MODULE I

1
ACCOUNTING: AN INTRODUCTION

Unit Structure
1.1 Accounting: the language of business
1.2 Accounting: an information system.
1.2.1 Definitions
1.2.2 Objectives of accounting
1.2.3 Function of accounting
1.3 Users of accounting information:
1.4 Branches of accounting
1.5 Book-keeping
1.5.1 Accounting cycle
1.5.2 Basic accounting terms

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING

Accounting is a business language. We can use this language

to communicate financial transactions and their results. Accounting is
a comprehensive system to collect, analyzes, and communicates
financial information.

The origin of accounting is as old as money. In early days, the

number of transactions was very small, so every concerned person
could keep the record of transactions during a specific period of time.
Twenty-three centuries ago, an Indian scholar named Kautilya alias
Chanakya introduced the accounting concepts in his book
Arthashastra. In his book, he described the art of proper account
keeping and methods of checking accounts. Gradually, the field of
accounting has undergone remarkable changes in compliance with the
changes happening in the business scenario of the world.

Business is an economic activity undertaken with the motive

of earning profits and to maximize the wealth for the owners. Business
cannot run in isolation. Largely, the business activity is carried out
by people coming together with a purpose to serve a common cause.
This team is often referred to as an organization, which could be in
different forms such as sole proprietorship, partnership, body
corporate etc. The rules of business are basedon general principles
of trade, social values, and statutory framework encompassing
national or international boundaries. While these variables could be
different for different businesses, different countries etc., the basic
purpose is to add value to a product or service to satisfy customer
demand.

A bookkeeper may record financial transactions according to

certain accounting principles and standards and as prescribed byan
accountant depending upon the size, nature, volume, and other
constraints of a particular organization.

With the help of accounting process, we can determine the

profit or loss of the business on a specific date. It also helps us analyze
the past performance and plan the future courses of action. As the basic
purpose of business is to make profit, one must keep an ongoing track
of the activities undertaken in course of business.

1.2 ACCOUNTING: AN INFORMATION SYSTEM

1.2.1 DEFINITIONS
Definition of Accounting
Definition by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants
(Year 1961):
"Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a
significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events
which are, in part at least, of a financial character, and interpreting the
result thereof".
Definition by the American Accounting Association (Year 1966):
"The process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic
information to permit informed judgments and decisionsby the users
of accounting".

1.2.2 OBJECTIVES OF ACCOUNTING

To Providing Information
The primary objective of accounting is to provide useful
information for decision-making to stakeholders such as owners,
management, creditors, investors, etc. Various outcomes of business
activities such as costs, prices, sales volume, value under ownership,
return of investment, etc. are measured in the accounting process.

To keep systematic records:

Accounting is done to keep systematic record of financial
transactions. The primary objective of accounting is to help us collect
financial data and to record it systematically to derive correct and
useful results of financial statements.

Ascertainment of Results
is a core accounting measurement. It is measured
by preparing profit and loss account for a particular period. Various
other accounting measurements such as different types of revenue
expenses and revenue incomes are considered for preparing this profit
and loss account. Difference between these revenue incomes and
revenue expenses is known as result of business transactions identified
as profit/loss.

To ascertain the financial position of the business:

A balance sheet or a statement of affairs indicates the financial
position of a company as on a particular date. A properly drawn
balance sheet gives us an indication of the class and value of assets,
the nature and value of liability, and also the capitalposition of the
firm. With the help of that, we can easily ascertain the soundness of
any business entity.

To assist in decision-making:
To take decisions for the future, one requires accurate financial
statements. One of the main objectives of accounting is to take right
decisions at right time.Thus, accounting gives you the platform to
plan for the future with the help of past records.

To fulfill compliance of Law:

Business entities such as companies, trusts, and societies are being
run and governed according to different legislative acts. Similarly,
different taxation laws (direct indirect tax) are also applicable to every
business house. Everyone has to keep and maintain different types of
accounts and records as prescribed by corresponding laws of the land.
Accounting helps in running a business in compliance with the law.

