KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG

(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT NO.01

OBJECTIVE: Study of various types of Active & Passive components based on their ratings.

APPRATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter To Check Voltage 1
2 CRO 30Mhz 1
3 Function Generator 3Mhz 1
4 Diode 1N4007 1
5 Zenner Diode 5V 1
6 Transistor BC107 1
7 Resistor 1 KΩ, 10 KΩ 2
8 Capacitor 220Mfd25V, 10Mfd25V 2
9 Variable Resistor 1K 1
10 LED 2.5V 1

COMPONENT TESTING USING CRO

• A component tester is used to test if components are working correctly in circuit. This is very
nice if you do electronic repairs. You can test components directly on a soldered PCB.

• You can see if components work correctly by comparing them with the same component on a
working PCB, or the more difficult way- by analyzing the characteristics

• We tell how you can make your own component tester, if your oscilloscope does not have
one.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

THE NECESSARY INGREDIENTS:-

• Oscilloscope with 2 channels, X-Y function, Channel Invert function • 1k resistor • 12 to 15 volt
transformer.

Connect the diagram above, set your oscilloscope to use X-Y function and invert channel Y. You can
now use 'Component tester probe'-connections to test your components.

Test Procedure:-

Caution! Do not test any component in live circuitry; remove all grounds, power and signals
connected to the component under test. Set up Component Tester as stated. Connect test leads across
component to be tested. Observe oscilloscope display. – Only discharged capacitors should be tested!

Test Pattern Displays:-

• The following “Test patterns” show typical patterns displayed by the various components
under test.
• Open circuit is indicated by a straight horizontal line. Short circuit is shown by a straight
vertical line.

Testing Resistors:-

• The test pattern expected from a resistor is therefore a sloping straight line. The angle of
slope is determined by the value of the resistor under test.

• With high values of resistance, the slope will tend towards the horizontal axis, and with low
values, the slope will move towards the vertical axis. Values of resistance from 20 Ohm to 4.7
kOhm can be approximately evaluated.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

• The determination of actual values will come with experience, or by direct comparison with a
component of known value.

Testing Capacitors and Inductors:-

• Capacitors and inductors cause a phase difference between current and voltage, and therefore
between the X and Y deflection, giving an ellipse shaped display. The position and opening
width of the ellipse will vary according to the impedance value (at 50Hz) of the component
under test.

• A horizontal ellipse indicates a high impedance or a relatively small capacitance or a

relatively high inductance.

• A vertical ellipse indicates a low impedance or a relatively large capacitance or a relatively

small inductance.

• A sloping ellipse means that the component has a considerable ohmic resistance in addition to
its reactance.

• The values of capacitance of normal or electrolytic capacitors from 0.1μF to 1000μF can be
displayed and approximate values obtained.

• Inductive components (coils, transformers) can also be tested. The determination of the value
of inductance needs some experience, because inductors have usually a higher ohmic series
resistance.

Testing Semiconductors:-

• Most semiconductor devices, such as diodes, Z-diodes, transistors and FETs can be tested.
The test pattern displays vary according to the component type as shown in the figures below.
• The main characteristic displayed during semiconductor testing is the voltage dependent knee
caused by the junction changing from the conducting state to the non conducting state.
• It should be noted that both the forward and reverse characteristic are displayed
simultaneously. This is a two terminal test, therefore testing of transistor amplification is not
possible, but testing of a single junction is easily and quickly possible.
• More important is testing components for open or short circuit, which from experience is
most frequently needed.

Testing Diodes:-

• Diodes normally show at least their knee in the forward characteristic. This is not valid for
some high voltage diode types, because they contain a series connection of several diodes.
• Possibly only a small portion of the knee is visible.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

• Zenner diodes always show their forward knee and, depending on the test voltage, their
zenner breakdown forms a second knee in the opposite direction.
• If the breakdown voltage is higher than the positive or negative voltage peak of the test
voltage, it can not be displayed.
• The polarity of an unknown diode can be identified by comparison with a known diode.

Testing Transistors:-

• Three different tests can be made to transistors: base-emitter, base-collector and emitter-
collector.
• The resulting test pattern sare shown below. The basic equivalent circuit of a transistor is a Z-
diode between base and emitter and a normal diode with reverse polarity between base and
collector in series connection.

• There are three different test patterns:- For a transistor the figures b-e and b-c are important.
The figure e-c can vary; but a vertical line only shows short circuit condition.
• These transistor test patterns are valid in most cases, but there are exceptions to the rule (e.g.
Darlington, FETs).

During in circuit tests make sure the circuit is dead. No power from mains/line or battery and no
signal inputs are permitted. Remove all ground connections including Safety Earth (pullout power
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

plug from outlet). Remove all measuring cables including probes between oscilloscope and circuit
under test. Otherwise both COMPONENT TESTER leads are not isolated against the circuit under
test.

RESULT:

We have tested all active and passive component with CRO.

PRECAUTIONS: -

1. Keep the supply off when we do not use the CRO

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

2. Keep the component very carefully

3. When we connect the component with the CRO RED is (+) and BLACK (-).
4. When we ensure the component is right then we ON the Supply.
5. Never the hurry up.

VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Que.1 What are the Passive components?

Ans. The electronics components which are not capable of processing or amplifying an electrical
signal is known as passive components.

Que.2 Why Passive component are known as bilateral device?

Ans. passive component do not have directional function, that is these components conduct current
in both directious and hence are known as bilateral device.

Que.3 Give the name of three Passive components?

Ans Rresistors, Capacitors & Inductors are passive components.

Que.4 What are the Active components?

Ans. Those electronics components which re capable of processing or amplying an electrical signal
are known as Active components.

Que.5 Give the name of three Active Components?

Ans. Vacuum Tubes, Diodes, Transistor, FET are Active components
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT NO. 02

OBJECTIVE:-To study the Various kinds of Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and soldering techniques.

THEORY:-

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards are certainly the most important element in the fabrication of electronic
equipment’s. It is the design of properly laid out PCB that determines many of the limiting property
with respect to noise immunity as well as to fast pulse. High frequency &low-level characteristics of
the equipment’s high power PCB in their turns require a special design strategy.

The fabrication process of the PCB will determine to a large extend the price & reliability of the
equipments it forms a distinct factor in electronic circuit performance & reliability. The productivity
of a PCB & its assembly & serviceability also depends on the design. All these factors finally get
reflected in the price for the electronic equipment of which PCB takes away approximately 20% of
the cost from this. It is evident that the task of engineers involved in PCB design is not very simple
& or always straight forward.

TYPES OF PCB

Only the two types of PCB are mentioned here.

SINGLE SIDED PCBs:-

The single sided PCBs are mostly used in Entertainment electronics where the cost has to be kept at a
minimum. However, in industrial electronics also cost factor cannot be neglected and single sided
boards should be used

Wherever a particular circuit can be accommodated on such boards. To jump over conductor tracks,
components must be utilized. If this is not feasible jumper wires are used. The number of jumper
wires on aboard however is restricted by economic reasons. If there number is more than a few, the
use of a double sided PCB should be considered.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

DOUBLE SIDED PCBs:-

Double sided PCBs can be made with or without plated through holes. The production of boards with
plated through holes is expensive. Therefore, plated through hole boards are only chosen where the
circuit complexity& density does not leave other choice. Even on such boards, the total no. of plated
through holes of via holes should be kept to minimum for reasons of economy & reliability.

The cost factor for double sided PCBs without plated through holes is considerably lower because
plating can be avoided. Though contacts are made by soldering the components leads both the boards
sides where required. Jumper wires may still be added. However, hand soldering must be applied foe
soldering of the component side joints.

PCB TECHNOLOGY:-

There is a hard struggle going on in the field of PCB technology to find new solutions. Some of
different kinds of solutions in PCB technology are as follows: -

ULTRA-- THIN COPPER FOILS:-

The manufacturers of thin copper foil is a rather difficult process. Even today there are only a few
major companies supplying copper foil to the large no. of PCB base material manufacturers. For a
long time the foil thickness of 17.5μm appeared to be the practical limit for an economic foil
production.
Ultra-thin foils are defined here as foils with a thickness in the range of 5-10 μm. The price for ultra-
thin copper clad laminates is considerably higher due to the high cost of the foil. The price difference
is around 20-30 %.As more & more PCB industries and customers are switching over to PCBs based
on ultra-thin copper foil, there is an excellent scope for a substantial replacement of the standard 35
μm copper foil.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

MULTILAYER PCBs:-

Multilayer PCBs consist of a certain number of thin PCBs stacked together & adhesively joined with
insulating prepress to form on rigid board .Electrical connection between the different conductive
layers is done with plated through holes .Where the conductors are connected with a plated through
hole ,the conductor width is increased to slightly more than the hole diameter.

MULTIWIRE PCBs:-

With the introduction of multi wire PCBs along with the related production equipment a new
alternative to the established inter connecting techniques has been created & has proved its
usefulness particularly in high interconnection density applications.
Instead of printed and etched conductors multi-wiring makes use of insulated wires for inter
connection. The mechanical stability for the multi wire board in its simplest form is obtained from an
insulating laminate board as used for ordinary PCBs. After an adhesive preparation of the surface
wires are placed with a special NC wiring machine. For the desired interconnection pattern. Thereby,
a high density wire n/w is formed with crossovers which are here absolutely permitted. If there is a
need for still more interconnections the other side of the board can as well utilizes.

FLEXIBLE PCBs:-

Flexible PCBs have become an established interconnection concept in many applications where their
physical flexibility and their weight as well as their advantage in saving space in assembly time lead
to an economic advantage over traditional solutions. Flexible PCBs may have the function of a
hardness or similar to a rigid PCB or a combination of both. If designed for they can repeatedly be
flexed or folded. This is of special interest to the designers of system with plug-ins and other moving
devices. Flexible PCBs used in military and many other fields like computers, industrial, consumer
&automotive applications. An optimum use of flexible PCBs is made if they replace complete
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

interconnection systems rather than only a part thereof. This of course needs Rethinking during the
early equipment design stage.

The advantage will not only be in a considerable weight & space reduction but also in a higher
reliability, complete elimination of wiring errors and less testing and assembly costs. Even
connectors can be eliminated if pins wire or plated through holes are provided at the termination
point.

