GROUND WATER

CONTAMINATION AND
REMEDIATION

A SEMINAR REPORT

submitted by

AMALA SATHEESH
MZC20CE002

to

the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the award of the Degree

of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

Mount Zion Collage of Engineering

Kadammanitta

OCT 2023
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
MOUNT ZION COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
KADAMMANITTA
2023

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this seminar report entitled "GROUND WATER

CONTAMINATION AND REMEDIATION " is a bonafide report of the
work presented by AMALA SATHEESH, (MZC20CE002), towards the partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology
in Civil Engineering of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University during the
year 2023.

GUIDED BY SEMINAR COORDINATOR

Ms. LINCY ELSA VARUGHESE Ms JEENA JAMES
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Ms JEENA JAMES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To bring something into existence is truly the work of ALMIGHTY. First thank GOD
ALMIGHTY for making this venue a success. I express our gratitude to our Principal
Dr.Thomas George for providing the facilities for our studies and constant
encouragement in all achievements. At the outest I wish to place on record my sincere
thanks to quite a few people without whose help, this would not have been a success.
I would like to express my pro found gratitude to Head of the Department and
Seminar coordinator, Assistant Prof. Jeena James , for providing all facilities &
encouragement throughout the work I would also like to extend sincere thanks to our
seminar guide Ms. Lincy Elsa Varughese (Assistant Professor, Department of
Civil Engineering) . I also extend our sincere thanks to all the staff members of Civil
Department who guided me throughout the entire course.

AMALA SATHEESH

ABSTRACT

Groundwater contamination refers to the presence of pollutants or harmful substances

in underground water sources. These contaminants can come from various sources,
including industrial activities, agricultural runoff, leaking underground storage tanks,
and natural geological processes. Groundwater contamination poses risks to the
environment and human health. Groundwater remediation involves the process of
cleaning up contaminated groundwater to reduce or eliminate the presence of these
harmful substances. Remediation methods can vary widely depending on factors such
as the type of contaminants, site conditions, and regulatory requirements. Common
remediation techniques include pump-and-treat systems, in-situ bio remediation,
chemical oxidation, and permeable reactive barriers. Efforts to address groundwater
contamination typically include monitoring and assessment to understand the extent
and nature of the contamination, followed by the implementation of appropriate
remediation strategies. Sustainable management practices and adherence to regulatory
standards are crucial for protecting groundwater resources and ensuring safe drinking
water supplies.

ii

CONTENTS
Contents Page No.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF FIGURES iii
LIST OF TABLES iv
ABBREVIATIONS v
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 01
1.1 General 01
1.2 Objectives 03
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 04
2.1 General 04
2.2 Existing Literature 04
Chapter 3 GROUND WATER 06
3.1 General 06
3.2 Importance of ground water 06
3.2.1 Drinking water supply 06
3.2.2 Agriculture and irrigation 07
3.2.3 Industrial use 08
3.2.4 Ecosystem support 08
3.2.5 Natural springs and wells 09
3.2.6 Drought resilience 10
3.2.7 Climate change adaptation 10
Chapter 4. GROUND WATER CONTAMINANTS 12
4.1 General 12
4.2 Source of Groundwater Contamination 13
4.2.1 Industrial chemical spills 13
4.2.2 Badly managed Landfills 14
4.2.3 Extensive use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers 15
4.2.4 Drainage of house hold chemicals 16
.Chapter 5. TYPES OF CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATER 17
5.1 General 17

5.2 Types 17
5.2.1 Trichloroethylene (TCE) 17
5.2.2 Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) 19
 5.2.3 Ethylene Dichlor-ide & Chloroform (EDC) 20
5.2.4 Dense Non Aqueous Phase Liquids(DNAPL) 21
5.2.5 Light Non Aqueous Phase Liquids. (LNAPL) 22
5.2.6 Ammonia 23
Chapter 6. GROUND WATER REMEDIATION 25
6.1 General 25
6.2 Ex- Situ Technology 25
6.2.1 Stream stripping 26
6.2.2 Oxygen Sparging 27
6.2.3 Bioremediation 28
6.2.4 Carbon Adsorption 29
6.3 In-Situ Technology 29
6.3.1 Air Sparging 30
6.3.2 Phythoremediation 31
6.3.3 Thermal Treatment 32
6.3.4 In-well air stripping 33
6.3.5 Chemical Oxidation 33
Chapter 7. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION 35
7.1 General Review 35
Chapter 8.CONCLUSION 36
Chapter 9. REFERENCES 37