To Know the Solvency Position :

Balance sheet and profit and loss account prepared as above give
useful information to stockholders regarding concerns potential to
meet its obligations in the short run as well as in the long run.

1.2.3 FUNCTION OF ACCOUNTING

The main functions of accounting are as follows:

Measurement: Accounting measures past performance of the

business entity and depicts its current financial position.

Forecasting: Accounting helps in forecasting future performance

and financial position of the enterprise using past data.
Decision-making: Accounting provides relevant information to the
users of accounts to aid rational decision-making.
Comparison & Evaluation: Accounting assesses performance
achieved in relation to targets and discloses information regarding
accounting policies and contingent liabilities which play an
important role in predicting, comparing and evaluating the financial
results.
Control: Accounting also identifies weaknesses of the operational
system and provides feedbacks regarding effectiveness of measures
adopted to check such weaknesses.
Government Regulation and Taxation: Accounting provides
necessary information to the government to exercise control on die entity
as well as in collection of tax revenues.

1.3 USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION:

Generally users of accounts are classified into two categories:

a) Internal User
b) External User

Following are the various users of accounting information:

i) Investor: They provide capital to business. They need information

to assess whether to buy, hold or sell their investment. Also they are
interested to know the ability of the business to survive, prosper and
to pay divided.

ii) Employees: Growth of employees is directly related to the growth

of the organisation and therefore, they are interest to know the
stability, continuity and growth of the enterprise and its ability to
provide remuneration, retirement and other benefits and to enhance
employment opportunities.

iii) Lenders: They are interested to know whether their loan- principal
and interest will be paid when due.

iv) Supplier and Creditors: They are also interested to know the
ability of the enterprise to pay their dues that helps them to decide
the credit policy for the relevant concern, rates to be charged and so
on. Sometime, they also become interested in long term continuation
of the enterprise if their existence becomes dependent on the survival
of the business. Suppose, small ancillary units supply their products
to a big enterprise, if the big enterprise collapses, the fate of the small
units also becomes sealed.

v) Customers: Customers are also concerned with the stability and

profitability of the enterprise because their functioning is more or less
dependent on the supply of goods, suppose, a company produces
some chemicals used by pharmaceutical companies and supplies
chemicals on three months credit. If all a sudden it faces some trouble
and is unable to supply the chemical, the customers will also be in
trouble.

vi) Government and their agencies: They regulate thefunctioning

of business enterprise for public good, allocated scarce resources
among competing enterprise, control price, change excise duties and
taxes, and so they have continued interest in the business enterprise.

vii) Public: The public at large is interested in the functioning of the

enterprise because it may make a substantial contribution to the
local economy in many ways including the number of people
employed and their patronage to local suppliers.

viii) Management: On the basis of Accounts, management

 determine the effects of their various decisions on the functioning of
the organisation. This helps them to make further managerial
decisions.

External users of External users include

accounting information Investors
Creditors
Customers
Suppliers
Employees
Government organizations
Internal users of Internal users include
accounting information Management Managers of
operations

1.4 BRANCHES OF ACCOUNTING

Following are various branches of Accounting.

1.4.1 Financial Accounting

It is commonly termed as Accounting. The American Institute

of Certified Public Accountants defines Accounting as "an art of
recoding, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and
in terms of money, transactions and events which are in part at
least of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof."

1.4.2 Cost Accounting

According to the Chartered Institute of Management
Accountants (CIMA), Cost Accountancy is defined as "application of
costing and cost accounting principles, methods and techniques to the
science, art and practice of cost control and the ascertainment of
profitability as well as the presentation of information for thepurpose
of managerial decision-making."

1.4.3 Management Accounting

Management Accounting is concerned with the use of
Financial and Cost Accounting information to managers within
organizations, to provide them with the basis in making informed
business decisions that would allow them to be better equipped in their
management and control functions.

1.4.4 Social responsibility Accounting

Social responsibility accounting is concerned with accounting
for social costs incurred by the enterprise and social benefits created.