METAL CORE PCB:-

In metal core boards typical resin filler laminate of ordinary PCBs is replaced by sheet metal covered
with insulation material. The metal core is mostly made of steel or aluminum sheet of 0.7-1.2 mm
thickness into which holes are punched forming a grid pattern. Insulation b/w pattern & metal core is
provided by an electrostatic or fluidized bed coated insulation layer.

VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Que.1 What is Printed circuit Board?

Ans A printed circuit board is also known as a printed wiring board. It is used in electronics to
build electronic devices. A PCB serves two purposes in the construction of an electronic
device and it is a place to mount the components and it provides the means of electrical
connection between the components.

Que.2 What is PCB Fabrication?

Ans Printed Circuit Board (PCB) fabrication is an assembly method for circuit boards used in
computers and other electronics devices. In the fabrication process, the layers of the board are
put together along with the specific surface pattern so it can be used in electronics
manufacturing Firms that produce PCBs may also make related products for their customers.
Electronics manufacturers have a choice between in-house PCB fabrication or services
contracted out to a third party that specializes in this aspect of production.

Que.3 What Is a Circuit Board Drill?

Ans A circuit board drill is much like a common drill, except it is optimized for drilling holes in a
circuit board as opposed to drilling holes in construction materials such as metal and wood.
Unlike other drills, which commonly are made from steel, a circuit board drill is almost
always made from tungsten because of its mechanical properties.

Que.4 What Are the Best Tips for Printed Circuit Board Testing?
Ans Printed circuit board testing is an important step when trying to fix a broken circuit board or
trying to figure out why a computer is malfunctioning. By looking for black sections in the
circuit board, the tester can easily narrow down sections that most likely are not working. If it
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

is difficult to find the wire for printed circuit board testing, then the trace can be gently
scraped into

Que.5 What Does a Printed Circuit Board Designer Do?

Ans A printed circuit board designer has the important task of making circuit boards and ensuring
that they work so businesses and clients can use them for their own needs. One of the basic
responsibilities of a printed circuit board designer is placing parts on the board and properly
configuring it. This type of designer often works on custom projects.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT NO.03

OBJECTIVE: -PCB Lab : A Artwork & printing of a simple PCB. B. Etching & drilling of PCB.

INTRODUCTION:-

The generation of PCB artwork should be considered as first step of the PCB manufacturing process.
The importance of a perfect artwork should not be underestimated: problems like broken annular
rings or too critical spacing are often due to bad artwork. No PCB can be made better than the quality
of the artwork used.

PERSONNEL:-

There are different possibilities to produce an artwork. But a common necessity for all of them is the
need for a clean and exact working method, which means taking care even of smallest details, hardly
visible to an untrained eye. Skills and patience are the basic assets for artwork designers.

ARTWORK SCALE:-

For PCBs with plated-through holes or integrated circuits, the generation of 1: 1 scale artwork would
not meet dimensional accuracy required for the reliable production of PCBs.

Some of the artwork taping method on a transparent base foil are:

Pads are usually placed on a grid intersection. The center hole of the pad is meant to enable an easy
centering. The eye of an experienced artwork designer will be able to recognize symmetries in pad
placing down to 0.05 – 0.1 mm.

Where minimum permissible spacing is utilized, it must be considered that the tapes tend to creep
also in addition to all the above mentioned in accuracies.
Due to these factors must of the artwork is therefore generated at a 2:1 which gives the artwork of 4
times the manual PCB area. For demanding fine-line PCB, only a 4 : 1 scale can provide the final
accuracy required.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

BLACK TAPPING ON TRANSPARENT BASE FOIL:-

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

With the availability of self adhesive or transfer-type pads and adhesive precision tapes to the
artwork designer, the artwork generation procedures produced in a much faster and more precise way
with such pads and tapes.

PADS:-

They are available in basically two different varieties which are the self-adhesive type and the
transfer-type.

SELF-ADHESIVE PADS:-

These pads are supplied sticking on a backing paper. If such a pad has to be fixed on the artwork
base sheet, a knife blade is supplied and the edge of the pad to pull it off from the backing sheet.

TRANSFER PADS:-

The pads are printed on a thin adhesive film of typically 10m thickness. The film is mounted on
the to side against a transparent carrier strip. The pad can be transferred from the carrier strip onto
the artwork base by rubbing with a wooden stick on the carrier strip while the pad is exactly
positioned on the artwork base. The carrier strip can thereafter be lifted from the artwork base
leaving behind the pad. The paper strip, which is usually supplied to protect the adhesive side of the
pads, is now placed on top of the pad and rubbed with the wooden stick to improve pad adhesive on
the artwork base.

TAPES:-

Self-adhesive precision tapes are available in a wide range of widths. They are supplied in rolls and
have a width tolerance of as little as 0.05-0.1 mm, depending on the manufacturer. The very
flexible, non-transparent material used, permits artwork with round-bent corners.

ARTWORK BASE FOIL:-

The artwork base foils mostly used today are polyester films which provide an excellent
dimensional stability. Polyester films are available in many thicknesses: 100 m is considered as
the minimum for artwork in order to give sufficient mechanical stability against wrinkling due
to shrinkage of the conductor tapes. The surface quality may be matt or glossy. A matt surface is
required for ink adherence.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

GENERAL ARTWORK RULES:-

Conductor Orientation:-

In PCB artwork with a higher conductor density, it is an established practice to run the
conductors basically on one side in direction of x – co-ordinate and on the other side in the
direction of y-co-ordinate. Following such a rule, via holes are minimized and the conductor pattern
gets fairly regularly distributed.
Spacing
When specifying the minimum spacing requirements, there are various factors which have to be kept
in view. But in any case the rule holds that minimum spacing is applied only where it cannot be
avoided. The yield in PCB fabrication will otherwise come down with minimum spacing.

Hole Diameter:
In PCB fabrication, the number of different hole diameters on a PCB has to be kept minimum.
Any component lead should be fitted only into the hole of an appropriate diameter. Usually, the
diameter of the finalized and plated hole given about 0.2 to 0.5 mm.
Solder Pad Diameter

In PCB with plated-through holes, the width of the annular ring should be at least 0.5 mm but
preferably more. A rule here is a solder pad diameter of approximately 3 times the drilled hole
diameter.

Component Polarity Identification

A way of joining the conductors into the solder pads is very important for reliability of the solder
joint. The pattern around the hole should be maintained as uniformly and as small as possible
to enable symmetrical solder joints without much solder flow in the conductor direction during
the soldering process.

To make a Simple PCB of DC Regulated power supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: -

Shearing machine, Dip coating machine, UV Exposure unit, oven, Developer, Blue die, Etching
machine, ferric chloride, Drilling machine, tinning machine.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

THEORY:-

PCB’s are certainly the most important element in the fabrication of electronic equipment. PCB’s
function is to connect components in an electronic circuit. The field of PCB’s are consisting a wide
range of discipline such as mechanics, chemistry, electronics design, production and process
management etc.

PROCEDURE:--
1. Cleaning the laminate:- Before the metal source is coated with crescent photo resist clean the
surface thoroughly so as to make it completely free of physical &chemical contamination .It is
advisable to clean the laminate with fine nylon brush or with fine steel wool and cleaned with water
& then dried in oven.

2. Dip Coating the laminate: -Crescent photo resist can be applied precisely and economically by
using dip coating process done by a photo resist dip coater. Dip coat ingest the best method of the
photo resist coating. It is used when the number of laminates to be coated is large & generally both
the side of the laminates are to be coated. Stainless steel tank is used for storing the photo resist
coating material. The board is immersed vertically into a dip coating unit in which Liquid photo
resist solution is there. Dip ensures uniform and controlled thickness of resist. The PCBs are loaded
on side clamps and held on the hanger & is powered into tank by a smooth drive. The tank has a
close lid to minimize resist evaporation and contamination. The withdraw rate of PCB can be preset
by a speed control adjustment.
When the boards are completely immersed withdraw it & put it into the oven to dry the boards.
Number of boards of same or different sizes can be coated. Thinner is used to dilute the photo resist
as it tends to get thick on nonuse.

3. Pre baking:-After coating the laminates allow it to dry naturally. If the coating is thick it is also
desirable to bake the laminate in PCB curing machine with controlled temp. at 30-40o C for about 10
min.

4. Ultra – Violet Exposure: - Photocopying is the method to transfer the negative to the dip coated
copper board The coated laminate is normally exposed in contact with negative. Photo resist is
sensitive to UV radiation &. once the photo resist is coated, the next procedure is exposure of the
PCB. UV section of the spectrum has higher energy level due to shorter wavelength and is generally,
chemically more effective than the rays in the visible range of spectrum. The UV light being
invisible the simple jobs like focusing tubes as extra dimensions of difficulty. Most important is that
they are carcinogenic (cancer forming) and therefore use of UV source requires special and costly
equipment and therefore operation needs considerable protections. The film negative is placed over
the dip coated copper clad sheet and exposed to the UV light for about 3 minutes. Now the pattern is
transferred to the copper sheet and it is ready for developing.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

5. Developing: - Printed circuit board is developed in chloromethane or Trichloroethylene and

flushed in water. This will remove unexposed area of the photo resist & will show a colorless resist
image which has plastic like appearance.

6. Dyeing: - Dyeing may be required to render the developed resist image visible for inspection and
touch up. Correction of pin holes and other image defects are there after easily carried out in an
easier way before the board goes for etching. Dyeing is carried out immediately of Patten finished a
dip in the dye tank for 5 to 20 seconds depending on the concentration. Dyeing as such is a messy
operation and the loss of some chemical resistance in the resist must be taken into account. It is
therefore avoided wherever possible. Defects in the resist film image are touched up under a
magnifying glass. Inks used for screen printing of PCB are often used for this operation.

7. Etching: - The final Pattern is formed by selective removal of all the unwanted copper which is
not protected by an etch resist. A spray type etching machine with its tank constructed of
anticorrosive framework and fabricated out of PVC / Nylon component. Etching like cupric chloride
or ferric chloride can be used. The etching is pumped under pressure from the pump via a pipe
network to the nozzles and from there it gets splashed into the boards. The etching temperature is
preferable around 45˚C.

8. Resist Removal: - After etching process the photo resist layer is to be taken off with a stripping
solution containing methanol, triethylene glycol.

