. A neurotypical view compared to gestalt perception (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 23)

3.3.1.5. Fragmented Perception

Fragmented perception is associated with autistic individuals not fully able to breakdown the
whole image into meaningful units. The individual might process partial information of a scene
or sentence and completely neglect the other components. Autistic individuals with fragmented
perception may have difficulties connecting socially with others because several parts can seem
isolated. This also leads to trouble rendering facial languages and body expression.

41
Figure 3.8. A neurotypical view compared to fragmented perception (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 24)

3.3.1.6. Delayed Processing

This is when an autistic person takes much longer to process information compared to
neurotypical individuals. This creates the issue of the individual finding it difficult to
understand and absorb new things. Delayed processing makes it hard for an individual to learn
things in the right context in which the learning process took place. If the person has learnt a
specific skill in a particular context they might not be able to transfer it to a different context
and might have to relearn it.

Figure 3.9. A neurotypical view compared to delayed processing (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 25)

3.3.1.7. Distorted Perception

This particular perception is related to when the individual's senses get distorted or
misinterpreted for example when something may seem smaller than it is, also this can cause
poor self-awareness and seeing things in two dimensions. Distorted perception becomes worse
when there is an overload of information.

42
 Figure 3.10. A neurotypical view compared to distorted processing (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 26)

3.3.1.8. Sensory Shutdown

A sensory shutdown is when an individual experiences an overload of information. Its either

some or all of their senses are being overstimulated and the individual is unable to manage.
The overload of information causes some of their senses to shut down or block out stimuli that
allow other senses to function better. Often this causes individuals to retreat or withdraw from
the world around them and ignore any stimuli around them.

Figure 3.11. A neurotypical view compared to sensory shutdown (Source: Leestma, 2015, P. 27)

3.3.1.9. Compensation

Due to the above processing disorders an autistic individual might rely on or compensate
through more reliable senses such as touch and smell to better understand their environment.

43
They may use these senses to navigate through their environment and create a better
understanding of their environment around them.

3.3.2. Perception and education

The role of sensory perception plays an important part in the lives of autistic individuals and
impacts their performance in the learning environment in how the individual's process
information and learns. There are three basic categories of how an autistic individuals brain
works concerning learning and they are grouped into: “sensory oversensitivity, perceptual
problems, and difficulties organizing information” (Leestma, 2015). In the autism spectrum
children from mild to serve cases express different signs of difficulties processing information
the three categories help understand what kind of difficulty the child is experiencing and what
sensory stimulation will aid in creating an environment to the needs of their condition.

Sensory oversensitivity can range from mild (which includes signs such as mind nervousness
when the surrounding setting is too loud, lively or chaotic) to serve case could lead the
individual to go into a tantrum every time they are in a large public space such as a supermarket
(Leestma, 2015). Attention and concentration are two important attributes to learning becomes
distorted when senses are disordered and makes it difficult in some cases or impossible to learn.
This makes the training and learning process problematic as children apply their days dreadful
of people and spaces due to experience because they have been overwhelmed by their senses.
For children to feel calm, relaxed and safe they need to be in an environment they understand
and responds to their specific needs.

Perceptual issues can determine the most effective style of learning needed for specific
individuals. An individual that may have issues with auditory perception may not notice the
noises coming in and out a poor phone reception. This individual is therefore more expected to
perceive information and acquire best through visually accessible information. Individuals with
visual perception issues may learn best through the audio channel as that may be more relaxed
for them to process. While the possibility of a person with equally visual and auditory
processing problems. “These individuals may learn best through their sense of touch and smell.
They may learn letters and numbers best when they can touch them, and trace their shape with
their hands or fingers. Representative objects rather than visual charts can be useful in helping
these individuals know when it is time to transition to a new activity. Schools need to be
adaptable to teach students with all degrees of perception issues and be able to adapt the
environment to a student’s specific needs” (Leestma, 2015).

44
Individuals that have problems organizing information, may be able to receive information fine
but not make sense of it. The lack of cognitive organisation may have an impact on the
individuals. Leestma states that: “problems with organizing information affect a child’s ability
to form categories that are the foundation for later concept formation. Difficulties that people
on the spectrum have with multi-tasking would also fall into this category. These difficulties
are highly variable and range from mild to severe depending on which brain circuits connected
and which ones did not” (Leestma, 2015). The ability of an autistic person to learn in a
traditional classroom becomes compromised due to this problem. Learning environments that
can adjust to their users and offer flexible learning means can create a greater influence on the
lives of their learners.

3.4. SOCIO-SPATIAL THEORY

Socio-spatial theory focus is of a political stance and empowers the public to use their social
space to act as a united front against the political measure. This architectural study aims to
counteract the universal institutionalised design and to design the spatial needs that are specific
to its user group, yet still interactive and inclusive with society. The aim is to create a social
space that encourages an experiential engagement between autistic individuals and neuro-
typical society. Henry Lefebvre encourages a public space of representation where
marginalised groups of people are more vocal and interactive in society (Lefebvre as cited in
Haas, 2012).

Lefebvre established a theory to explain the connection between space and social relations
(Haas, 2012). Lefebvre recognizes space beyond its physical characteristics and concedes it as
an element which exemplifies social interaction in society. This space of social interaction is
formed by ourselves and we all interpret it and engage with it through our senses. Lefebvre
further categorises space into the Triad of Space and relates this theory from a political
understanding in relations of the right to the city. The first constituent to the triad is the
conceived space which are political systems required to rein control over society, secondly is
the perceived space that is experienced within our immediate context and thirdly is the lived
space in which we use for social practices in our daily living (Lefebvre as cited in Haas, 2012).

Dear and Wilson (1997) explores the perception of society on interrelating with the disabled.
The substance of this considerate witnesses the method in which we understand the world and
this is through distinguishing between similarities and differences. We frequently set
boundaries and limits to understand where we fit into the social context of the world and it

45
leaves us untying ourselves from those that are different. Those that are unlike in society are
generally the disabled and within the disabled community are levels or severity of a disability.
Physical and mental impairments are observed differently and have an impact on society
choosing to socially interact with either form of disability (Dear et al, 1997, pg. 455-457).

Social interaction with the disabled has an order of hierarchical acceptance. One form of
disability may be more acceptable than another. According to Takahashi hierarchy of
acceptance (1992), the mentally impaired are regarded as 6th on the list out of fourteen
disabilities and differences (Takahashi as cited in Dear et al, 1997). Autism has been
recognized as a disability however there is a limited attempt from the government to create
awareness and facilities or strategies to alleviate the boundaries between neurotypical and
atypical individuals. Special facilities and design aid autistic individuals and assist them with
managing their impairments but the very same design also isolates them from the real-world
environment and restricts from social interaction with society. According to Dear and Wilson
(1997, pg. 474), physical space has a role in adjusting and eliminating the boundaries between
the able and disabled by lessening the social distance placed between the two communities in
society.

3.5. SENSORY DESIGN

Through studies done in the last decade and continued research, architects can now better
understand how to design for people with ASD. Architect Magda Mostafa a pioneer in the field
of study created the Autism ASPECTSSTM Design Index through the interpretation of Sensory
Design Theory. In this index Mostafa outlines seven issues that affects positive behaviour and
skills development in users with autism and ASD:

3.5.1. Acoustics

The management of sound in an environment, through the adjustment of the materiality within
a space and type of walls which defines a space. Careful consideration needs to be given to the
particular lighting fixtures which does not exude a noise frequency. The focus of sound
management is to limit the background noises and allow an autistic individual to experience
their surrounding environment without unpleasant interference allowing them to focus on either
engaging with a task or others.

46
 Figure 3.12. Background noises in a typical classroom
(Source: https://www.acousticalsurfaces.com/, Accessed: August 2020)

3.5.2. Spatial Sequencing

Spatial sequencing requires a sense of simplicity, calm and order. The transition from one space
to the other needs to flow without many sensory distractions. Humphreys (2008) states that:
“complexity within the built environment causes stress to individuals with ASD as they are
incapable to filter or differentiate between separate stimuli such as noises, shapes and colours.
Therefore complex environments with a lot of stimuli are experienced by them as perplexing
and extremely troubling. By keeping spaces clear, calm and ordered the confusion experienced
by individuals with ASD is reduced (Humphreys, 2008). A sense of simplicity in the
arrangement and organisation of spaces allows individuals with ASD to effortlessly navigate a
building without undergoing high levels of anxiety.