LISTOFFIGURES
No. Title Page No.
5.1.1 Trichloroethylene (TCE) 18
5.1.2 Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) 20
5.1.3 Ethylene Dichlor-ide & Chloroform (EDC) 21
5.1.4 Dense Non Aqueous Phase Liquids(DNAPL) 22
5.1.5 Light Non Aqueous Phase Liquids. (LNAPL) 23
5.1.6 Ammonia 24
 ii
i

LISTOFTABLES
No. Title Page No.
5.1 Tyipical Groundwater Contaminants And 17
Their Treatment Options
 i
v

ABBREVIATIONS
DNAPL Dense Non Aqueous Phase Liquids LNAPL
Light Non Aqueous Phase Liquids.
MTBE Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether
TCE Trichloroethylene VOCs
Volatile organic compounds
v
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Water covers over 70% of the earth surface and is undoubtedly the most precious
natural resource that exists on the earth. Without the seemingly invaluable compound
comprised of hydrogen and oxygen, life on the earth would be non-existent. Water is a
key ingredient surporting food production, sanitation and rural livelihoods, as well as
ensuring continuity and functioning of ecosystem. It dictates the pace of settlement
and agricultural and industrial development of any society and even in recent time,
establishment of any human settlement is usually centered on available source of
water supply and in modern time, issue of water has equally taken prominences in
global matters.
The distribution of world’s water indicates that only 2.5% and 97.5% constitute fresh
water and saline water respectively. 2.5% of the world’s freshwater, surface water and
groundwater have 0.4% and 30.1% representations respectively Most of the
freshwater is locked up in ice caps at the Polar region. The distribution of world’s
water skewed towards saline water dominance which placed restriction on its
availability for humans, agriculture and industrial uses. Furthermore, more
exacerbating was the rapid rise in world’s population that rose to 7.6 billion. At the
beginning of the nineteenth century, the total world population crossed the threshold
of 1 billion people for the first time in the history of the Homo sapiens. Since then,
growth rates have been increasing exponentially, reaching staggeringly high peaks in
the 20th century and slowing down a bit thereafter. The total world population reached
7 billion just after 2010 and is expected to count 9 billion by 2045 . This population
growth revealed unprecedented increase in the last 200 years as it took over 200,000
years of human history for the world’s population to reach 1 billion and only 200
years to reach 7 billion. The increase in population and its attendant problems
(depletion of natural resources, environmental degradation, conflicts and wars, lack of
adequate food, water, shelter, education and employment, high cost of living and
increase in anthropogenic activities) have placed stress on the available global fresh
water leading to water crisis in the world. The “looming water crisis” is becoming a
major issue on the world agenda for the twenty-first century. The World Water
Council presented the “World Water Vision” during the Second World Water Forum
and Ministerial Conference at The Hague in March 2000 . The Vision reported that 1.2
1
billion people or one fifth of the world population do not have access to safe drinking
water, while half of the world population lack adequate sanitation. The Vision further
states that rapidly growing cities, burgeoning industries and rapidly rising use of
chemicals in agriculture have undermined the quality of many rivers, lakes, aquifers
and also emphasized that the impacts of agriculture on water quality are less visible
over time but at least as dangerous as industrial because many of the fertilizers,
pesticides and herbicides used to improve agricultural productivity slowly accumulate
in groundwater aquifers and natural ecosystems.
The term quality of groundwater refers to its physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics as they relate to the intended use of water. Groundwater quality is
threatened mainly by human activities, although harmful substances are sometimes
introduced by natural processes. Sustainable groundwater management must be based
not only on prevention of the over exploitation of groundwater resources but also on
prevention of contamination because unlike treatment at the point of use, prevention
protects all of the resource. However, economic activities (primary activities) which
produce commodities (mining, agriculture) and secondary or industrial activities
(energy production, manufacturing, building, etc.) in addition to services (including
transport) and households activities result into generation of enormous waste products
which threatens the environment and leads to increasing groundwater pollution.
Understanding the physical environment of groundwater is important in its pollution
evaluation. Groundwater is the great "unseen" salient element of the hydrologic cycle.
Because it is out of sight it is frequently out of mind . The groundwater regime is a
dynamic system in which water is continuously in motion. In a typical groundwater
system this movement occurs through extensive heterogeneous material via an
interconnected geological framework. Out of the water entering the ground reservoirs,
some will rise in the form of springs or move downstream until it reaches a lake or the
ocean where it is again evaporated. In the course of the various processes of
infiltration and the contribution of river and drainage systems to the base-flow, natural
water-rock interactions ensue apart from anthropogenic activities that can introduce
pollutant into the groundwater system .
1.2 OBJECTIVES
 To study about the contamination of ground water. The objectives of this study
helps to create awareness and understanding, prevention and mitigation,
2
 protection of human health, environmental protection, sustainable water
management, policy development, and technological advancements.
 To study the remedies to prevent groundwater contamination. The benefits of
studying remedies to prevent groundwater contamination include reduced risk of
contamination, cost savings, improved water quality, protection of human health,
environmental preservation, promotion of sustainable water management,
informed policy development, and technological advancements.
 To study about the best preventive measure for groundwater contamination. It
help to minimizing the risk of contamination, saving money, ensuring clean water,
protecting human health, preserving the environment, promoting sustainable
water management, developing informed policies, and advancing technology.