9. Roller Tinning:-Roller tinning machine is designed specially to provide an effective protection

against corrosion .It ensures a long storage life & improves soldering properties after insertion of
components. An electronic temperature control is filled with solder alloy in the place to control the
solder temperature. A safety device is fitted in motor circuit to prevent the rollers after solder is melt.
PCB to be solder coated is passed between two coating rollers, the one at the bottom being a tinned
roller which partially dips into a solder bath. The top one is silicon rubber

10. Drilling: -For component mounting holes are drilled into PCB using a high-speed drilling
machine. Speed of machine is around 20,000 – 50,000 rpm. The board is positioned manually under
the point of the drilling, such equipment is very simple and cheap, but the accuracy of the hole
positioned cannot be expected to be much better than 0.2 mm.

11. Shearing: - The PCB is cut to the exact size as indicated by the negative. Since the edges are
rough, filing is done to have smooth surface.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

To make a negative of DC Regulated power supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Negative Sheet film, layout, Photo contact camera

CHEMICAL REQUIRED:

Sodium carbonate, Butyl cellusolve and Sodium Thiosulphate.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Take a Layout and place it on a photo contact camera.

2. Place the Negative upon the Layout
3. Press the Button of camera up to 5sec
4. Place the negative sheet in (A+B) solutions and shake it few minutes.
5. After it take the negative shake in sodium Thioshulphate.
6. After this take the negative wash with the help of simple water.
7. After this the negative it and it is final to use.

LAYOUT
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

NEGATIVE

RESULT:

We make the negative with the help of layout.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Keep the room dark

2. After the photo contact camera, the image handling with carefully
3. Shake the negative sheet in (A+B) Solution until the image does not see proper.
4. Hold the negative sheet its corner
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT NO.04

OBJECTIVE: -Winding shop: Step down transformer of less than 12VA.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

Transformer winding To Turn winding
1 01
Machine
2 Plastic Bobbin For Primary & Secondary Turn 01
Insulated copper Wire 41 SWG for primary & As
3
24 SWG for secondary Requirements
Lamination Core (E & I) For Heat Control As
4
Type Requirements
Sleeves For Cover soldering Joint As
5
Requirements
6 Tape For Tapping of Insulation Paper 01
Insulation Paper For Cover Primary &
7 02
Secondary Winding
8 Flexible Wire For Input Connection 02
9 Varnish For Remove Humming 01
10 Hammer For Cover the Chassis 01
11 Soldering Iron 25 Watt for Soldering 01
Digital Multimeter For Checking Input & Output
12 01
Voltage

THEORY: -

A transformer is a device which works on the principle of mutual Induction. It is a static

electromagnetic device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another at the same
frequency with or without changing the voltage level. A transformer needs two coils, which is wound
on a laminated core. These coils are called primary coils and secondary coils. The coil on which AC
supply is provided is called primary coil and the coil in which the EMF is induced and from which
the output is taken is called secondary coil. The secondary coil can have one or more windings. Step
down Transformer is used to decrease the secondary (output) voltage in proportion to its primary
(input) voltage. In this Transformer the number of primary winding is greater than the number of
secondary windings and the secondary voltage is given by:-
Vs = (Vp / Np) x Ns
Where,
Vp: - is the primary voltage.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Vs: - is the secondary voltage.

Np: - is the number of turns in primary coil.
Ns: - is the number of turns in secondary coil.

PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER:-
Some parts required for construction of transformer are: -
(1) Coil: - In a transformer, coil is one of the most important parts and we require wire to make
the coil. These wires are copper wires covered with a coating of an insulating material such as
enamel, silk, or cotton. The size of the wire and its insulation coating determine

(a) The number of turns that can be given to the wire per inch of its length safely without the risk of
cracking its insulation.
(b) The amount of current that can be safely carried by the wire without the risk of its being fused.
(c) Its resistance in ohms per unit of weight.
(d) Its frequency on which it is to be used. Wire size is given in SWG.

(2) Former / Bobbin: - In the transformer the coil is wrapped around a former or a
bobbin. Bobbin is made of some insulated material such as plastic, paper fiber etc. In power
Transformer the bobbin is usually made of plastic or fiber, this keep the bobbin safe from the heat /
cold and humidity.

(3) Core:- Core is the heart of a transformer .If a solid iron piece having low resistance is used as
core than too much of eddy current will flow in the core and make it very hot. In order to reduce the
eddy current to a negligible
Value, the Electrical resistance of the core is increased by splitting it to then sheet and insulating
each sheet from the next. This in turn improves the productivity of the Transformer and makes it less
hot. Laminations are insulated from one another in many ways. By chemical treatment of the metal
surface or by varnish etc.
There are two main shaper of laminations the
1) E and I type and,
2) The T and U type both types form a three legged core.
This is shown in figure. For making the core, some of the common materials used are Low carbon
steel, silicon steel, nickel iron, and cobalt Iron.

PROCEDURE:--

1. Take a bobbin of appropriate size.

2. Use laminated paper with cello tape on bobbin.
3. Remove the insulator from copper wire of 42 SWG and join the flexible wire by soldering.
4. Wound the primary turns with the help of transformer winding machine.
5. After completing the primary winding again use laminated paper .
6. Use copper wire of 24 SWG for secondary winding.
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7. Repeat the step 3rd and 4th for completing the secondary winding.
8. After completing the secondary winding fix laminated E & I cores on bobbin.

How to varnish a transformer after completion:-

Coil is laminated after transformer winding is done to prevent the losses in transformer.

Method -1

1. Firstly heat up the varnish up to suitable temperature and keep it in a wide tray.
2. Dip the transformer in the hot varnish and hang it over the tray so that excess varnish is removed.
3. Use the transformer after it is dried.
4. This method is less popular because it is time consuming and afterwards it is difficult to rewind
the transformer.

Method -2

1. In this method we use to put varnish over the transformer winding using a Brush.
2. Again the transformer is used after it is dried.
3. It takes less time and save the amount of varnish used.

Advantages of using varnish:- It increases the efficiency of the transformer as it fills all the air gaps
Which reduces transformer losses & does avoid humming.
Difficulties raised after making transformer:-

1. Humming of transformer
a) Due to loosely winded wires.
b) Due to a smaller number of turns of wire or core in coil
c) Due to losses coupled core
d) Due to loosely attached.
e) In the absence of varnish.

2. There is a smell from newly formed transformer just after switching Stabilizer:
a) One of the indications is varnish inside the transformer is melting & Spreading
b) It may cause damage to the coil of transformer when smelling from the transformer continues
for 2 or 3 days.

3. Burning of transformer after making connection with the main supply

a) This indicates that at the time of making transformer coil is shorted
b) Wrong connection
c) Attachment of coil &core
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4. Variation in the voltage of transformer

a) Calculate the no. of turns & gauge of coil.
b) Insulation of coil is properly rubbed or not.

Calculation Of No. Of Turns

1. Secondary Power (Ps) = Es X Is

= 12 X 1 =12 watt

2. Area Of Core (A) = √Ps / 5.58

√12 / 5.58 = 0.62inch2

3. Primary Power (Pp) = Ps / Efficiency x 100 = 13.33 watt.

4. Primary Current = (Ip) =Pp / Ep = 57mA

5. Turns / Volt = 108 1.11 X 4 X Bmax X A X F

Where, Bmax is induced flux which value
(1) 3w To 36 watt = 65 X 103 lines
(2) 36 watt = 60 X 103 Lines
A is The Area of Core
F Is the frequency Of Input Voltage
Turns / Volt = 108 / 4.44 X 65 X 103 X .62 X 50 = 11.17

6. Total No. Of Primary Turns = turns / Volt X Primary Voltage

= 11.17 X 220= 2457.4 turns

7. Total no. Of Secondary Turns = Turn / Volt X Secondary Voltage

= 11.17 X 12 = 134.04 turns
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VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Que.1 What is Transformer?

Ans A transformer transfers electrical energy between two circuits. It usually consists of two wire
coils wrapped around core. These coils are called primary and secondary windings. Energy is
transferred by mutual induction caused by a changing electromagnetic field. If the coils have
different number of turns around the core, the voltage induced in the secondary coil will be
different to the first.

Que.2 What is the Types of Transformers?

Ans The two major types of transformer are laminated cores and to roidals.

• Laminated cores are those common cube-shaped transformers, which are used in power
adapters. They are stronger and cheaper than toroidals.
• Toroidals are smaller and lighter, for the same power rating. They also produce less
electrical noise and are more efficient. The secondary winding can be joined in series to
double the voltage or joined in parallel for higher current.
• Variacs have a movable carbon brush that connects to the winding, providing a large range
of voltages.
• Audio transformers are used to amplify signals and drive speakers.
• Baluns are short windings that convert impedances, such as those between a television and
an antenna.

Que.3 How does a Transformer Work?

Ans Alternating current in the primary winding creates an electromagnetic field that induces
current in the secondary winding when the field changes. Small transformers use enameled
wire for their windings, while large transformers use insulated copper strips. Transformers
can be single winding, center-tap, or multi-tap. Center-taps have a terminal at the middle
point of the secondary winding, which has half the voltage of the end terminal. Multi-taps
have many terminals along the winding, whose voltages depend on their locations.
Que.4 What are the uses of Transformers?
Ans Transformers are mainly used to convert one type of voltage to another type. The process of
increasing the voltage is called "stepping up", while decreasing the voltage is called "stepping
down". Most electronic equipment’s need a transformer to lower the mains voltage to a
usable level. Transformers are also found in power adapters and battery chargers.

Que.5 What is the history of Transformers?

Ans Transformers are based on the theory of electromagnetic induction, which was discovered by
Michael Faraday in 1831.It was not until 1836 that the first device, an induction coil, was
invented. William Stanley, who designed the first commercial model, introduced the term
"transformer" in 1885.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT NO.05

OBJECTIVE: - Soldering shop: Soldering & disordering of resistor in PCB. Soldering &
disordering of IC in PCB. Soldering & disordering of Capacitor in PCB.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Soldering iron For soldering 1
2 Soldering iron stand - 1
3 Soldering wire - 1
Sponge To remove dust of soldering
4 1
iron
5 Flux 1
6 Resisters 330E,470E,1K 3
7 Capacitors 220Mfd 1
8 PCB To Component Mounting 1

Theory:
Soldering is a process for the joining of metal parts with the aid of a molten metal
(SOLDER) where the melting temperature is situated below that of the material joined. Solder is
an alloy of tin and lead used for fusing metals at relatively low temperatures of about 500 to 600
F. The joint where two metal conductors are to be fused is heated and then solder is applied so that
it can melt and cover the connection. The reason for soldering connections is that it makes a good
bond between the joint metal, covering the joint completely to prevent oxidation. The coating of
solder provides protection for practically an indefinite period.