Figure 3.13. Image symbolic of the spatial sequence design principle.(Source:

https://www.autism.archi/aspectss, Accessed: August 2020)

47
Creating a sense of tranquil and order does not only remain restricted to the building plan and
section but similarly through the choice of materiality, an example, employing a selected
palette of materials helps to create clearness within the spaces. Busy patterns and bright colours
in building materials confuse and disturb children (Scott, 2009), this exposes the individual to
the negative spatial experience. Humphrey states that: “complexity in the details of a building
can cause visual distractions and some children with ASD develop obsessions with these
details” (Humphreys, 2008). An example of this can be seen by a patterned floor, this can often
cause confusion and unease when those with ASD tread on them. Some individuals get hooked
when looking at a certain pattern and can spend extended periods staring at it (Nguyen, 2011).
A simple minimalistic environment provided can be ideal, to which stimulus can be added as
suits the specific user’s needs.

Herbert (2003) defines that order, clarity and structure as vital elements in designing autism-
friendly environments; these elements decrease sensory demands, encourage freedom and
reduce unsuitable behaviour. Thus, buildings ought to represent a modest layout that echoes
order, calm and clarity with clear spatial sequencing and way-finding.

3.5.3. Escape Spaces

Escape spaces is a collective term encompassing all spaces or a place in which someone in the
spectrum retreats too. This allows them to retreat to change the level of stimuli. This change
can involve increasing or decreasing the level of stimulation. An example of this could be seen
in ‘a sensory suite’ that allows the environment to be adjusted according to the user’s sensory
needs either being over or under-stimulated.

Figure 3.14. A time out escape space for students (Source: https://www.todaysparent.com/)

48
The purpose of escape spaces is to provide an interval for the individual from the over-
stimulation experienced in their environment. Experimental research has substantiated the
constructive effect of such escape spaces, specifically in learning environments (Mostafa,
2008, 204). Such environments may contain a small subdivided area or crawl space in a quiet
segment of a room, or through a building. These spaces should offer a unbiased sensory
environment with slight stimulation that can be modified by the user to offer the necessary
sensory input.

3.5.4. Compartmentalization

Compartmentalization of learning spaces or an entire building into compartments to outline

and limit the sensory environment to each motion to help control sensory stimulation and
breakdown the level of intensity within the environment for its users. Each section should
include its clearly distinct function and consequential sensory quality (Mostafa, 2015).

The configuration of independent spaces within the learning environment will help the
individual develop skills to deal with the identification of different environments and the
change in sensory perception of multiple environments in the outside world of chaos,
incompetence and volatility.

Figure 3.15. compartmentalized study of a classroom showing synchronized use of various stations.
(Source: Mostafa, 2008).

49
This separation of compartments should not be strict or harsh but rather done through furniture
layouts and floor finish materials. The change in levels and the variance of lighting can also
impact on the change in atmosphere and sensory environment. The sensory quality of each
environment should be used as a tool to outline its function and isolate it from its neighbouring
section. Once these sensory elements are coupled with their activity counterpart, it will offer
sensory clues as to what is anticipated of the individual in respectied spaces, with minimum
uncertainty (Mostafa, 2015).

3.5.5. Transition

Transition zones help an autistic individual re-establish balance in their senses as they move
through the various spaces and sensory zones. Transition zones help facilitate spatial
sequencing and sensory zoning. Transition zones can vary from distinct transition nodes to a
complete sensory area that re-calibrates the user’s senses from the transition of a high
stimulated area to a low stimulated area (Mostafa, 2015).

These transition zones must ensure that the individual has a smooth transition from one space
to another and not create abrupt breaks in the transition that will cause disorientation and
sensory ‘shock’ to the individual. The purpose of these zones is to help the user adapt to
changes and learn to adjust to the outside world through a gradual process.

Figure 3.16. The different transition zones (Source: https://www.utas.edu.au/)

50
3.5.6. Sensory Zoning

Sensory zoning dealing with autism should be designed and organised according to their
sensory value, relatively than the distinctive functional zoning. These zones should be
organised and grouped to allow variance in stimulation from high, moderate to low sensory
qualities. The transition and circulation zones need to be incorporated between spaces to create
a gradual change in spaces.

3.5.7. Safety

The safety of individuals within the autism spectrum is vital since often they do not recognize
the risk of the circumstances or environments in which they find themselves. Autistic
individuals have a unique spatial orientation which could cause them to injure themselves
easily. Therefore, the environment around them should be well thought off. The type of
materials, fixtures, surfaces and barriers are vital considerations when designing for those in
the spectrum. There should be a visual connection and a sense of transparency so individuals
are easily monitored.

3.6. INTEGRATIVE SENSORY ARCHITECTURE

Autistic individuals have difficulties integrating into society and therefore are often excluded
and live a life of isolation. Pomana (2015), has conducted a study in research that focuses on
architecture that considers the integration of autistic individuals to be a part of the public realm.
Individuals diagnosed with autism follow a strict treatment program from initial diagnosis, but
this does lighten the chance of an autistic child developing into an autistic adult. Majority of
our lives are lived as an adult and it is important to consider the life of an autistic individual
and their integration into society from a child into an adult (Pomana, 2015, pg.1).

Autistic life learning centres are needed in providing skills development that are specific to the
abilities of autistic individuals. It is vital that these centres are not designed in isolation, but
consider society and public awareness. These centres should be designed to successfully
function with its context, its surrounding education, cultural, and health institutions. Literature
has indicated that these centres need to involve different transitioning spheres such as
(Pomana,2015);

51
3.6.1. Controlled Environments

The environment for therapy and skills development needs to simplify and ease the
implementation of this process. The architectural elements and design need to respond to the
users sensory, communicative and behavioural impairments.

3.6.2. Sensory Saturated Spaces

To adapt to new environments and understand your surrounding an individual has to be

exposed to various sensory stimuli, these spaces assist autistic individuals to learn to adapt and
measure of control over sensory issues such as hypersensitivity and other sensory disorders.
An example such as exposure to indoor and outdoor functions creates a variety of atmosphere
in relations to sound and sensations.

3.6.3. Public Interface

One of the major daily struggles of autistic individuals is to overcome communicative,

behavioural, and social difficulties. Public awareness and interaction are vital for autistic
individuals to be accepted within society. These public spaces need to be incorporated as part
of a learning centre environment to allow the individual to develop their skills and not be
confined to a limited situation of the environment. Through these experimental situations, it
should create an opportunity for awareness of autism in society.

3.7. ECOLOGICAL SENSORY RESPONSE

As cited by Herbert: “nature is believed to have healing and restorative powers, historically
healing spaces were nearly always found in nature...a healing spring, a sacred grove, a special
rock or cave." (Marcus and Barnes, 1999 cited in Herbert, 2003: 1). The natural environment
such as outside spaces and green spaces are beneficial and calming agents for people with
autism as these spaces can be safe environments for them to reduce stress. The natural
environment provides for motor actions such as balancing, skipping and playing on a
trampoline or climbing. “The environment is also more suited for sensory integration activities,
such as tactile activities that involve sand and water” (Herbert, 2003).

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Figure 3.17. Different methods of integrating the environment on sensory perception
(Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/)

3.7.1. Connection with Nature

The connection with nature makes a person aware of natural cycles of life and the seasonal
changes that take place around them. It connects people with the natural systems and creates
the experiences that are relaxing and nostalgic. The exposure to nature and its natural process
can play a vital role in perceptual experience on what an individual experience and see (Ryan
et as cited in Fischl, 2016).

The response to nature is done through the patterns of biophilic design, the framework of the
design may be altered to adapt to its context and its user’s needs. The solution conceived from
biophilia is to be ‘user-centred’ and specific to the design program through natural methods.
To use the concept of biophilic architecture successfully the architect needs to understand the
spatial requirements and needs of the user group to create a response through biophilia (Kaplan
as cited in Ryan et al, 2014).