1.4.5 Human Resource Accounting

Human resource accounting is an attempt to identify,quantify
and report investment made in human resource of an organisation that
are not presently accounted for under conventional accounting
practice.
1.4.6 Difference between Management Accounting
andFinancial Accounting

Management Accounting Financial Accounting

1. Management Accounting is 1. Financial Accounting is based
primarily based on the data on the monetary transactions of
available from Financial the enterprise.
Accounting.
2. It provides necessary 2. Its main focus is on recording
information to the management and classifying monetary
to assist them in the process of transactions in the books of
planning, controlling, accounts and preparation of
performance evaluation and financial statements at the end
decision making. of every accounting period.
3. Reports prepared in 3. Reports as per Financial
Management Accounting are Accounting are meant for the
meant for management and as management as well as for
per management requirement. shareholders and creditors of
the concern.
4. Reports may contain both 4. Reports should always be
subjective and objective figures. supported by relevant figuresand it
emphasizes on the objectivity of
data.
5. Reports are not subject to 5. Reports are always subject to
statutory audit. statutory audit.
6. It evaluates the sectional as well as 6. It ascertains, evaluates and
the entire performance of the exhibits the financial strength of the
business. whole business.

1.5 BOOK-KEEPING

-keeping is a science and art of

correctly recording in books-of accounts all those business
transactions that result in transfer of money or money's worth'.
Book-keeping is an activity concerned with recording and classifying
financial data related to business operation in order of its occurrence.

Book-keeping is a mechanical task which involves:

Collection of basic financial information.
Identification of events and transactions with
financialcharacter i.e., economic transactions.
Measurement of economic transactions in terms of money.
Recording financial effects of economic transactions in order of
its occurrence.
Classifying effects of economic transactions.
Preparing organized statement known as trial balance.
The distinction between book-keeping and accounting is given below:

Book-Keeping Accounting
Output of book-keeping is an Output of accounting permit
input for accounting. informed judgments and
decisions by the user of
accounting information.
Purpose of book-keeping is to Purpose of accounting is to find
keep systematic record of results of operating activity of
transactions and events of business and to report financial
financial character in order of its strength of business.
occurrence.
Book-keeping is a foundation of Accounting is considered as a
accounting. language of business.

Book-keeping is carried out by Accounting is done by senior staff

junior staff. with skill of analysis and
interpretation.
Objects of book-keeping is to Object of accounting is not only
summarize the cumulative effect of bookkeeping but also analyzing and
all economic transactions ofbusiness interpreting reported financial
for a given period by maintaining information for informed decisions.
permanent record of each business
transaction with its evidence and
financial effects on accounting
variable.

1.5.1 ACCOUNTING CYCLE

When complete sequence of accounting procedure is done
which happens frequently and repeated in same directions during
an accounting period, the same is called an accounting cycle.

Steps/Phases of Accounting Cycle

The steps or phases of accounting cycle can be developedas

under:

Recording of Transaction: As soon as a transaction happens it is at

first recorded in subsidiary book.

Journal: The transactions are recorded in Journal chronologically.

Ledger: All journals are posted into ledger chronologically and in a

classified manner.

Trial Balance: After taking all the ledger account closing balances,
a Trial Balance is prepared at the end of the period for the preparations
of financial statements.

Adjustment Entries: All the adjustments entries are to be recorded

properly and adjusted accordingly before preparing financial
statements.

Adjusted Trial Balance: An adjusted Trail Balance may also be

prepared.

Closing Entries: All the nominal accounts are to be closed by the

transferring to Trading Account and Profit and Loss Account.

Financial Statements: Financial statement can now be easily

prepared which will exhibit the true financial position and operating
results.

1.5.2 BASIC ACCOUNTING TERMS

In order to understand the subject matter clearly, one must
grasp the following common expressions always used in business
accounting.

Transaction: It means an event or a business activity which involves

exchange of money or money's worth between parties.

Goods/Services: These are tangible article or commodity in which

a business deals. These articles or commodities are either bought and
sold or produced and sold.

Profit: The excess of Revenue Income over expense is called profit.