Mechanisms of Soldering:
The trick in soldering is to heat the joint, not the solder. When the joint is hot enough to
melt the solder, the solder flows smoothly to fill the cracks forming a shiny cover without any air
spaces. Do not move the joint until the solder has set, which takes only a few seconds. The small
pencil soldering iron of 25W to 40W is helpful for soldering small connections where excessive
heat can cause damage. This precaution is particularly important when working on PCB‟s where
too much heat can soften the plastic form and loosen the printed wiring. A soldering iron for FET
devices should have the tip grounded to eliminate the static charge.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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Grades of Solder:
The three grades of solder generally used for electronic work are 40-60, 50-50, and 60-40 solder.
The first figure is the percentage of tin while the other is the percentage of led. The 60-40 solder
costs more but it melts at the lowest temperature, flows more freely, takes less time to harden and
generally makes it easier to do a good soldering job.
In addition to the solder, there must be flux to remove any oxide film on the metals being
joined. Otherwise they cannot fuse. The flux enables the molten solder to wet the metals so that
the solder can stick. The two types are ACIDFLUX and ROSINFLUX. The acid flux is more
active in cleaning metals but it is corrosive. The rosin flux is always used for light soldering works
in making wire connections. Generally the rosin is in the hollow core of solder intended for
electronic work so that a separate flux in unnecessary. Such rosin

core solder is the type which is generally used. It should be noted, though, that the flux is
not a substitute for cleaning the metals to be fused. They must be shiny cleaned for the solder
.

Disordering Technique:
On PCB‟s, de soldering is done to remove a defective components. De soldering is more
important than the soldering. There are different methods of de soldering.
1. Using solder sucker: The solder sucker (de soldering pump) is first cocked and then the joint is
heated in the same way as during soldering, and when the solder melts, the release button is
pushed to disengage the pump. The method is repeated two to three times until the soldered
components can be comfortably removed using long nose pliers.
2. Using wet de soldering wick: The wet de soldering wick is nothing but a fine copper braid used
as a shield in co-axial cables. The de soldering wick is wet is using soldering flux and then it is
pressed using the tip of the hot iron against the joint to be de soldered. The iron melts the solder,
and it is drawn into thebraid.
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Precautions:

1. Mount the components at the appropriate places before soldering. Follow the circuit
description and the component details, leads identification etc. Do not start soldering
before making it confirmed that all the components are mounted at the right place.
2. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit.
3. Do not under the fan while soldering.
4. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where you wan tit.
5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may damage the
components or the board.
6. The board should not vibrate while soldering, otherwise you will have a dry or a cold joint.

Result : We have study and verified of Soldering & disordering of resistor in PCB. Soldering &
disordering of IC in PCB. Soldering & disordering of Capacitor in PCB.

VIVA- VOICE QUESTION & ANSWERS

Que.1 How accuracy of the transformer is checked?

Ans Measuring the output voltage of secondary winding the transformer is checked.

Que.2 How conducting path on PCB sheet is checked?

Ans Measuring output voltage of the designed circuit conducting path is checked.

Que.3 How electronics components used in circuit are tested.

Ans With the help of CRO and multimeter correctness of electronics components are tested.

Que.4 What is use of metal body panel?

Ans To protect the sensitive electronic components and to avoid from dust and direct atmospheric
effects, metal body panel is used.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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Que.5 What is the use of Ammeter & Voltmeter?

Ans Ammeter and voltmeter is used to measure proper output value of current and voltage of the
circuit.

Que.6 What is a Circuit?

Ans In Electronics, a circuit is a path between two or more points along which an electrical
current can be carried. (A circuit breaker is a device that interrupts the path when
necessary to protect other devices attached to the circuit - for example, in case of a power
surge
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT: - 1

OBJECTIVE: -To Study of lab equipment’s and components CRO, Multimeter, Function
Generator, Power supply, Active and Passive Components & Bread Board.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter To Check Voltage 1
2 CRO For Checking Wave 1
3 Function Generator To Generate signal 1
4 DC Power Supply To Input voltage 1
5 Bread Board For Connection Making 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
7 Diode 1N4007 1
8 Transistor BC107 1
9 Resistance 1 KΩ, 10 KΩ 2
10 Capacitance 0.1nF 1
11 Inductance 1 MH 1

THEORY: -
The CRO is a Universal measuring instrument capable of measuring a wide variety of rapidly
changing electrical signal into a visual one and thus enables us to observe the voltage and current
waveforms. The block diagram of CRO is shown in figure.

The major sub systems of a CRO are: -

1) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
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2) Vertical deflection circuit which includes vertical amplifier and delay time.
3) Horizontal deflection circuit which includes Trigger Circuit, Time base generator and horizontal
amplifier.

VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION

• Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display
• Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
• Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated
steps. Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully
clockwise position.
• AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical
amplifier, or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples, the input directly to the
amplifier; selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus
blocking any constant component.

HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION
• TRIGGER: - The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
• INT - (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier
• EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the
• EXT. TRIG. INPUT

We measure the following parameters of this instrument (CRO)listed below: -

• Measurement of Voltage (AC & DC).
• Measurement of Frequency.
• Measurement of Current.
• Measurement of Phase.

Measurement of Voltage: -

Peak to Peak Value: - The maximum value, +ve or –ve of the alternating quantity is known as its
peak value. It is also called maximum value or amplitude of the alternating quantity.

The total voltage measured from –ve peak to +ve peak is called the Peak to Peak voltage.
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Using CRO: - Measure the number of divisions on the voltage axis and multiply it by the value
indicated by the Volts/Div knob on the CRO. This gives the peak value.

RMS Value (Root Mean Square Value): -

It is given by the steady dc current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current which when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time.
RMS value of alternating voltage is related to its peak value by the relation

Measurement of Frequency: -
Time Period: - The time taken by an alternating voltage to complete one cycle is called its Time
period, T. Using CRO Measure the number of divisions for a single cycle on the time axis and
multiply it by the value indicated by the Times/Div knob on the CRO. This gives the Time Period of
the alternating voltage.
T = number of divisions for a single cycle X Times/Div knob on the CRO
Frequency: - The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency of the
alternating voltage. Its unit is Hertz. Frequency is given by the reciprocal of Time period T.
i.e.f = 1/T

Measurement of Current:- The current to be measured is passed through a resistance the voltage
developed across this resistance is of the same waveform as the current, if the resistance is pure the
voltage is measured by CRO and current can be find.

Measurement of Phase: -
Phase: - The phase of an alternating quantity is the fraction of the time period of the alternating
voltage which has elapsed since the voltage last passed through the zero position of reference.
Phase difference: - Consider two alternating quantity of same frequency reaching their peak/ zero
value at different instants of time. gives the phase difference between two waves.

Front Panel Control on CRO: -

A typical CRO has the following controls on the front panel.
• Intensity Control: - It adjusts brightness of the Trace.
• Focus Control: - It controls the sharpness of the Trace.
• Timing Control: - It adjusts time per division of the time base.
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• Y – Gain Control: - It adjusts amplitude of the vertical display. For example, 05mV / Div to
20mV / Div.
• H-gain control: - It adjusts length of the H- Trace.
• Sweep control: - It selects internal or external sweep.
• Trigger control: - It selects Trigger pulse from either Y amplifier or time signal. External
signal.
• Trigger level control: - It adjusts the trigger level of trigger pulse.
• H- Position control: - It adjusts the position of horizontal display on CRO screen.
• V- Position control: - It adjusts the position of vertical display on CRO screen.
• Internal calibration: - It provides line frequency signal of fixed amplitude to check
calibration.
• AC/DC/GND Coupling: - Input coupling switch is provided for each channel. In case of AC,
the signal is coupled through 0.1 µF capacitor.

Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as
follows:
a) Power switch at off
b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
c) Vertical centering in the center of range
d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
e) Vertical at 0.2
f) Sweep times 1
Plug line cord into a standard ac wall receptacle (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do not advance
the Intensity Control.

WARNING: Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright spot appears.
Bright spots imply burning of the screen. A sharp focused spot of high intensity (great brightness)
should never be allowed to remain fixed in one position on the screen for any length of time as
damage to the screen may occur.Adjust Horizontal and Vertical Centering Controls. Adjust the focus
to give a sharp trace. Set trigger to internal, level to auto.

FUNCTION GENERATOR: - A function generator is an electronic test equipment or software

used to generate electrical waveforms. These waveforms can be either repetitive, or single-shot in
which case some kind of triggering source is required (internal or external).

DC power supply:- This is another important instrument used in electronic laboratory. Since we
know that most electronic components used DC voltage for their working. The +ve value of DC
voltage for operation of electronic component varies from less than 1V to 100 V depending upon the
component in the lab we have dual power supply PSD 302 with tracking facility. PSD 302 means DC
power supply of 0-30 V variable with 2 amps maximum
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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MULTIMETER
A multimeter is an electronic instrument which can measure resistance, current and voltages.
Multimeter can be used for measuring DC as well as AC voltage and current. Generally, Multimeter
are two types depend on their construction. These are Analog Multimeter and Digital Multimeter.

Analog Multimeter
These Multimeter can measure voltages, currents, and resistances. To achieve this objective proper
circuits are incorporated with the Galvanometers. The Galvanometers in a multimeter is always of
left zero type. i.e. normally its needle resets in extreme left position as compare to center. Zero
position of ordinary galvanometers.

Digital Multimeter
Basically, it is a digital voltmeter. All other parameters like resistance, Current, AC voltage are
converted into DC voltage with the help of a function switch as shown in figure. Then the
measurement of DC voltages gives the value of desired parameters. These DC voltages are then
given to the analog to digital converters (ADC) circuits, which converts these voltages corresponding
to digital numbers which displays on LCD screen in the form of digit.

For measuring resistances, it is converted into DC voltage by passing current from a constant
current source. If this current is 1mA then DC voltage produce by unknown resistance will be direct
in mV. If the resistance is 1KΩ then a voltage of 1V will be produced.

For measuring current it is converted into DC voltage by passing it through a constant resistance,
say of 1Ω then DC voltage developed is equal to current. For measuring AC voltage, it is first
rectified and then considered as DC voltage for measurement.
Checked by measuring zero resistance of the shorted probe.
One of the features of digital voltmeter is the accuracy under optimum measuring conditions, ranging
from 0.1% to 0.001% depending on technology and price class.
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BREADBOARD: -

A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No soldering is
required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Part will not be damaged so
they will be available to re-use afterwards. The photograph shows a circuit on a typical small
breadboard, which is suitable for beginners building simple circuits with one or two ICs (chips).