The earliest man-made structures and designs have expressed the significance of Biophilia
which is the humanistic need to connect to nature. The significance of integrating nature with
the built environment is evident in the psychological studies of an individual’s stress levels and
state of mind when exposed to natural elements (Ryan, Browning, Clancy, Andrews,
Kallianpurkar, 2014).

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3.7.2. Visual and Non-visual Connection with Nature

Studies have proven that natural environments are favoured over the built environment and the
natural environment provides beneficial to psychological health (Ulrich, 1983). The connection
with nature and specifically visuals connection has been proven to reduce stress and have a
positive impact on the mood and emotions of human beings. While inbuilt environments that
do not have a visual connection with nature it is substituted by adding elements such as plants
and water features to balance and naturally enhance the physical space.

Figure 3.18. Visual connection with nature (Source: https://za.pinterest.com/)

Non-visual connection with nature

A non-visual connection can be achieved through stimulation of the other senses, such as
auditory, haptic and olfactory (Ryan et al, 2014, pg.65). These stimuli are about nature such
as natural sounds and aromatic scents. Alvarsson (as cited in Ryan et al, 2014) comparison
between the effects of natural and urban sounds depict that natural sounds allow for a more
active psychological and physiological restoration process within an urban environment.

3.7.3. Presence of Water

The presence of water from simply crashing waves to wading pools enhances the experience
of a place. The presence of water and access to water is a biophilic design pattern that has risen
from research to benefit health and well-being, which includes lower heart rate, increased
feeling of tranquillity, reduced stress improved emotional responsiveness and improved
concentration and perception.

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 Figure 3.19. Wading pool showing a sense of relaxed environment
(Source: http://architecture-corner.blogspot.com/)
the water creates a pleasant visual stimulation and the soothing sounds of flowing water ease
one’s state of mind. Study shows that flowing water is always preferred over still standing
water (Orians and Heerwagen, 1993).

3.7.4. Sensory Garden

The literature study has shown that autistic individuals experience two major forms of sensory
difficulties which is either hypo-sensitivity or hypersensitivity. The natural environment which
is a multi-sensory stimulus which can be used to achieve a sense of balance and accommodate
both sensory difficulties (Gaudion and McGinley, 2012, pgs. 23-29).

Research has indicated that an outdoor, natural environment allows for spontaneous interaction
and play for both autistic adults and children (Louv, R and S Kaplan, Faber Taylor, Kuo, and
Sullivan as cited in Sachs and Vincenta, 2011).

A garden space can also be used to help individuals learn skills and ability to nature and tend
to plants and nature. The image below shows an example of a sensory garden that incorporates
multiple activities and different spaces for those individuals that require a range of different
stimulus spaces.

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 Figure 3.20. Illustration of integrated sensory garden (Source: https://www.henshaws.org.uk/)

Contact with the outdoor and nature can be contrasting with the confined learning environment,
outdoor spaces and sensory gardens can assist autistic individuals in using their skills they
learnt in a different sensory stimulus environment and social setting. The open outdoor spaces
can help restore attention, and recover mental fatigue to enhance optimal mental focus.

3.8. CONCLUSION

The paradigm of phenomenology is an umbrella to theories that follow a similar design

concept. Each theory has been critically analysed and explored in its relation and relevance to
sensory design and its role in the lives of autistic individuals. Phenomenology is a user-centred
paradigm that focuses on the existence of people in space.

Perception theory deals with the sensory response to the architecture and the embodiment of
people and their sensory needs in the built environment. The role of perception was vital to
analyse and its impact on autistic individuals. It allowed the study to explore theories of sensory
design and neuro-typical design. The socio-spatial theory allows for interaction between
autistic individuals and society. The theory explores inclusivity and acknowledgement of the
autistic community within society. Finally, the ecological approach examines how one can
create a homogenous blend amongst nature and the built environment that responds to the
senses and caters to needs of autistic individuals and critically to their spatial and sensory needs.

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CHAPTER FOUR | PRECEDENT STUDIES

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The selected precedents studies have been chosen on their bearing to the key issues discussed
in the previous two chapters. The literature review addressed the main research problem and
supported the aims and objectives of this study. The review studied the nature of ASD and the
spatial needs of autistic individuals. This chapter will analyse two current learning centres for
autistic users and the relationship of the user and their perception of space within the built
environment. The analysis of these precedent studies will assist in further understanding the
spatial needs of autistic individuals and the response architecture has to its specific users. The
analysis would not be able to cover all aspect of the precedent therefore in this study the
analysis will be in relation to design principles created in the Sensory design theory and Autism
ASPECTSSTM Design Index by Magda Mostafa. These principles provide guidelines on
design for sensory inclusivity and autistic needs.

4.2. NEW STRUAN CENTRE FOR AUTISM

Architects: Aitken And Turnbull Architecture

Location: Alloa, Scotland

Location map of the new Struan Centre identifying its location within Alloa, Scotland. The site
surrounded by a lush green context adjacent to a primary school in residential setting.

Scotland Alloa New Struan Centre

Figure 4.1. Locality map (Source: https://earth.google.com/)

The New Struan Centre for Autism was opened in 2005 for children diagnosed with Autism.
The school roles serves as a national centre for Autism, facilitated for autism advice-giving,
teaching and training in autism, education outreach amenities and explore, diagnosis
assessment centre (Scott, 2009).

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 Figure 4.2. External façade of the building (Source: https://www.archdaily.com/)

4.2.1. Acoustics

The building is designed to block out the external factor of noise from its surrounding context.
The building is situated in the centre of the site surrounded by lush green vegetation that creates
a noise barrier from its surrounding context. The t-shape plan is separated between public and
private, with the spine of the T being the private learning spaces which is situated towards the
rear of the site for its private quieter character to the site.

Figure 4.3. Ariel view of New Struan Centre (Source: https://earth.google.com/)

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The centre is a single-story building with a central north to south axis called ‘the street’. The
street provides easy access to each learning space avoiding narrow corridors and spaces that
may cause confusion and anxiety to its user. The street is stretched to the entire length of the
building and is essentially a glass atrium. The atrium provides natural daylight and ventilation
to the interior spaces. The layout of the spaces promotes a modest order and autonomous
movement from one space to the other. A simple use of a limited palette of material with little
detail in the central areas enforces the sense of calm and simplicity to the space.

4.2.3. Escape Spaces

Each classroom is designed with a breakout space that allows learners to go to if they are feeling
over whelmed or over stimulated. The space is isolated from the main learning area and
equipped with sensory calming and sensory stimulation activities. There are no windows in
this part of the classroom as the light from outside might be over bearing while the individual
is trying to calm down.

Each classroom also has access to its own outdoor play area. This allows for motor skill
activities and for when learner have too much energy and need to burn off by running or doing
physical activity to reduce their energy levels which may cause anxiousness and hyper activity
which indoor spaces may not be equipped with.

4.2.4. Compartmentalisation

The circulation is the “spine of the building” or known as the ‘street’ which learning spaces are
opened from either side of it. The street serves as a strong location device and provides an open
interpretation of the entire school as well as views of the outside play area, which permits the
users to easily orientate themselves. This gives the children self-assurance in their navigation
skills and the extensive circulation spaces lets the children move freely and not be afraid of
collision or incursion of their personal space. The semi-public areas are also accessed of the
main circulation space, will allows ease to access to the spaces and gives the users an idea of
what to expect before entering a space.

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 Figure 4.6. Atrium circulation spine of the building (Source: https://www.aitken-
turnbull.co.uk/project/centre-autism-new-struan/)

The surface textures and colour scheme play a role in the compartmentalisation as well. The
variation in texture and colour support the spatial order. The central aisle is painted white which
enhances the natural lively light and expresses a sense of spaciousness. The floor has a dark
blues which runs the length of the corridor which defines a clear line of separation from the
threshold spaces. The threshold space is a natural earthly red- brown colour with the flooring
in the niche spaces a light blue to give emphasis to the central corridor. Visual hierarchy assists
the children to create a sense of independent navigation of the building. Each classroom is
equipped with independent access to outdoor play areas, with each door painted a different
colour to indicate which door is to access outdoor play areas. This allows the children to have
access to outdoor spaces in a secure space and play freely with the comfort of finding their way
back to their specific classrooms.