It could be calculated for each transaction or for business as a whole.

Loss: The excess of expense over income is called loss. It could

be calculated for each transaction or for business as a whole.

Asset: Asset is a resource owned by the business with the purpose of

using it for generating future profits. Assets can be tangible and
intangible. Tangible Assets are the Capital assets which have some
physical existence. The capital assets which have no physical existence
and whose value is limited by the rights and anticipated benefits that
possession confers upon the owner are known as intangible Assets.
They cannot be seen or felt although they help to generate revenue in
future.

Liability: It is an obligation of financial nature to be settled at a future

date. It represents amount of money that the business owes to the other
parties.

Contingent Liability: It represents a potential obligation that could

be created depending on the outcome of an event.

Capital: It is amount invested in the business by its owners. It may be

in the form of cash, goods, or any other asset which the proprietor or
partners of business invest in the business activity. From business
point of view, capital of owners is a liability which is to be settled
only in the event of closure or transfer of the business. Hence, it is not
classified as a normal liability.

Drawings: It represents an amount of cash, goods or any other assets

which the owner withdraws from business for his or herpersonal use
Debtor : The sum total or aggregate of the amounts which the
customer owe to the business for purchasing goods on credit or
services rendered or in respect of other contractual obligations, is
known as Sundry Debtors or Trade Debtors, or Trade Payable, or
Book-Debts or Debtors.

Creditor: A creditor is a person to whom the business owes money

or money's worth. E.g. money payable to supplier of goods or provider
of service. Creditors are generally classified as Current Liabilities.

Trade Discount: It is the discount usually allowed by the

wholesaler to the retailer computed on the list price or invoice price.

Cash Discount: This is allowed to encourage prompt payment by

the debtor. This has to be recorded in the books of accounts. Thisis
calculated after deducting the trade discount.

1.6 MEANING AND TYPES OF FINANCIAL

STATEMENTS

Meaning :
Financial statements are plain statements based on historical
records, facts and figures. They are uncompromising in their objectives,
nature and truthfulness. They reflect a judicious combination of recorded
facts, accounting principles, concepts and conventions, personal
judgments and sometimes estimates.

Financial statements consist of and

1. Revenue Account / Income Statement:

Revenue Account refers to and Loss or
and or Revenue

and and Loss

Revenue Account is prepared for a period,
covering one year. This statement shows the expenses incurred on
production and distribution of the product and sales and other business
incomes. The final result of this statement may be profit of loss for a
particular period.

2. Balance Sheet:
Balance sheet shows the financial position of a business as on a
particular date. It represents the assets owned by the business and the
claims of the owners and creditors against the assets in the form of
liabilities as on the date of the statement.

3. Funds Flow Statement

 It describes the sources from which the additional funds were
derived and the use of these funds. Funds flow statement helps to
understand the changes in the distribution of resources between two
balance sheet periods. The statement reveals the sources of funds and their
application for different purposes.

4. Cash flow Statement:

A cash flow statement shows the changes in cash position from
one period to another. It shows the inflow and outflow of cash and helps
the management in making plans for immediate future.An estimated
cash flow statement enables the management to ascertain the availability
of cash to meet business obligations. This statement is useful for short
term planning by the management.

5. Schedules:
Schedule explains the items given in income statement and balance
sheet. Schedules are a part of financial statements which give detailed
information about the financial position of a business organization.

1.7 OBJECTIVES OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

The main object of financial statements is to provide information

about the financial position, performance and changes taken place in an
enterprise. Financial statements are prepared to meet the common needs
of most users. The important objectives of financial statements are given
below:

1. Providing information for taking Economic decisions:

The economic decisions that are taken by users of financial
statements require an evaluation of the ability of an enterprise to generate
cash and cash equivalents and of the timing and certainty of their
generation. This ability ultimately determines the capacity of an
enterprise to pay its employees and suppliers meet interest payments,
repay loans and make distributions to its owners.

2. Providing information about financial position:

The financial position of an enterprise is effected by the economic
resources it controls, its financial structures its liquidity and solvency
and its capacity to adapt to changes in the environment in which it
operates.