Connections on Breadboards
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most
components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their
notch or dot to the left. Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm
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diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a
hole and it may damage the board if strands break off.

The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are connected.

NE555 the top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across. The power supply is
connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom. I suggest using the upper row
of the bottom pair for 0V, and then you can use the lower row for the negative supply with circuits
requiring a dual supply (e.g. +9V, 0V, -9V).
The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the center. Notice how there
is separate blocks of connections to each pin of ICs.

ACTIVE & PASSIVE COMPONENTS: -

Diode: A diode is a device which permits passage of current in forward direction not in the opposite
direction. It is the simplest semiconductor device but it plays a vital role in electronic systems. It is
also called p-n junction diode. It is a two-terminal device. The positive terminal is called anode and
negative terminal is called cathode.

Zener diode: It is a reference diode, which gives the specified reference voltage in the circuit i.e.
The voltage required in the circuit and is given by reference node i.e.Zener diode.

Resistors: -The flow of the charge or current through any material encounters an opposing force
similar in many respects to mechanical friction. This opposing force is called the resistance of the
material. It is measured in ohms for which symbol isΩ. Types of resistance belong to two groups-
fixed or variable.
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Fixed resistors the most common of the low wattage fixed type resistors are carbon composition
resistors. Resistors of this type are readily available in values ranging from few ohms to mega ohms.
A system colors coding is used to indicate the values of carbon type resistors.

LED: It is called light emitting diode. It is simply a p-n junction diode. It is usually made from a
semiconductor material such as aluminum-gallium arsenide (AL-GaAs) or
L E D 1 C Q X3 5 A

Gallium-arsenide phosphide. When forward biased the processes essentially the same as in ordinary
diode except the recombination of carriers across the junction give up energy in the form of light.

Inductors: When current flows through a wire that has been coiled, it generates a magnetic field.
This magnetic field reacts so as to oppose any change in the current. This reaction of the magnetic
field trying to keep the current flowing at a steady rate is known as inductance, and the force it
develops is called induced e.m.f. The electronic component producing inductance is called an
inductor. The inductance is measured in henrys (H). Inductors are employed extensively in electronic
circuits.

L1 1 m

PNP Transistor: A transistor is basically a silicon or germanium crystal containing three separate
regions. It has two P-N junctions. In PNP transistor the thin central N region is called the base, one
side region is called the emitter and the other side is the collector. The collector region is made
physically larger than the emitter region since it is required to dissipate more heat.

T 1 ! PN P

NPN Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device capable of amplification of signals. The

NPN transistor has three regions. The middle region is called base and the outer regions are called
the emitter and the collector. Although the two outer regions are of the same type (N-type), their
functions cannot be interchanged. The two regions have different physical and electrical properties.

T 2 ! NP N
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Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three Terminal semiconductor device in which current
conduction is by one type of carrier i.e. Electrons or Holes. In a FET the current conduction is either
by electrons or holes and is controlled by means of an electric field between the gate electrode and
the conducting channel of the device. The FET has high input impedance and low noise level.

CALCULATION: -
Frequency f = 1 / T , cycle / sec. or Hz
Voltage = No. of horizontal block * volts / division.
Phase Ø = Sin─1 a / b
Current = Measured voltage / Resistance (one ohm).
I=V

Result: -
• Frequency f = ……………..Hz
• Voltage = …………………Volts.
• Phase Ø = …………………..
• Current = ………………….mA.

Precautions:
• Make the connections carefully.
• Take the observations carefully.
• Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment.
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Viva Voice Question & Answers

Q1. What are Function of multimeter?

Ans. multimeter can measure: AC & DC voltage (volt) AC & DC current (amp) resistance (ohm)
etc.

Q2 What are. Basic functions of an analog multi tester?

Ans. It is a moving-coil galvanometer with a selectable array of shunts and series (bobbin)
resistors. Shunts are also resistors but they go in parallel to the meter to restrict current through
the meter...

Q3. What are the parts of a multimeter both analog and digital?

Ans. There are basic parts of a multimeter: meter scale, selector function range, test probe, zero
adjust for ohmmeter,

Q4. What is an Analog Output Module?

Ans. It is a module or Assembly to describe its sole function
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(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT. 2

OBJECTIVE: To study P-N Junction Diode: Characteristics of PN Junction Diode-Static and

dynamic resistance measurement from graph.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Voltmeter 0-20V 1
2 Ammeter 0-100mA and 0-100µA 1
3 Resistance 470Ω 1
4 Diode 1N4007 1
5 Bread Board For Making Circuit 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -

THEORY: -
A diode is the basic electronic component. Its property is that it can conduct only in one direction. A
diode can be made by joining a p type semiconductor and an n type semiconductor. At the junction
point there will be a voltage drop due to the migration of carriers. The voltage at this barrier is known
as barrier potential. Ideally the barrier potential is zero. But in practical case there will be a drop of
0.7 Volts.

Forward Biased When the P side of diode is connected to the positive of power supply and N region
is connected to the negative of supply, the diode is said to be in forward biased condition. At this
condition, if the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential of the diode, it starts conduction.
After the diode is arrived in the conduction mode, the drop across it remains at 0.7 V. After the
conduction starts, if the voltage is increased further, current trough it increases linearly with voltage.

Reverse Biased When the supply voltage is reversed the diode is said to be in reverse biased
condition. Here there is no conduction at lower voltage values. If we increase the voltage value
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

further, it is observed that at a voltage the current sharply increases due to the breakdown of the P-N
junction. This damages the device. So, care is to be taken while connecting diode in a circuit.

The V-I characteristics of a p-n junction is the curve between voltage across the junction and
Circuit Current.

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE: - It is the reverse voltage at which the junction breakdowns with the
sudden rise in reverse current.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

KNEE VOLTAGE: - The minimum voltage applied to the P-N junction for which it starts
conduction for Ge diode =0.3V, for Si diode = 0.7V
Every P-N junction has following limiting values.

MAXIMUM FORWARD CURRENT: - The maximum values of forward current that P-N junction
can carry without damaging itself.

PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV): - The max. Value of reverse voltage that a P-N junction can
with stand damaging itself is called peak inverse voltage.

MAXIMUM POWER RATING: - The Max. Power that a P-N junction or diode can dissipate
without damaging is called max. Power rating.

Procedure:
• Connect the circuit according to the given figure.
• Connect DC power supply to the circuit.
• Find out the relation between voltage and current.
• Trace a graph of V-I characteristic of diode.

Observation Table: -

a) DIODE IN FORWARD BIASED

S.No. Voltage Across Diode (VD) in Volt Current Through Diode (ID) in mA
1 0 0
2 0.20 0
3 0.30 0
4 0.40 .01
5 0.45 .17
6 0.55 .42
7 0.60 1.23
8 0.65 3.90
9 0.69 8.72
10 0.73 19.32
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b) DIODE IN REVERSE BIASED

S.No. Voltage Across Diode (VD) in Volt Current Through Diode (ID) in µA
1 0.2 0.1
2 2 0.3
3 5 0.6
4 8 1
5 10 1.3
6 12 2
7 14 3
8 15 4
9 16 6

Calculations from the Graph

Static Resistance: To find the forward static resistance locate a point on characteristic curveobtained
from the forward bias characteristics which is called operating point Q and draw a line onto the X-
axis and Y-axis to obtain VF and IFCalculate static forward resistance using the formulae
The static resistance of the diode as
RF = VF / IFΩ at Q point

Dynamic Resistance: The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in
the region surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal input is applied rather than a dc input, the
varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the characteristics
and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage. To find the ac or dynamic resistance draw a
straight-line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in the figure will define a
particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic resistance
for this region of the diode characteristics.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

The dynamic resistance of the diode as

RF =ΔVd / Δ IdΩ at Q point

Result: - Thus the V-I characteristic of PN junction diode is verified.

• Cut in voltage =0.6V

• Static forward resistance = 0.73V / 19.32mA = 37 Ω
• ac or Dynamic resistance = (.73-.69)V/(19.32-8.72) mA = 3.78Ω

Precautions:
• Make the connections carefully.
• Take the observations carefully.
• Trace should be drawn on properly.
• Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment.

Viva voice Question & Answers

Q1. What is a PN junction diode?

Ans. when a semiconductor is doped with p-type and n-type impurities, a PN junction is formed
which acts as a diode and prevents the charge carriers to flow to either side of junction

Q2. What is barrier voltage of PN junction diode?

Ans. In silicon, about 0.7 volts. In germanium, about .3 volts. Let me fill some for this. For the
silicon diode, barrier potential voltage is about 0.7V, For the germanium diode is about 0.3V.

Q3. What are the uses of PN junction diode?

Ans. The major use of PN junction diode is in rectification i.e. to convert ac to dc, Clipper circuit,
Clamping circuit etc.

Q4. What are the limiting values of a PN junction Diode?

Ans. Heat and PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage) or so called Peak Reverse Voltage is limit the diode
characteristics.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT: - 3

OBJECTIVE: -Applications of PN junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of
VRMS,VDC, and ripple factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: -
S.No. Component Specification Quantity
1 Multimeter - 1
2 Ammeter 0-100mA and 0-100µA 1
3 Resistance 470Ω 1
4 Diode 1N4007 4
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
7 CRO - 1
8 Step down transformer - 1

THEORY: -
A diode is using to pass current in a single direction. Alternating current is a current which flow in
both directions. In some applications we need dc power supply. A method to obtain dc supply is by
using batteries. But it is not economical at all times. It is possible to obtain dc from ac supply. That
process is known as rectification. Rectification is of two types:
1. half wave rectification
2. full wave rectification

HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS

In a half wave rectifier only, one-half cycle of ac voltage is taking. The circuit is given. Here only
one diode is using. During the positive half cycle of ac voltage, the diode conducts. So current flows
through load. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased. So, no current flows
through the diode. This type of rectification needs only one diode. But the efficiency is not so good
as that of full wave rectifier

Circuit diagram: -

HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

Unlike a half wave rectifier, a full wave rectifier conducts in both half cycles of ac voltageA full
wave rectifier can be implemented in two ways: -

a) Full wave bridge rectifier

In full wave bridge rectifiers 4 diodes are using. During positive half cycle, D1 and D4 are in forward
biased condition. In the negative half cycle of ac D3 and D2 are in forward biased condition. So, in
both the half cycles current through the load is in single direction. Thus, rectification can be done.
This circuit does not need a center tap rectifier. But it requires more number of diodes than center tap
and half wave rectifiers.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

b) Full wave center tap rectifier

This is another method to obtain full wave rectification. In this method only two diodes are using.
But it requires a center tap transformer. During the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts. In the
negative half cycle diode D2 conducts. So, in both half cycles current flowing through load in same
direction. Thus, rectification can be obtained.