4.2.5. Transition

In the previous chapter literature has indicated that individuals with ASD have different levels
of perception threshold. This includes spatial and environmental differences, which suggest
that this can often be threatening when individuals transition from one space into another.

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 Figure 4.7. Transitional space (Source: http://www.designhub.it/)

The figure above shows how the new Struan School uses a transitional threshold zone between
the street and the classroom to allow the students to pause and slow down before transitioning
into the classroom to permit for a even and independent shift between play and movement
space and teaching zones. It expresses a clear boundary shaped by use of finishes and colour.
The change in height of the ceiling expresses a much more intimate space and for smaller group
activities. This initiates that the classroom starts outside with the hints of a table chair and bags.
The threshold space is structured, with everything organised to assist in maintaining a sense of
order, calm and simplicity.

4.2.6. Sensory Zoning

The visual sense is activated by the appearance of the building. The exterior of the building is
kept simple with simple form texture and material. This is done not to create any unwanted
stimulation that would cause anxiousness to its users as they approach the building. The
entrance is defined in a subtle change in material to enhance its symbolism as an entrance.

Figure 4.8. External sketch of the entrance of the centre. (Source: Author)

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 Figure 4.9. Internal view of a classroom (Source: https://www.archdaily.com/)

The internal spaces are zoned with different colours to express their functions and create a
sense of identity in which the learners can build a relation to the spaces by their specific
character. The classrooms are zoned with bright colours, being high stimulated activities and
low stimulated space surrounded by subtle colours. Textures such has carpets, bean bags and
repetition of materials along paths help self-stimulate individuals as they move through spaces.
The use of different textures and the repetition of it within spaces helps individuals find a
balance in stimulation when they experience sensory difficulties. The use of common objects
in daily lives helps adjust the individual to adapting to a self-sustaining life as these simple
skills help them manage their sensory difficulties without the need of special aid or constant
supervision.

4.2.7. Integration with Nature

Creating a connection with nature is vital has it enhances the user’s perception and allows for
a person to feel at ease to the open environment. Each classroom in the New Struan School has
an exterior door that leads to its own outside play area. This makes it easy for the learning to
be extended to an outside space. The outdoor space consists of cycle tracks, play apparatus, a
ball park and sensory garden. The range in activities allow for the children to either play in
groups or independently.

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Images below show outdoor activity area

Figure 4.10. Outdoor gym area Figure 4.11. Outdoor play area
(Source: https://www.scottishautism.org/) (Source: https://www.archdaily.com/)

The school is designed and structured to generate a calm and organised environment which
allows for individuals with ASD to concentrate on learning the important life skills they need.
The outdoor equipment is simple to use and well differentiated with a flow of movement of the
space in between them. The outdoor spaces are well secured and safe which allows the
individuals to explore freely and independently.

4.2.8. Conclusion

The building takes notice of the specialised needs of its users and incorporates them into every
aspect and detail of the built environment. The wide street is the key feature of the New Struan
School as it emphasizes the importance of connection between spaces and the transition from
one space to the other and its impact on autistic individuals. The core idea of the design of the
school is to keep the spaces simple to allow the individuals to become independent and
confident in themselves and their abilities. In respective detail of the design of the building it
suggestion a declaration of respect to the pupils in accepting their complications they
experience.

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4.3.1. Acoustics

The site is surrounded by streets, therefore there has been multiple trees added around the edge
of the site to act as a noise buffer from the vehicles moving along the street. The materials used
on the exterior of the building is timber which serves as sound absorbers to noise of people
movement and to filter any loud noises from the playground area and external sounds from the
surrounding context.

Figure 4.14. Site map (Source: https://earth.google.com/)

The classrooms are fitted with acoustic ceiling panel boards to absorb noises and avoid
unwanted noises from moving chairs and screaming children. All classrooms are fitted with
self -closing this allows for the rooms to be enclosed at all times to avoid unwanted noises from
the walkways.

Figure 4.15. Interior view of classroom (Source: https://kssarchitects.com/)

66
4.3.2. Spatial Sequencing

The facility connects to its immediate context and forms a part of its mixed-use community.
The facility connects to an open public gathering space and walking trail for the public. The
building itself forms a U-shape which creates its own private central courtyard. The courtyard
is over looked by the administrative and learning spaces.

Figure 4.16. Site plan (Source: https://oddgraphic.com/)

The spatial sequencing of spaces includes various stimulus levels. The three major functions
of the building have been separated to a different wing of the building to clearly define change
in functions of the building, the administrative being positioned on the south east wing cluttered
by the reception area and cafeteria. The learning rooms are positioned on the north wing
connected to the therapy rooms, the sports facilities positioned on the west wing that connects
to the public park and athletic field.

4.3.3. Escape Spaces

Each classroom has individual spaces for learners to work on their own when they feel over-
whelmed working within groups. The classrooms open out into the courtyards space for when
learners need to learn motor skills and needs to release energy when feeling over stimulated.
There is a bigger playground for when learners need extra physical to further develop motor
skills and social interaction skills.

67
not stress them out or cause them to go into a state of anxiety, and this is achieved through the
proposal of the Eden centre.

The layout of the centre allows for a gradual transition from the administrative to the sporting
and then to the learning functions along a sightline of the courtyard.

Figure below of open corridor and transtion zone.

Figure 4.18. Main circulation space of the centre (Source: autor)

4.4. CONCLUSION

The analysis of Eden Autism services was done to explore the spatial needs of autistic
individuals and how the architects responded to these key issues and successfully achieved
them. The Eden Autism centre shows clearly how this have been succeeded through the
compartmentalisation of each component, creating a sense of hierarchy through the spatial
sequencing and finally the connection through a gradual transition from one space to the other.

The precedents studies have been conducted to inform the design of this study. The analysis
will assist in developing the architectural qualities of space. The research has shown the
synthesis of inclusive sensory design and theoretically driven approach to achieve a positive
conducive learning environment.

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CHAPTER FIVE | CASE STUDY

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The resource and facilities provided for autism within South Africa is limited and lacks
awareness, never the less there are schools that provide for an ASD unit. These are where
certain classroom are converted into ASD units to provide for some sort of sensory stimulated
environment for Autistic individuals. The case study that has been selected in this study is
located within the Durban North area. The facility itself was not initially designed to
accommodate users with ASD but adapted to needs of its users. The facility will be explored
and analysed through its spatial quality and according to the main theoretical framework and
Autism ASPECTSS Design Index by Magda Mostafa as done in the previous chapter. The
purpose of the case study will allow for insight and understanding of how individuals with
sensory and perception difficulties are handled within the context of South Africa.

5.2. ACTION IN AUTISM, DURBAN NORTH, HAIG ROAD

5.2.1. Introduction

Action in Autism is a non-profit organisation that was established in 2006 by parents of autistic
individuals. The facility is essentially an early childhood development but also incorporates a
development program for young adults into finding appropriate skillsets for the individuals.
The organisation is structured and consist of teachers, support staff, occupational therapist,
speech therapist and educational psychologist. The building was not designed to cater for the
needs of autistic users but has been adapted, and is still being modified to cater to the learning
and sensory needs of its users.

Figure 5.1. Central courtyard activity space (Source: https://www.actioninautism.org.za/about-us)

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5.2.2. Spatial Sequencing

Figure 5.2. The sketch above shows a sketch layout site plan (Source: Author)

The building is a single storey building which has no need for stairs or ramps. The building
form wraps around a central courtyard creating a simple flow of movement and easy
wayfinding for young kids finding their way from one classroom to the other. The layout of
the building is a central courtyard design as the building was initially designed as a school this
allowed for control and safety of its users. The central courtyard has no cover and is therefore
open to the sky which act as area for young autistic learner to explore the outdoors while in a
safe controlled environment.