Information about financial structure is useful in predicting future

borrowing needs and how future profits and cash flows will be
distributed among those with an interest in the enterprise. This
information is useful in predicting how successful the enterprise is likely
to be in raising further finance. Information about liquidity and solvency
is useful to predicting the ability of the enterprise to meet the financial
commitments as fall due.

3. Providing information about performance (working

results) of an enterprise:
Another important objective of the financial statements is that it
provides information about the performance and in particular its
profitability, which requires in order assessing potential changesin the
economic resources that are likely to control in future. Information about
performance is useful in predicting the capacity of the enterprise to
generate cash inflows from its existing resource base as well in forming
judgment about the effectiveness with which the enterprises might
employ additional resources.

4. Providing Information about changes in financial position:

The financial statements provide information concerning changes
in the financial position of an enterprise, which is useful in order to assess
its investing, financing and operating activities during the reporting
periods. This information is useful in providing the user with a basis to
assess the ability of the enterprise to generate cash and cash equipments
and the needs of the enterprise to utilize those cash flows.

1.8 AN OVERVIEW OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Each business firm has to prepare two main financial statements

viz. Income Statement and Balance sheet. The income statement reveals
the profit of loss during a particular period generated from the activities
of a business. Balance sheet shows the financial position of a business
on a particular date.

Income statement
Income statement summaries the incomes /gains and expenses /losses
of a Business for a particular financial period. The format of Income
statement explains in detail the items to be included in the statement. It is
presented in the traditional T Format and also in the vertically statement form.

1. Horizontal Form T form

Manufacturing Trading and Profit and Loss Account For the year
ending
Dr. Cr.

Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.

To Opening stock By Closing stock
Raw materials Raw Material
Work in progress Work in progress
To Purchase of raw By Cost of finished
materials goods c/d
To Manufacturing wages By Sales
To Carriage/ Freight By Closing stock of
inwards Finished Goods
To Custom duty By Gross Loss c/d
To Other factory Expenses By Gross profit b/d
To Opening stock By Business incomes
and Gains
Finished Goods By Net Loss c/d
To Cost of finished By Balance b/d from
Previous year
Goods b/d By Net Profit b/d
To Gross profit c/d
To Gross loss b/d
To Office and
administration Expenses
To Interest and financial
Expenses
To Provision for Incometax

To Net Profit c/d

To Net loss b/d
To Transfer to Generalreserve

To Dividend
To Balance c/f
 Particulars Rs. Rs.
Gross Sales xxx
Less : Sales returns xxx
Sales tax / Excise duty
Net Sales xxx
Less : Cost of goods sold
(Materials consumed + xxx
Direct Labour + xxx
Manufacturing Expenses) xxx
Add / Less : Adjustment for change in stock xxx xxx
Gross Profit xxx
Less : Operating expenses xxx
a. Office and administration Expenses xxx
b. Selling and distribution Expenses xxx xxx
Add : Operating Income xxx
Operating Profit xxx
Add : Non Operating Income xxx
Less : Non Operating expenses (includinginterest) xxx

Profit before interest and tax xxx

Less : Interest xxx
Profit before tax xxx
Less : Appropriations : xxx xxx
a. Transfer to reserves xxx xxx
b. Dividends declared / paid xxx
Surplus carried to Balance Sheet xxx

Balance sheet:
It is one of the major financial statements which presents a
company's financial position at the end of a specified date. Balance sheet
has been described as a "snapshot" of the company's financial position
at a moment for e.g. the amounts reported on a balance sheet dated March
31st, 2016 reflects that all the transactions throughout December 31st have
been recorded. The balance sheet provides information related to the
assets, liabilities and the equity of the company as on a
specific date.

Total Assets = Total Liabilities + Share equity

 The companies Act, 1956 stipulates that the balance sheet of a joint
stock company should be prepared as per Part I of Schedule VI of the Act.
However, the statement form has beenemphasized upon by accountants for
the purpose of analysis and interpretation.