.
FULL WAVE CENTER TAP RECTIFIER
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Procedure of HWR: -
• Look at the given circuit of half wave rectifier. Trace the circuit. Note the type number of the
diode. Also note the value of the load resistor used in the circuit.
• Connect the primary side of the transformer to the AC mains. Connect the CRO probe to the
output points. Adjust different knobs of CRO so that the good and stable wave form is visible
on the screen. Plot this waveform in your record table. Take the CRO probe to the input of the
rectifier circuit. Note the wave shapes of the signal & compare them.
• Now use a multimeter to measure the ac voltage at the secondary terminal of the transformer.
This gives the r.m.s value. Also measure the ac and dc voltage at the output points.
• Multiply this r.m.s value by 2 to get the peak i.e. maximum value. Calculate the theoretical
value of the dc voltage using formula
Vd.c= Vm/π
• Compare this value with the practically measured value of the output dc voltage.

Procedure of FWR: -
• Look at the given circuit of full wave rectifier. Trace the circuit. Note the type number of the
diode. Also note the value of the load resistor used in the circuit.
• Connect the primary side of the transformer to the AC mains. Connect the CRO probe to the
output points. Adjust different knobs of CRO so that the good and stable wave form is visible
on the screen. Plot this waveform in your record table. Take the CRO probe to the input of the
rectifier circuit. Note the wave shapes of the signal & compare them.
• Now use a multimeter to measure the ac voltage at the secondary terminal of the transformer.
This gives the r.m.s value. Also measure the ac and dc voltage at the output points.
• Multiply this r.m.s value by 2 to get the peak i.e. maximum value. Calculate the theoretical
value of the dc voltage using formula
Vd.c= 2Vm/π
• Compare this value with the practically measured value of the output dc voltage.
Procedure Center Taped FWR:
• Trace the circuit. Note the value of the load resistor and the type of two diodes.
• Connect the mains voltage to the primary of the center tapped transformer. Connect the
output terminals to the vertical plates of the CRO. Adjust different knobs of the CRO and
obtain a stationary pattern on the screen. Now touch the CRO probes at the center tap and one
of the diodes. Observe the waveform on the CRO. Plot both the wave shapes in your
notebook. Compare the two voltage wave shapes.
• Measure AC voltage at the input (center tap and one of the diodes) and output points. Also
measure the dc voltage across the load resistor.
• From the measured ac voltage, calculate the dc voltage. Compare it with the measured value
of the dc output voltage. Calculate its difference with the theoretical value.
RESULTS
Measurement of VRMS, VDC, and ripple factor for half wave and full wave rectifier is done
successfully.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

CALCULATION:
Ripple Factor = AC voltage at output / dc voltage at output
Output Voltage Vdc for FWR = 2Vm/π
Output Voltage Vdc for HWR = Vm/π
Vrms for FWR = Vm/√2
Vrms for HWR = Vm/2
Measure the PIV across the diode. It should be 2Vm

Precautions:
• Make the connections carefully.
• Take the observations carefully.
• Trace should be drawn on properly.
• Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment.

Viva voice Question & Answers

Q1. What is the advantage of half wave rectifier?

Ans. In half wave rectifier there are only two diodes connecting opposite to each other, hence there
is possibility of only 90-degree phase will give to us. thus, we got the dc voltage wave. The half
wave rectifier.

Q2. What is the effect of capacitor in waveform of half wave rectifier...?

Ans. Without the capacitor, the waveform is the positive halves of the AC waveform. With the
capacitor, and with no load, the waveform is a straight-line DC at the peak value minus the diode's
forward voltage drop. Add some load,

Q3. How does a diode act as a half wave rectifier?

Ans. Diode only permits current flow in one direction. In AC the current waveform reverses for
half the cycle. Since current won't flow for 1/2 the cycle you get half-wave rectification.

Q4. What is PIV value of a half wave rectifier?

Ans. Peak inverse voltage = supply voltage. the diode would be in reverse biased condition.

Q6. What Is a Bridge Rectifier?

Ans. when four diodes are placed in a certain configuration in an electric circuit and an alternating
current is supplied to them, the Resulting output is a direct current. This setup is known as a
"bridge rectifier" because the alternating current is rectified or changed to direct current.

Q7. How to Check a Bridge Rectifier?

Ans. Connect the oscillating voltage source (transformer or function generator) to the input leads of
the circuit. Using a multimeter, measure the output voltage. For a sinusoidal input signal, it should
read roughly 0.6 of the amplitude of the input, the average value of the rectified sine curve.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT. 4

OBJECTIVE:-To Plot V-I characteristics of Zener diode. Graphical measurement of forward and
reverse resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Voltmeter 0-20V 1
2 Ammeter 0-100mA and 0-100µA 1
3 Resistance 470Ω 1
4 Zener Diode 5V 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -

THEORY:
Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased mode. It is
acting as normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular voltage known as break down
voltage, at which the diode break downs while reverse biased. In the case of normal diodes, the diode
damages at the break down voltage. But Zener diode is specially designed to operate in the reverse
breakdown region.
The basic principle of zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, it’s
depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there
will be very strong electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes place.
Thus, heavy current flows. This is known as Zener break down.
So, a Zener diode, in a forward biased condition acts as a normal diode. In reverse biased mode, after
the break down of junction current through diode increases sharply. But the voltage across it remains
constant.
The V-I characteristics of a Zener Diode is the curve between voltage across the junction and circuit
Current.

FORWARD BIASED
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REVERSE BIASED

V-I Characteristics

It has sharp breakdown voltage called Zener voltage. It can be operate in any one of the three regions
i.e. Forward, Leakage, Breakdown. The voltage is almost constant (V2) over the operating region.
Usually, the value of V2 at a particular test current I2 is specified in the data sheet. During the
operation it will not burn out as long as the external circuit limitation the current flowing through i.e.
I.
Avalanche Breakdown: - when the electric field existing in the depletion layer is sufficiently high
the velocity of the carried crossing the depletion layer is sufficiently high, these carriers collide with
the crystal atom. Some collisions are so violent those electrons are knocked of the crystal atoms.
Thus, by increase in charge carrier, we approach the break down voltage, the chain of collision can
give rise to an almost infinite current with very slight additional increase in voltage. Once, this
breakdown occurs the junction cannot regain its original position. Thus, the diode is said to be turn
off.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Zener Breakdown: - This breakdown takes in a very thin junction i.e. When both the sides of the
junction are heavily doped and consequently the depletion layer is heavily doped and consequently
the depletion layer is narrow. In the Zener breakdown mechanism, the electric field becomes very
high to 107 V/m in the depletion layer with only a small applied ever – bias voltage. In this process it
becomes possible for some electrons to jump across the barrier from the balance band in P – material
to some of in the filled condition band is not damage. The junction regions its original position when
the reverse voltage is removed. This process is used in Zener diode.
Thus, it is concluded that Zener breakdown does not Result in the destruction of the diode of long as
current through the diode is limited by external circuit to a level with in its power handling capacity
whereas avalanche breakdown destroys the diode.

Observation Table:

(a) ZENER DIODE IN FORWARD BIASED

Voltage Across ZenerDiode (Vz) in Current Through Zener Diode (ID)

S.No.
Volt in mA
1 0 0
2 0.661 1.5
3 0.700 2.0
4 0.733 3.1
5 0.754 7.0
6 0.768 13.0
7 0.774 18.0
8 0.781 24.0
9 0.787 30.6
10 0.790 40.1

(b) ZENER DIODE IN REVERSE BIASED

S.No. Voltage Across Diode (Vz) in Volt Current Through Diode (ID) in µA
1 0.0 00
2 0.5 1.5
3 1.0 2.0
4 2.1 3.2
5 3.3 6.7
6 4.9 15.0
7 5.03 22.0
8 5.12 31.63
9 5.14 37.89
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Procedure:
• Connect the circuit according to the given figure.
• Connect DC power supply to the circuit.
• Find out the relation between voltage and current.
• Trace a graph of V-I characteristic of Zener diode.

Result: -V-I characteristics of Zener diode:

Precautions:
• Make the connections carefully.
• Take the observations carefully.
• Trace should be drawn on properly.
• Switch off the power supply after completion of experiment
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Viva voice Question & Answers

Q1. What is a Zener Diode?

Ans. Zener diode is a diode that allows current to flow forward in the normal direction, as well
as reverse direction.

Q2. How to Check a Zener Diode?

Ans. Placing the multimeter on the diode setting. This is usually indicated by a small diode
symbol on the casing. Measure.

Q3. How Zener diode behaves as a voltage regulator?

Ans. The Zener diode behaves as a voltage regulator because, in the reverse bias condition, it has
a relatively flat voltage to current curve. That means that the voltage across the diode will
be constant.

Q4. How a Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator?

Ans. Zener diodes try to keep their terminal voltage at their designed voltage, that is them
function. Putting a Zener diode in parallel with a load can help regulate the voltage to
the desired amount.

Q5. Why Zener diode is used as voltage regulator?

Ans. At one time it was used for a regulator because in the reverse voltage breakdown it has the
characteristic of keeping the voltage constant as voltage is increased.

Q6. Why the Zener diode is used as a semiconductor device in voltage regulator?
Ans. Zener diode is a special kind of diode, which permits current to flow in the forward
direction as normal, but it will also allow current to flow in the reverse.

Q7. What is the basic principle of Zener diode?

Ans. Zener break down

Q8. What is Zener break down?

Ans. When diode is heavily doped, it’s depletion region will be narrow. When high R.V. is
applied across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction and
electron hole pair generation take place. Thus, the heavy current flows this is known as
Zener break down.

Q9. Mention the application of Zener diode?