Figure 5.3. Image of the open central courtyard (Source: Author)

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The courtyard has been modified to cater for a positive sensory environment through the
playfulness of adding murals to the wall, painting the balustrades yellow and the soft green
AstroTurf that covers the existing floor.

The main building consists of the administration block, learning spaces, sensory rooms and a
new addition which is a kitchen. The facility also has adult learning and skills development
adjacent to the outdoor play area that incorporates a computer centre. The room is an open plan
layout which allows the spaces to be adjusted to the users’ needs and perceptual difficulty. The
spaces surrounding the site is an open green space which allows for a good natural surrounding
and a nursery which assist the centre in gaining skills in planting and harvesting of crop.

5.2.3. Sensory Zoning

Sensory zoning plays a vital role in the learning spaces for those who are Autistic. Noise is a
significant factor when it comes to sensory zoning in the learning environment. Unwanted
noises from the outside environment needs to be buffered out through the kind of material used
within the classroom such as flooring and ceiling board properties. The facility provides
sensory rooms when learners feel over-whelmed and need a time out to re-establish a balance
sensory stimulus.

Figure 5.4. Image of one of the sensory rooms (Source: Author)

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The use of selected colours and textures assist in reducing over stimulation when students feel
over stimulated in the natural environment. The spaces have large ceilings but still lacks the
consideration for suitable acoustic properties.

Figure 5.5. (Image above shows sensory stimulation methods and activities for learner to engage in
Source: Author)

The room caters for various stimulation difficulties such as under stimulation. To enhance
stimulation the room has multiple activity to create stimulation such as a ball pen different
textures on the wall that allow learners to interact with to soothe and calm them down and
various foot pad for learners to step on when feeling under stimulated.

The layout of the room can be interchangeable to cater for the wide range of sensory difficulties
faced by individuals with autism. Due to the lack of awareness and funding the facility is unable
to cater for each sensory impairment in individual rooms therefore this is not the most efficient
and effective way dealing with various sensory zoning.

5.2.4. Connection to Nature

The connection to nature creates the experience that is relaxing and nostalgic. The exposure to
nature is a natural process and can play an important role in the perceptual experience in what
an individual experiences from the natural surroundings.

Action in Autism is surrounded by a natural landscape with its neighbouring site a nursery
below allowing for a great visual connection within view. Along the entrance of the site dense
lush green space. The admin block and some of the classes are orientated to take advantage of
these views.

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Images below shows nursery adjacent to site and open playground and their connection to
nature

Figure 5.6. Image of garden and nursery Figure 5.7. Image of children’s play area
(Source: Author) (Source: Author)

The secure playground is essential to the school as it helps autistic children experience the
outdoors without feeling restricted. It is big enough for the children to run and interact with the
environment while still having a sense of security. The school does not have a connection to
the natural environment from its interior functions in which the school aims to achieve by
integrating landscaped sensory gardens that is filled with positive sensory stimulation. The
centre also aims to create a sensory playscape that is inclusive of both surrounding communities
and autistic individuals to allow for social interaction and creation of awareness (Interview
with senior member of the organisation)

5.2.5. Transition

The centre has one main central transition zone which is situated around the central courtyard.
The walkway connects from the entrance foyer to the admin block, learning spaces, kitchen
and open hall space and returns back to the admin block.

Figure 5.8. View of main circulation space (Source: Author)

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The walkway acts as the only pause space and the in-between of the open (the outdoor) and the
enclosed (the inside) before learners’ step into the classroom. Along the walkway there are
elements such cubicles for bags playful features, murals on the wall, these elements suggest
sense of playfulness or a sense of learning to prepare the learners on what to perceive before
entering into a space.

5.2.6. Conclusion

The case study shows attributes and a connection to the literature in the previous chapters. The
facility has successfully integrated the sensory and learning needs of Autistic individuals.
Though the facility was not designed for autistic users, the organisation has made it suitable
through changes in floor finishes, wall colours, the control of daylight, acoustic properties and
spatial sequencing has made it possible for a productive and sensory stimulated environment
for autistic learners with different sensory needs towards their journey of facing life while being
on the spectrum.

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 3. The spatial experience autistic individuals and the impact of the built environment on
the individual.

4. The specialised needs of indoor and outdoor facilities.

5. The connection to nature.

The primary questions focused in the interview schedule is on the sensory and spatial
experience of the users as follows:

o One of my main focus in this research is the various senses. Through my study I
found that individuals with autism often experience sensory issues. Through first-
hand experience what can you say are the major sensory issues in your class?

o There are couple key buildings design consideration that my research has led me
to thus far. Please could you explain from your experience how the natural
elements such as the sun, wind and noise has impacted on children with autism,
could you elaborate on the positive and negatives and how these issues are
addressed in your classroom.

o From my research it has led me to believe that an organized classroom/space

spatial layout is important, does your classroom have a specific layout for the
needs of the condition?

The secondary questions focused on the supporting outdoor spaces and their impact of
autistic individuals. The questions were listed as follows:

o What would you say are suitable outdoor activities for autistic individuals?

o How are the outside spaces beneficial for them?

o Is there a need for more autism specific facilities within the context of Durban and
where would you suggest a suitable place be?

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The information collected from the interviews were studied using the qualitative analysis
method and the information was extensively studied and reviewed in relation to the
research questions of this study to formulate the following themes that emerged from the
analysis of the data:

1. Sensory saturated environment.

2. Sense of calm and order.

3. Natural setting and outdoor interface.

4. Sense of awareness through an integrated public sphere.

6.2. OUTLINING THEMES OF PRIMARY DATA ANALYSIS

6.2.1. Theme 1- Sensory saturated environments: the data gathered from the case study and
interviews indicate the response of the environment to the sensory needs of Autistic
individuals. There was strong response to the auditory, visuals and tactile senses and the
environments response to these senses.

At Action in Autism there was a common concern with the impact of overwhelming sounds
and noises that can cause individuals to become anxious and have sensory breakdowns.

AIA – Educator 1: “In my class the major sensory issue is sound, most of the children block
their ears when there is loud music or when other students scream or cry”

AIA- Educator 2: “Noise is one of the major factors, our children are particularly sensitive to
high levels of noise and it is important to have a break out space within the classroom which
the kid could go to and regain a sense of sensory balance and feel much less anxious and to
calm down. Sometimes some of the kids feel anxious when they see a lot of movement outside
through the window”.

AIA- Director: “while each child can have their own sensory profile, one of the major
stimulations that tends to aggravate those with ASD is when certain sounds are overwhelming.
These could range from the crying of another child or the sound of a grass cutting machine.
This leaves most of the class upset and the class routine is disturbed.

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The third educator participant and psychologist explained the experience of individuals being
either being over or under stimulated and finding ways of creating a sensory balance for
themselves and often need to be surrounded by suitable stimulus.

AIA- Educator 3: “The major sensory issue in my class is hyper activity, this is noticed by
children biting toys, being socially withdrawn or disrupting class activity. If a child experiences
hyperactivity they can go into the sensory where there is various different touch stimulation
that can help calm them down.

AIA- Psychologist: “it impacts on children response and ability to focus etc, if the environment
is not friendly to their sensory needs it does not facilitate communication”.

The above responses express the importance of sensory integration within the built
environment and the major role that it plays on an individual with ASD and their ability to
understand and communicate in a learning environment.

6.2.2. Theme 2- Sense of calm and order: the second theme that was prominent in the
interviews conducted was a sense of organisation and program. A daily routine allowed the
individuals to be calm and identify what was needed of them through daily repetition. Such
things as; sudden noises and disruption as discussed in the previous theme cause a break in the
order therefore causes individuals with ASD to become uneasy and confused which can lead
to sudden break downs.

At Action in Autism there are daily routines that children engage in to allow the activation and
training of all their senses and as well as communication skills. A simple environment with a
sense of order and layout allows for greater understanding of the engagement and interaction
needed.

AIA- Educator 1: “We have a daily routine which includes visual pictures of anything that will
be focused on so that they will know what to expect for the day, and what activities they are
doing next. This helps them understand when it is time to finish and when it is my turn and your
turn during activities”.