Ans. In voltage regulator.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT. 5

OBJECTIVE:-
Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration- Graphical measurement of hparameters from input
and output characteristics. Measurement of Av, AI, Ro and Ri of CE amplifier with potential divider
biasing.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: -

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Multimeter - 1
2 Ammeter 0-100 mA and 0-100 µA 1
3 Resistance 470 Ω 1
4 Transistor BC107 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
7 Regulated Power Supply - 1

THEORY: -
The basic circuit diagram for studying input characteristics is shown in the circuit diagram. The input
is applied between base and emitter, the output is taken between collector and emitter. Here emitter
of the transistor is common to both input and output and hence the name Common Emitter
Configuration.

Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage at constant output
voltage. It is plotted between VBE and IB at constant VCE in CE configuration.

Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output current at constant input
current. It is plotted between VCE and IC at constant IB in CE configuration.

Common Emitter Configuration.

 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Procedure:
Input Characteristics:
• Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
• Varying VBB gradually, note down base current IB and base-emitter voltage VBE.
• Step size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve. Initially vary VBB in steps of 0.1V. Once the
current starts increasing vary VBB in steps of 1V up to 12V.
• Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCE = 5V.
• Plot the input characteristics by taking VBE on X-axis and IB on Y-axis at a constant VCE as a
constant parameter.
Output Characteristics:
• Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Keep emitter current IB = 20 A by varying VBB.
• Varying VCC gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down collector current IC and
Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCE).
• Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IB = 60µA, 20µA.
• Plot the output characteristics by taking VCE on X-axis and taking IC on Y-axis taking IB as a
constant parameter.

Observations:
Input Characteristics

VBB (Volts) VCE = 0V VCE = 5V

VBE (Volts) IB (µA) VBE (Volts) IB (µA)
0.18 2.586 0.10 2.307
0.42 3.644 0.30 3.070
0.86 6.833 0.70 5.437
1.22 11.430 1.00 8.345
1.60 19.670 1.50 17.050

Output Characteristics

VCC (Volts) IB = 20 µA IB = 60 µA
VCE (Volts) IC (mA) VCE (Volts) IC (mA)
1.0 67.36 1.0 265.5
2.0 85.27 2.0 336.0
3.0 88.01 3.0 346.9
4.0 88.39 4.0 348.3
5.0 88.44 5.0 348.6
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
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(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Calculations from Graph:

1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance find VBE and IB for a constant VCE on
one of the input characteristics.
Input impedance = hie = Ri = VBE / IB (VCE is constant)
Reverse voltage gain = hre = VEB / VCE (IB = constant)
2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance find IC and VCB at a constant IB.
Output admittance 1/hoe = Ro = IC / VCE (IB is constant)
Forward current gain = hfe = IC / IB (VCE = constant)

Graph:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
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(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Output Characteristics

Inference:
• Medium input and output resistances.
• Smaller values if VCE, lower the cut-in-voltage.
• Increase in the value of IE causes saturation of the transistor of an earlier voltage.

Result:
Input and Output characteristics of a Transistor in Common Emitter Configuration are studied.

Precautions:
• While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to
damage the transistor.
• Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per
the circuit diagram.
• Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

Viva voice Question & Answers

Q1. What is a Transistor?

Ans. Transistor is an Active electronic component. Transistor is base of Digital Electronics &
Computers. It performs various tasks like Amplification, Timer, Oscillator, etc.

Q2. What are Transistors?

Ans. Most commonly referred to in electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device that is used to
amplify or switch electronic signals.

Q3. What is self-bias transistor circuit?

Ans. transistor with a resistance in the emitter lead that gives rise to a voltage drop which is in the
direction to reverse-bias the emitter junction; the circuit can be used even if there is zero direct-
current resistance in series with the collector terminal.

Q4. How to Bias a PNP Transistor?

Ans. Identify the base, collector and emitter terminals of your transistor. This information is
available in the device's data sheet Connect the emitter of the transistor to your positive supply
voltage. A common voltage for this sort of circuit is 12 Volts.
Connect one lead of a resistor to the base terminal, and connect the other lead of this resistor to
ground ("ground" in this circuit comes from the negative terminal of your power supply or battery).
This is called the base resistor. The appropriate value for this resistor depends on your particular
transistor and on your desired bias point. A good starting value for most circuits is 10 k-ohms.
 KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG
(An ISO-9001:2008 Certified & ‘A+’ Grade Accredited Institution by NAAC)

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
OBJECTIVE: To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.

Test setup:
S.No. Component Specification Quantity
1 Multimeter - 1
2 Resistance 1K,10K 5
3 IC Op-amp 741 1
4 Bread Board - 1
5 Connecting Wires Single core wire -
6 Regulated Power Supply - 1
7 CRO 30MHZ 1
8 Function generator 5MHZ 1

Theory:
An op-amp is a high gain, direct coupled linear amplifier choose response characteristics are
externally controlled by negative feedback from the output to input, op-amp has very high input
impedance, typically a few mega ohms and low output impedance, less than 100 ohm.
Op-amps can perform mathematical operations like summation, integration, differentiation,
logarithm, anti-logarithm etc and hence the name operational amplifier op-amps are also used as
video and audio amplifiers, oscillators and so on in the communication electronics, in
instrumentation and control, in medical electronics etc.

The Summing Amplifier

The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit based upon the standard Inverting Operational
Amplifier configuration that can be used for combining multiple inputs. We saw previously in the
inverting amplifier tutorial that the inverting amplifier has a single input voltage, (Vin) applied to the
inverting input terminal. If we add more input resistors to the input, each equal in value to the
original input resistor, Rin we end up with another operational amplifier circuit called a Summing
Amplifier, "summing inverter" or even a "voltage adder" circuit as shown below.

SUMMING AMPLIFIER
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Opamp Subtractor:

Ideally this amplifier (or any differential amplifier) is sensitive only to the difference in the two input
signals, and is completely insensitive to any common component of the two signals.If the two input
signals are the same, the output should be zero, ideally.

DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER

Procedure:

The Summing Amplifier

1. Apply two different signals (Sine/Square/ Triangular waveform) to the inputs 1 & 2.
2. Give the Input amplitude of 5V peak to peak & frequency of 1KHz.
3. Verify the output at pin 6 of the 741 Summer Circuit, by varying the input voltages.
4. Notice that the output is always equal to the sum of the two inputs.

The Difference Amplifier

1. Apply two different signals (Sine/Square/ Triangular waveform) to the inputs 1 & 2.
2. Give the Input amplitude of 5V peak to peak & frequency of 1KHz.
3. Verify the output at pin 6 of the 741 Summer Circuit, by varying the input voltages.
4. Notice that the output is always equal to the difference of the two inputs.

Result:-

Studied Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.

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Precautions:-
1. Make the connection according to circuit given in manual.
2. Check all the connections that they are according to the circuit.
3. Then switch on the power supply.
4. Perform practical carefully and note down the readings.
5. Switch off the power supply after the completion of experiment.

Viva voce Questions & Answers

Q.1 What is an OpAmp?

Ans. An Opamp is an amplifier, which can perform many operations like Amplifier, Subtrator,
Integrator, Differentiator etc.

Q.2 Mention any four characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier?

Ans. Characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier:
1. open loop voltage gain AOL = ∞ (infinity).
2. Input impedance Ri = ∞ (infinity).
3. out put impedance R0 = 0 (Zero).
4. Band Width BW = ∞ (infinity).
5. Zero offset R0 = 0 (Zero).

Q.3 The ramp voltage at the output of an op-amp integrator?

Ans. The ramp voltage at the output of an op-amp integrator or decreases at a linear rate.

Q.4 what is the difference between normal amplifier and operational amplifier?
Ans. To oversimplify it the "operational amplifier" was originally designed to perform mathematical
operations in electronic analog computers. The designer set the mathematical operation of each
amplifier by designing its feedback network. Some operations that could be done were: addition,
subtraction, constant multiplication/division, logarithm, exponentiation, variable
multiplication/division by combining logarithm-addition/subtraction-exponentiation, integration,
differentiation.
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EXPERIMENT NO.7

OBJECTIVE: -Introduction to digital electronics lab–Nomenclature of Digital ICs, specifications,

study of data sheet, concept of Vcc and ground, verification of truth tables of logic gates using TTL
ICs.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: -
S.No. Component Specification Quantity
1 Digital Trainer Kit 1
2 IC-7400 (NAND Gate) 1
3 IC-7402 (NOR Gate) 1
4 IC-7404 (NOT Gate) 1
5 IC-7408 (AND Gate) 1
6 IC-7432 (OR Gate) 1
7 IC-7486 (EX-OR Gate) 1
8 Connecting wires Single Core wire -

THEORY: -The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic
gates perform the basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion, Exclusive-
OR, Exclusive-NOR. Fig. below shows the circuit symbol, Boolean function, and truth. It is seen
from the Fig that each gate has one or two binary inputs, A and B, and one binary output, C. The
small circle on the output of the circuit symbols designates the logic complement. The AND, OR,
NAND, and NOR gates can be extended to have more than two inputs. A gate can be extended to
have multiple inputs if the binary operation it represents is commutative and associative.

Nomenclature of Digital ICs

These basic logic gates are implemented as small-scale integrated circuits (SSICs) or as part of more
complex medium scale (MSI) or very large-scale (VLSI) integrated circuits. Digital IC gates are
classified not only by their logic operation, but also the specific logic-circuit family to which they
belong. Each logic family has its own basic electronic circuit upon which more complex digital
circuits and functions are developed. The following logic families are the most frequently used.
TTL: Transistor-transistor logic
ECL: Emitter-coupled logic
MOS: Metal-oxide semiconductor
CMOS: Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
TTL and ECL are based upon bipolar transistors. TTL has a well-established popular among logic
families. ECL is used only in systems requiring high-speed operation. MOS and CMOS, are based on
field effect transistors. They are widely used in large scale integrated circuits because of their high
component density and relatively low power consumption.
CMOS logic consumes far less power than MOS logic. There are various commercial integrated
circuit chips available. TTL ICs are usually distinguished by numerical designation as the 5400 and
7400 series.
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ICs are classified by:

a. Logic Families
b. Number of logic gates in an IC
a. Logic Families and IC Series Designation

TTL Series Prefix CMOS Series Prefix

40 or
Standard TTL 74 Metal-gate CMOS
140

40 or
High-Speed TTL 74H Metal-gate CMOS
140

Low-Power TTL 74L Metal-gate, pin-compatible with TTL 74C

Silicon-gate, pin-compatible with TTL,

Schottky TTL 74S 74HC
high-speed

Si gate, high-speed, elect compatible with

Low-power Schottky TTL 74LS 74HCT
TTL

Advanced Schottky TTL 74AS ... ...