AIA- Educator 2: “In my classroom they tables are set on one side of the classroom as a
specified workplace area. We have allocated visual communication pictures that are
strategically placed around the class to allow for opportunities for communication, an example
of this is; a wait symbol at the door.

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AIA- Educator 3:” Having structured spaces are essential has it promotes understanding of
schedule, activities and expectations. Having a structure in place promotes independency.

The classroom layout in Action in Autism all have their own structured layout that allow for
the students to understand what is expected. Visual communication assist learner in
understanding specific task and routines without aid from educators and this establishes a sense
on independency among the students.

AIA- Psychologist: “Space should be sensory sensitive, things such as light, sound and texture
impacts the senses of individuals within the spectrum. Spaces that are required are calm down
rooms, connection to outdoor movement spaces, spacious classrooms and green spaces that
facilitate learning. Also, safety is an important part to these spaces”.

Structured space for autistic individuals is an important part of the design. Simple spaces
with visualisation and applied wayfinding techniques assist in smooth transition through
spaces for the individuals with ASD.

6.2.3. Theme 3- Natural setting and outdoor interface: from the review of the literature,
precedent and case studies, there has been an importance towards inclusive design of the
natural elements and outdoor interface. The following participants have also advised the
importance of implementing the natural elements and outdoor interface.

AIA- Director: “Spending time in the natural environment and outdoor helps the children
to be imaginative and improves their social skills and concentration. Negative impact of
could be hypersensitive reaction from the child due to the noises and over populated
spaces.

AIA- Educator 1: “Outdoor learning helps to manage difficult behaviour therefore the
children are in a much better, happier and calmer place. By releasing all their energy or
anger by jumping, running, etc. It is also sensory relaxing for them. They are able to
explore new things and be exposed to new learning opportunities”.

AIA – Educator 2: “Many of our children spend the vast majority of their time indoors at
home. They do not get the opportunity to move around freely and develop their gross motor
skills through play/ interacting with the environment. Our outdoors spaces are able to
provide them with that in a safe environment”.

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AIA – Educator 3: “Outdoor spaces are beneficial to those with ASD as it can be
therapeutic, it helps calm down individuals who become anxious in confined spaces.
Outdoor spaces such as sensory gardens or swinging on a hammock helps calm down
frustrated children and help distract them from having a meltdown”.

The natural surrounding plays an important role on the human senses, it is important when
designing for individuals with ASD that these elements can be controlled and adjusted to
suit the users. These elements can be a positive or negative factor for those with ASD,
therefore it is important to understand how to implement these elements of design. The
above responses have provided an understanding of the impact of the natural elements in
the context of Durban.

Outdoor spaces from the theoretical analysis to the primary research has been a prominent
and important element when designing for individuals with ASD. Therefore, there is strong
link needed between indoor and outdoor activity with emphasis on open spaces with
natural landscape and public interface.

6.2.4. Theme 4- Sense of awareness through an integrated public sphere: Autism

awareness is slowly increasing in South Africa, but is currently not enough due to the lack
of public facilities. The few facilities that are within Durban are either non- profit
organisations or do not deal with the specialised needs of Autistic individuals (Interview
with director of AIA).

Due to previous stigma of exclusion of non neuro-typical individuals from society, many
of the older facilities are isolated from the public sphere and have very little connection to
the public sphere. Therefore, this has left for little integration of people living in spectrum
to engage with the public world and be accepted as part of society.

AIA- Director: “I think it would be nice for townships/peri urban areas to have more
facilities for the needs of Autism, because some children have to travel far to get
intervention of receive a diagnosis. Most people in the township areas still lack knowledge
about autism”.

AIA- Educator 1: “I think there should be more opportunities available for Autism specific
facilities within the public realm of awareness. A main centre that is centrally based will
be ideal as there are children that are still on waiting list to get into a school because
schools are full or there are not enough facilities”.

AIA – Educator 2: “There is a great need for a public presence and a sense of awareness!

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An appropriate place should be easily accessible (central area), a place that is largely
residentially populated. Lower socio- economic family households need these kinds of
facilities”.

AIA- Psychologist: “Action in Autism currently holds workshops, clinics, social media
groups, outreach and training programs to create awareness. School for Autistic
individuals needs to be purpose built. Most of the facilities are old schools that has been
repurposed and isolated from the school population. Awareness should be created in how
to support autistic people in schools, workplaces and socials spaces. There should be more
intake of autistic children in schools”.

The lack of social awareness has been a major issue for people living within the spectrum
and caused a separation in society. Creating an environment that promotes inclusivity will
not only cater for the needs of autistic individuals, but boost their self-esteem as being a
part of society and build their ability to communicate break the social barrier.

6.3. CONCLUSION

The information collected from the interviews has outlined important consideration and
requirement of the learning spaces needed for Autistic individuals. External factors from
the built environment can impact on the sensory difficulties experienced by the learners.
Loud noises have been outlined has one of the biggest factors that cause sensory break out
by the learners. To reduce this from happening it has been recommended that the acoustic
properties of the environment is essential such as use of soft materials that absorbs sound
within the classrooms, padded walls to reduce noise generated.

Light has been considered as part of another important factor that impacts on the sensory
perception of the learners. When children have breakdowns, they need a dark space to calm
down, this is generally in a calm room that is incorporated as part of the classroom that
learners can escape to re-establish a sense of sensory balance. Therefore, small high
openings with adjustable blinds is suitable for this kind of environment. Another element
of design consideration is close contact with green spaces helps learners feel calm and
relaxed and allows for social interaction therefore, sliding stacks doors that allow for an
open environment to nature and control of natural light will aids in a controlled learning
environment. Amongst these considerations other factors such as noisy HVAC systems
and florescent lighting can impact on individuals learning capabilities.

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CHAPTER SEVEN | CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1. INTRODUCTION

Through research it has been indicated that there is a lack of spatial consideration, sensory
inclusivity and public integration towards the needs of those with ASD. The study has
created a structure that will be implemented towards a design response to the research
problem and confirmed hypothesis of this dissertation.

The key theories and concepts of this dissertation encourages the relationship between the
users senses as communication tools within the built environment. Architecture has a
dominance of the visible and physical environment, which its presence and impact on
people’s daily lives cannot be ignored. Architecture can be believed to create the pace for
everyday living, the spaces created co-exist with the people that experience them daily.
The spaces created affects the movement, activities, interactions, communication and
views of its users. Architecture acts as an instrument to express emotions, social and
environmental interaction.

The core aim of this research is to: “implement the study and understanding of spatial
needs of individuals with Autism into a learning centre that caters for the Autistic
individuals and explore the impact, benefits and understand the concept of perceptual
architecture and its relationship with the built environment”. The following being the
objectives:

To explore the spatial needs of individuals with ASD - The research conducted in
chapter 2 shows the understanding of the social and neurological impairments of ASD and
its relationship to the built environment to specific detail.

To explore the influence that the built environment has on autistic users – Chapter 3
applies architectural theories and concept that has shown relevance to the key social and
neurological issues that has been outlined in chapter 2. The chapter also forms the
theoretical framework and structure to the dissertation to achieve this objective.

Understand the nature of ASD and the current response to facilities provided for
those who suffer from ASD – The precedent and case study conducted has shown the
current response of facilities that cater for ASD. It has indicated the importance of public
and social interaction. It has indicated the impact through example of the implication of
architectural sensory design and the negative impact without considered sensory design. It

83
has also added the lack of response towards the condition and importance of specialized
centers towards ASD.

To apply architectural theory and sensory design principles to cater for those with
impaired perception- This objective has been partially achieved, has it only explored the
architectural theory and sensory design thus far, and will be applied through part two of
the dissertation.

Main key questions that this study and research answered through its analysis and
discussion

• What are the spatial needs and quality of the environment needed for those suffering
from ASD?
The spatial needs and quality of an environment for autistic users should implement
the principles of sensory design. It should meet suitable acoustic properties that would
absorb loud and unwanted sound. Provide a spatial sequencing pattern that is simple
and not confusing to autistic users. Provide escape spaces when users experience
sensory overload. Classrooms and activity spaces needs to be compartmentalized into
zones for its users’ specific needs. There is a need for pause spaces and transition zones
to allow individuals to re-establish their senses before entering new spaces.