Advanced low-power Schottky

74ALS ... ...
TTL
b. IC Classification by Complexity (no. of gates) Complexity Number of Gates
Small-scale integration (SSI) Fewer than 12

Medium-scale integration (MSI) 12 to 99

Large-scale integration (LSI) 100 to 9999

Very large-scale integration (VLSI) 10,000 to 99,999

Ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) 100,000 or more

Logical Symbols and Truth Table:

OR GATE

The OR gate produces a HIGH output when any or all the inputs is HIGH. The abbreviation for this
gate is OR. When both inputs are LOW, the output is LOW.
The standard symbol for an OR gate is shown in figure below along with the associated Truth Table.
The operation function sign for the OR gate is +
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SYMBOL & TRUTH TABLE 7432 - QUAD 2-INPUT OR GATE

OR-Gate Waveform

If you carefully observe the input and output signals of an OR gate, you will note that at T0, both
inputs are LOW and the output is LOW. At T1, A goes to HIGH and remains HIGH until T2. During
this time the output is HIGH. At time T2, A goes low and B is low so output is low. At T3, B goes
HIGH and but A is low so output is again high. At T4 both A and B are HIGH the output is HIGH.

AND GATE

The AND gate produces a HIGH output when all of the inputs are HIGH. Theabbreviation for this
gate is AND and the operation is denoted by a dot (.). When any inputs are LOW, the output is LOW.
The standard symbol for an AND gate is shown in figure below along with the associated Truth
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Table.

SYMBOL & TRUTH TABLE 7408 - QUAD 2-INPUT AND GATE

AND-Gate Waveform

On carefully observation the truth table of an AND gate, you will note that at T0, both inputs are
LOW and the output is LOW. At T1, A goes to HIGH but B is LOW so output goes high. At time
T2, A goes low and B is low so output is low. At T3, B goes HIGH and but A is low so output
remains LOW. At T4 both A and B are HIGH the output is HIGH.

NAND GATE

The NAND gate produces a LOW output when all the inputs are HIGH. The abbreviation for this
gate is NAND and is AND followed with NOT. When any inputs are LOW, the output is HIGH.
The standard symbol for a NAND gate is shown in figure below along with theassociated Truth
Table.
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SYMBOL & TRUTH TABLE 7400 - QUAD 2-INPUT NAND GATE

NAND-Gate Waveform
On observing the truth table of a NAND gate, you will note that at T0, both inputs are LOW and the
output is HIGH. At T1, A goes to HIGH but B is LOWso output goes HIGH. At time T2, A goes low
and B is low so output is HIGH. At T3, B goes HIGH and but A is low so output remains HIGH. At
T4 both A and B are HIGH the output is LOW.

NOR GATE

The NOR gate produces a HIGH output when all of the inputs is LOW. When any or all its inputs are
HIGH the output is LOW.
The standard symbol for an NOR gate is shown in figure below along with the associated Truth
Table. The operation function sign for the NOR gate is + inside a circle.
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SYMBOL & TRUTH TABLE 7402 - QUAD 2-INPUT NOR GATE

NOR-Gate Waveform
If you carefully observe the input and output signals of an NOR gate, you will note that at the output
is HIGH when all its input are LOW and the output is LOW when any or all inputs are HIGH

EXCLUSIVE OR GATE

The exclusive OR gate is a modified OR gate that produces a HIGH output when only one of the
inputs is HIGH. When both inputs are HIGH or when both inputs are LOW, the output is LOW.
standard symbol for an exclusive OR gate is shown in figure below along with the associated Truth .
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SYMBOL & TRUTH TABLE 7486 - QUAD 2-INPUT XOR GATE

XOR-Gate Waveform:
At T0, both inputs are LOW and the output is LOW.At T1, A goes to HIGH and remains HIGH until
T2, so during this time the output is HIGH. At T2, A goes LOW and B is already LOW so output is
LOW. At T3, B goes HIGH and remains HIGH through T5 but A is LOW so the output is HIGH. At
T4, both A and B are HIGH so the output goes LOW,

NOT GATE (7404): -The Simplest form of logic circuit is the INVERTER or NOT gate. It can
have one input and one output terminal. It is defined as, whenever input is high then output is low
and the vice-versa, or we can say that the inverter is a logic element whose output state is always
opposite of its input state. Schematic Symbol is shown.
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7404 - HEX INVERTER SYMBOL & TRUTH TABLE

PROCEDURE: -
• Make the connections as shown in the figure.
• Connect Pin No-7 to GND.
• Connect Pin No-14to Vcc.

RESULT: -Truth table of various logic function (OR, NOR, NOT, AND, NAND, EX-OR GATE)
are verified.
PRECAUTIONS: -
• All Connections should be according to circuit diagram.
• All Connections should be right and tight.
• Reading should be taken carefully.
• Switch off Power supply after completing the Experiment.

VIVA –VOCE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q-1 What is a logic gate?
Ans: Logic gate is a physical device implementing a Boolean function and performs logical operation
on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output.

Q-2 What are universal gates?

Ans: NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates as any type of logic gates

Q-3 What are Basic Gates

Ans: AND, OR, NOT are called basic gates.

Q.4 State De-Morgan’s theorem.

Ans:(i). The 1st theorem states that the complement of sum equals the product of complements. i.e.
(x+y)' = x'y'
(ii). The 2nd theorem states that the complement of the products equals the sum of complements.
i.e. (xy)' = x' + y'
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Q-5 What is the primary motivation for using Boolean algebra to simplify logic expressions?
Ans: (1) Boolean algebra reduces the number of inputs required.
(2) It will reduce number of gates.
(3) It makes easier to understand the overall function of the circuit.

Q-6 Which of the logical operations is represented by the + sign in Boolean algebra?
Ans: OR gate

Q-7 Which of the two-input logic gate can be used to implement an inverter circuit?
Ans: Ex-NOR gate

Q-8 Which are the logic gates whose all output entries are logic 1 except for one entry there is
Logic 0?
Ans: NAND and NOR gate

Q-9 TTL operates at (power rating)

Ans. 5-volt supply.

Q-10 When the output of a NOR gate is high?

Ans: If all the inputs are low
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EXPERIMENT NO. 8

OBJECTIVE: -Implementation of the given Boolean function using logic gates in both Sum of
Product and Product of Sum forms.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: -

S.No. Component Specification Quantity

1 Digital Trainer Kit 1
2 IC-7408 (AND Gate) 1
3 IC-7404 (NOT Gate) 1
4 IC-7432 (OR Gate) 1
5 Connecting wires Single Core wire -

THEORY: -To implement a Boolean function with lesser number of gates we have to minimize
literals (variables) and the number of terms. The Boolean variables are either in complemented or in
un-complemented form and the terms are arranged in one of the two standard forms of Boolean
functions.
Sum of product form (SOP)
Product of sum form (POS)

SUM OF PRODUCT FORM (SOP): -The sum of product form expression contains two or more
AND terms which are OR together. Each AND term (product term) consists of one or more variables
appearing either in complemented or in un-complemented form.
For example:
ABC+BC

SUM OF PRODUCT

PRODUCT OF SUM FORM (POS): -The product of sum form expression contains two or more
OR terms which are ANDed together to form POS expression. Each OR term contains one or more
variables appearing either in complemented or in un-complemented form.
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For example:
(A+B+C).(B+C)

PRODUCT OF SUM

OBSERVATION TABLE OF SOP: -

Input outputs
ABC BC ABC ABC+BC
000 0 0 0
001 1 0 1
010 0 0 0
011 0 0 0
100 0 0 0
101 1 0 1
110 0 1 1
111 0 0 0
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OBSERVATION TABLE OF POS: -

Input Outputs

ABC A+B+C B+C (A+B+C)+(B+C)

000 1 1 1

001 0 1 0

010 1 0 0

011 1 0 0

100 1 1 1

101 1 1 1

110 1 1 1

111 1 1 1

PROCEDURE: -
• Make the connections as shown in the figure.
• Connect Pin No-7 to GND.
• Connect Pin No-14to Vcc.

RESULT: -The observation table of SOP and POS is verified.

PRECAUTIONS: -
• All Connections should be according to circuit diagram.
• All Connections should be right and tight.
• Reading should be taken carefully.
• Switch off Power supply after completing the Experiment.

.
VIVA –VOCE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q.1 What are the various methods to simplify Boolean Expression?

Ans 1. Algebra simplification
2. Simplifications using Karnaugh maps.

Q.2 What is Boolean Algebra?

Ans. Boolean Algebra is a mathematical system of logical or Boolean variable & function relating
them.
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Q.3 Distinguish between sum of product and product of sum?

Ans. Sum of product (SOP) is a logic expression in the form of ANDed form terms ORed together
whereas product of sums (POS) is logic expression in the form of ORed terms ANDed together.

Q.4 What is minterm?

Ans. A term containing literals corresponding to all the variables in the ANDed form is known as a
minterm.

Q.5 What is maxterm?

Ans. A term containing literals corresponding to all the variables in the ORed form is known as a
maxterm.

Q.6. Distinguish between min terms and max terms

Ans. Distinguish between Minterms and Maxterms:
• Each individual term in standard Sum of Products form is called as minterm whereas
each individual term in standard Product of Sums form is called maxterm.
• The unbarred letter represents 1’s and the barred letter represent 0’s in min terms,
whereas the unbarred letter represents 0’s and the barred represent 1’s in maxterms.
• If a system has variables A, B, C then the minterms would be in the form ABC,
whereas the maxterm would be in the form A+B+C.

Q.7 Distinguish between combinational logic circuits and sequential logic circuits?
Ans. Combinational logic circuits: -
Outputs only depends upon present state of the input.(ii) No memory element present or no
feedback connection.
Sequential logic circuit: -
(i) Output not only depends on the present state of the input but also depend on the previous
state of the output.
(ii) Memory element is present or a feedback connection is there.

Q.8 Why logic gates are called as logic gates not Boolean gates?
Ans. Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital circuits or systems. These digital circuits are
used to implement several combinational and sequential operations. These operations include
storage, timing, arithmetic, coding, communication etc. Hence, implementing the Boolean
algebra is not the only purpose where logic gates are used, hence, it is opt to call them as logic
gates rather than Boolean gates.