• How can spatial needs of people with ASD inform an architectural design
process/typology?
The spatial needs of autistic individuals are guided by the paradigm of phenomenology,
perception theory and sensory stimulation. This informs a typology that responds to
human perception and senses. Therefore, the design process will look to enhance the
well-being of its users through human centered design and sensory integrated spaces
such as; saturated spaces, controlled environments and a public interface.

• What are the current conditions of the learning spaces provided for children and
people diagnosed with Autism?
The current conditions of learning spaces provided are very limited and are not
designed specifically to the spatial needs of autistic individuals. The case study
investigated in this study shows evidence of that. It was an old military base that was
converted into a school for autistic users and therefore does not follow and guidelines
of spatial sequencing or integrative sensory architecture but rather converted standard

84
 environments to meet the major generalized needs of autistic users. This is not the best
solution and still restricts individuals from achieving and unlocking their skill and
potentials due to trying to cope with sensory difficulties experienced through the built
environment.

• What can architects do to change how the built environment is perceived by people
living with ASD?
Though the implementation of architectural sensory principles and design guidelines for
ASD developed by researchers done within the architectural field such as the
ASPECTSSTM Design Index by architectural professor Magda Mostafa. Through design
that is inclusive to the sensory and spatial needs of its users.

• What relation or role does the physical built environment play on the perception and
emotion of people’s experience?
Human spend a majority of their time within the built environment. If spaces are designed
without the consideration to their emotional and psychological needs it can cause mental
and physical illness. Without sensory integrated people are left lost and lack self-confidence
which leaves them to withdraw from society.

• How does perception relate to the sense modalities and experience of space?
Each sense modality has its own specific perception such as sight through visuals
perception of color being bright or dark stimulates different parts of the brain to formulate
a response. This response creates a sense of emotion or trigger that will allow a user to react
to the space in which they have perceived through its visual communication and
characteristics of that space. If the perception conceived is a positive one the user will feel
comfortable and relaxed, but if it triggers negative response it will cause the user stress and
anxiety.

The presence of the built environment on lives of those with ASD is experienced with a greater
sense of emotion and interaction. The senses of those within the spectrum are heightened and
therefore experience every little detail of the built environment around them. It is vital that
special consideration is taken in the spatial planning of movement, connection and transition
of spaces in great detail with a strong consideration of natural elements on the users’ sense.

85
7.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

The secondary and primary data collected and analysed through theories, concepts,
literature, interviews, precedents, case study and observations have directed this study
towards a spatial and sensory inclusive design for a learning and skills centres. This
includes analysing spatial planning sequences and creating controlled saturated spaces for
autistic individuals across the spectrum with a connection to the public interface.

The two main theories in relation to design for Autistic individuals are Socio-spatial theory
and Sensory design theory. These theories have proven most relevant to the research
problem, and also what have been identified the lack of when responding to the
impairments and condition of ASD.

The study has suggested the best approach when designing for autism is one that is neutral
based, this means the space created can be used by autistic individuals of different sensory
profiles. This has potential for sensory integration but also inclusive of sensory stimulation.
It is important to create that allows individuals to adapt to the various sensory stimulus.
The follow design proposals have been made:

7.2.1. Controlled spaces – due to the multiple senses of perception the environment
created must be able to adapt to various perception difficulties. The background should be
neutral and the consist of elements of adaptability, one of these elements are folding stack
doors:

Elements that can adjust the

environment according to the
users needs. The doors allow for
controlling natural light in a
space and controls connection
and movement between spaces.
Figure 7.1. Simple sketch of
typical folding stacks doors
(Source: Author)

86
 Sliding timber panels allows for
interchangeable environments of
colour texture and relief,
strategic positioning can allow
for integration with the natural
surroundings.

Figure 7.2. Sketch of sliding panels

(Source: Autor)

Acoustic ceiling panels to absorb

sound generated within in the
classroom and noise of others
children.

Figure 7.3. Image of typical classroom

with acoustic ceiling panels

(Source: https://resonics.co.uk/school-acoustics/)

7.2.2. Balance between hypo and hyper sensitive environments- in order to design for a
condition involving sensory difficulties is to separate zones according to the different stimulus.
Individuals diagnosed ASD can experience hyper or hypo sensitivity. The following elements
can help separate the zones and aid individual’s perception in controlling these stimuli through
purposed aided design:

o Visual connection between hypersensitive and hypo sensitive zones.

o The use of volume and light and a change in spatial configuration.
o A play in complexity but still user friendly.
o Defined boundaries.

87
 Interactive sensory playscape. With various
activities and sensory stimulation exercises,
such as sand box, various colour through
paintings and multiple textures to stimulate
different touch qualities.

Figure 7.4. Image of typical interactive outdoor

space for autistic individuals.

(Source: http://autismrocksfife.org/new-gallery)

Spaces with different textures to encourage

interaction with the environment and create
interest for its users.

Figure 7.5. Image showing a seat textured

with grass and colour palette depicting
different emotions. (Source:
http://autismrocksfife.org/new-gallery)

Spatial zoning may also occur vertically through split levels and mezzanine floors. The
change in level can create the definition between the different stimulus. An example of this
is within a classroom if a student feels over-whelmed by the main space, he or she may
retreat to the mezzanine floor and overlook the teaching space until they re-centre
themselves to return.

Vertical zoning of sensory stimulus

while maintaining visual connection.

Figure 7.6. Sketch showing interactive

levels
(Source: Author)

88
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Architecture. London: Academy Editions.

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The Built Environment in Auti-Biographies. In: Langdon P., Clarkson J., Robinson P.
(Eds.), Designing Inclusive Interactions, London: Springer-Verlag, 13-23
• BEAVER, C. 2010. Autism-Friendly Environments. The Autism File, pp 1-4
• HABIB, F, SAHHAF, K. 2012. Christian Norberg-Schulz and the Existential Space.
International Journal of Architecture and Urban Design (IJAUD). V.1. pp 45-50
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Brain, Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, Vol. 358 (1430), pp. 281 –
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• MOSTAFA, M. 2008. An Architecture for Autism: Concepts of Design Intervention
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01, pp 189-209.
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ASPECTSS™ Design Index to Home Environments. The International Journal of the
Constructed Environment, v. 4 (2), pp. 26-38
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 • PARON-WILDES, A.J. 2008. Sensory Stimulation and Autistic Children.
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Independent. Architect's Journal, Volume 226, 27 September, pp 23-33.
• SMITH, D. 2009. Spatial design as a facilitator for people with less visible
impairments. Australasian Medical Journal, v. 1 (13), pp. 220-227
• VISCHER, J. 2008. Towards an Environmental Psychology of Workspace: How
People are Affected by Environments for Work. Architectural Science Review, Volume
51.2, pp97-108

Unpublished References: Theses

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A Proposed Children's Centre and Community Facility in Umlazi. University of
KwaZulu Natal (Masters: Architecture)
• CHOW, K. 2009. Body, Senses and Architecture: Carving a Volume into the World of
Darkness. Thesis (Masters: Architecture) Delft Technical University.
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• HALL, S. J. 2008. Enhancing Well-being: A multisensory Interior Environmental
Experience. Washington State University (Masters: Interior Design)
• HERBERT, B. B. 2003. Design Guidelines of a Therapeutic Garden for Autistic
Children. Thesis (Masters: Landscape Architecture) Louisiana State University.
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Experiential Possibilities of the Constituents of Architecture. Thesis (Masters:
Architecture) Unitec Institute of Technology.
• JAEGHER, H. 2013. Embodiment and sense-making in autism. Frontiers in integrative
neuroscience, v.7, pp 1-1
• LEESTMA, D.P. 2015. Designing for The Spectrum: An Educational Model for the
Autistic User. (Unpublished thesis). University of Maryland
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A Proposed Educational Facility for Physically Disabled Children. University of
KwaZulu Natal (Masters: Architecture)

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 • POMANA, A. 2017. Inclusion and Wellbeing for People with Autism and the Role of
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• REEVES, H. 2012. Human perception and the built environment: A Proposed Autism
Life Learning Centre for Durban. University of KwaZulu Natal (Masters: Architecture)
• SOUTHERINGTON, E.A. 2007. Specialized Environments: Perceptual Experience as
Generator of Form. University of Cincinnati (Masters: Architecture)
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Architecture) Technical University Delft
• YATES, M. 2016. Building Better Schools: A New Model for Autism Inclusion in
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• GERRARD, S. 2006. Models of Autism. (Unpublished article). Keele University

• NGUYEN, A. 2011. Environment and Surroundings: How to Make Them Autism
Friendly. Autism South Africa and The National Autistic Society.
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(Unpublished comprehensive paper). York U, PhD Program, Faculty of Environmental
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• HUMPHREYS, S. 2008. Architecture and Autism. Available at
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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A:

Information Sheet and Consent to Participate in Research

February 2020

To whom it may concern:

This information consent letter (a copy of which has been given to you) outlines the details of
my master’s thesis research and what your participation entails. This project is part of my
requirements for the course, Arch807: Architectural Design Dissertation Proposal, Department
of Architecture, University of KwaZulu-Natal, and supervised by Lawrence Ogunsanya.

This study focuses on the spatial needs of those who fall under the ASD spectrum. The study
looks into how the built environment has catered for those currently living with ASD, and how
it can create awareness through architecture to make the lives of those in the spectrum
comfortable. The study is expected to enrol approximately ten participants in total, in the
Durban and surrounding areas. Participation in this project is voluntary and there are no known
or anticipated risks to you as a participant in this study. The interview will be approximately
30min-45min in length and consists of general questions and answers. The aim of this study is
to create awareness within the built environment of the severity ASD and the impact the built
environment can have on those living with Autism.

You can decline to answer any of the interview questions if you so wish and, for that matter,
terminate the interview at any time and that in the event of refusal/withdrawal of participation
the participants will not incur penalty or loss of treatment. No costs will be incurred by
participants as a result of participation in the study. Any information you provide is kept
completely confidential. Your name will not appear in any written report from this study and
your information will be deidentified prior to storage, however, with your permission
anonymous quotations may be used. With your permission also, data collected for this project
will be retained for five years in my supervisors locked office at Howard College. Only my
supervisor at Howard College and I will have access to the data.

96
In the event of any complications or concerns/questions, you may contact the researcher at 084
3355 671, or email at [email protected]. Alternatively, you may contact the UKZN
Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee, contact details as follows:

HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES RESEARCH ETHICS ADMINISTRATION

Research Office, Westville Campus Govan Mbeki Building Private Bag X 54001 Durban
4000

KwaZulu-Natal, SOUTH AFRICA Tel: 27 31 2604557- Fax: 27 31 2604609 Email:

[email protected]

Please indicate below your willingness to participate in this study. Thank you in advance for
your co-operation in this research.

Yours sincerely

Roman Naidoo Master of Architecture University of KwaZulu-Natal Howard College Campus

Department of Architecture

97
APPENDIX B:

Consent Form

I have recited the information accessible in the information letter about a research study entitled
“Exploring the spatial needs of Autistic individuals in the built environment: towards a learning
centre for Durban”, being led by Roman Naidoo of the department of Architecture at Howard
College, Ukzn, under the supervision of Mr. Lawrence Ogunsanya. I have had the opportunity
to ask any questions related to this study, to receive satisfactory answers to my questions, and
additional details that I wanted.

I understand the purpose and procedures of the study.

I am aware that I have the option of allowing my interview to be taped to ensure accurate
recordings of my responses.

I am aware that my citations will be unnamed.

I declare that my input in this study is entirely charitable and may withdraw my consent at any
time without penalty by advising the researcher.

I was informed that if I have any comments or concerns resulting from my participation in this
study, that I may contact the researcher at 084 3355617, or email at [email protected]

With full knowledge of all foregoing, I agree, of my own free will, to participate in this study.

Yes No

I agree to the use of anonymous quotations in the final research project report that comes of
this research.

Yes No

I agree to the use of my photographs for research purposes

Yes No

98
If I have any questions or concerns about my rights as a study participant, or if I am concerned
about an aspect of the study or the researchers then I may contact:

HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES RESEARCH ETHICS ADMINISTRATION

Research Office, Westville Campus Govan Mbeki Building Private Bag X 54001 Durban
4000 KwaZulu-Natal, SOUTH AFRICA Tel: 27 31 2604557 - Fax: 27 31 2604609 Email:
[email protected] Participant name :………………………………………….( please
print)

Participant signature………………………………………..

Witness name: :………………………………………….( please print)

Witness signature…………………………………………

Translator Signature (where applicable)……………………………… (please print)

Date………………………………………………………..

99
APPENDIX C:

Exploring the spatial needs of Autistic individuals in the built

environment:
towards a learning centre for Durban

Interview Schedule for Organization Officials

Date:……………………… Interview
Location…………………………………………………

Interviewee Name:………………………………Contact
details:………………………………

1. Introductory questions
o What is your job role, i.e. what are you responsible for? And how long have you
been in your current position?
o Could you please elaborate on the functions of this Facility with respect to
individuals with ASD and how it caters for the needs of those in the spectrum
and the public?

2. Primary Questions
o What are the main challenges of managing this kind of environment or its user?

o My main interest is on the effects of the built environment/ spaces on

individuals with ASD and how does it play a role on those people/children
and their perception of the spaces they in?

o What efforts does the facility make to create awareness to mainstream

schools and does the public at large know about the facility?

o What are the basic living conditions of a person or child that falls in the
spectrum?

o Describe what changes in surrounding and in their environment can do to

improve a person’s daily life with ASD.

100
 o Has there been any change in the built environment over the last 10
years to accommodate and create awareness to this growing condition?

o How has the facility created or made changes to its current space to
accommodate the growing number of people falling within the spectrum of
ASD?

3. Secondary Questions
o Do you consider the existing learning facilities in Durban as suitable for
those who have special needs in the spectrum?

o How would you describe a learning centre for individuals with ASD compared
to the current facilities provided?

o Does the facility only cater for those who are diagnosed with ASD or does it
also include other children and individuals who are not in the spectrum?

o Do you see any long-term goals the facility has in creating national
awareness to ASD?

o Do you have any personal views regarding the current facilities or

relationship with someone in the spectrum?

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APPENDIX D:

Exploring the spatial needs of Autistic individuals in the built

environment:
towards a learning centre for Durban

Interview Schedule for Teacher

Date:……………………… Interview
Location…………………………………………………

Interviewee Name:…………………………………Contact
details:………………………………

The research my study focuses on is the impact the built environment has on people both
emotionally and physical, in particular individuals with specific needs, such as individuals
with ASD. Due to ASD being such a wide spectrum of disorders there has been very slight
architectural research done to create a constructive impact on their behavior, education and
lives of those with autism. This study hopes to create a bond in that gap.

1. Introductory questions
o What is your job role, i.e. what are you responsible for? And how long have
you been in your current position?

o Could you please elaborate on the background of this Facility with respect to
those who are diagnosed with ASD and how it caters for the needs of those
in the spectrum and public?

2. Primary Questions

o One of my main focus in this research is the various senses. Through my study I
found that individuals with autism often experience sensory issues. Through first-
hand experience what can you say are the major sensory issues in your class?

o There are couple key buildings design consideration that my research has led me
to thus far. Please could you explain from your experience how the natural

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 elements such as the sun, wind and noise has impacted on children with autism,
could you elaborate on the positive and negatives and how these issues are
addressed in your classroom.

o From my research it has led me to believe that an organized classroom/space

spatial layout is important, does your classroom have a specific layout for the
needs of the condition?

3. Secondary Questions
o What would you say are suitable outdoor activities for autistic individuals?

o How are the outdoor spaces beneficial for them?

o Is there a need for more autism specific facilities within the context of Durban
and where would you suggest a suitable place be?

o Is there anything else you would like to add? What improvements with you
like to make to your classroom?

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