3
 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
This chapter deals with the articles and journals related to the ground water
contamination and remediation.

2.2 EXISTING LITERATURE

Batool M.A. M. S. Al-Azawi (2020): "Groundwater Contamination This concept
has been developed from the vulnerability of groundwater, which is therefore the most
important part of the assessment of the risks of groundwater contamination. Generally,
groundwater pollution studies include the scientific understanding of biological,
chemical and physical processes which control contaminants fate and movement in
the underground environment. High chemical concentration in drinking water can
pose a health hazard. Protection measures are actually simpler and less costly than
corrective measures for groundwater contamination. The choice of appropriate
therapeutic technique depends on site-specific factors and often takes into account
clean-up goals based on human health and environmental protection.
Krishnakumari, B. Gayathri, C.Dhivya , K. Abarna (2018):"Remediation of
contaminated ground water. Groundwater contamination is extremely difficult to
clean it up. There are groundwater contamination issues that potentially affect public
water supplies over a large area. It will cause serious health issues to people due to
contamination. In recent years, the increasing threat to groundwater quality due to the
activities of human has become a matter of great concern. Rapid urbanization and
industrialisation in India has resulted in the increase of generation of wastes. Due to
the lack of adequate resources and infrastructure the waste is not properly collected
disposed and treated that leads to the accumulation causing groundwater
contamination. Remediation is the only way to clean up the contamination
groundwater and soil. A variety of techniques for environmental remediation have
been compiled and summarized. The paper is intended to provide an overview of
remediation methods currently utilized at various hazardous waste sites.
David C. Mays and Timothy D. Scheib (2018):"Groundwater Contamination,

4
SubsurfaceProcesses, and Remediation Methods:Overview of the Special Issue of
Water onGroundwater Contaminationand Remediation'.This special issue of
Water brings together ten studies on groundwater contaminationand remediation.
Common themes include practical techniques for plume identification and delineation,
the central role of subsurface processes, the pervasiveness of non-Fickian
transport,and the importance of bacterial communities in the broader context of
biogeochemistry.

5
 CHAPTER 3 GROUND WATER
3.1 GENERAL
Groundwater is the water that is stored beneath the Earth's surface in the spaces
between rocks, soil particles, and underground geological formations. It forms when
rainwater or surface water percolates down through the soil and rock layers until it
reaches a level where the spaces are saturated with water. This saturated zone is
known as the water table.Groundwater can be found at various depths, from shallow
aquifers just below the surface to deep underground reservoirs. It serves as a natural
storage of freshwater and plays a vital role in sustaining ecosystems, providing
drinking water for communities, and supporting agriculture through wells and
springs.Accessing groundwater typically involves drilling wells into the aquifers to
extract the water for various uses, including drinking, irrigation, and industrial
processes. Proper management and conservation of groundwater are crucial to ensure
its sustainability and to prevent over- extraction or contamination, which can have
significant environmental and societal consequences.

3.2 IMPORTANCE OF GROUND WATER

3.2.1 Drinking water supply
Groundwater is a vital source of drinking water for many communities worldwide. It
is often preferred over surface water sources due to its cleanliness and reliability.
Accessing groundwater for drinking water involves drilling wells, treating the water,
and distributing it to consumers.The first step in accessing groundwater is drilling
wells into aquifers, which are underground layers of rock or sediment that hold water.
The depth and quality of the aquifer determine whether shallow or deep wells are
needed. Shallow wells are suitable when the water table is close to the surface, while
deep wells are necessary in regions with deeper aquifers.Once the water is pumped to
the surface, it undergoes treatment processes to remove contaminants and impurities.
Filtration is a common method used to remove suspended particles and sediment from
the water. This can be done through physical filtration or chemical processes such as
coagulation and flocculation.After filtration, disinfection is carried out to eliminate
harmful microorganisms present in the water. Chlorine or other disinfectants are
commonly added to kill bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Alternative methods like
ultraviolet (UV) radiation or ozonation can also be used for disinfection.In some

6
cases, additional treatment processes may be necessary to address specific water
quality issues. For example, ion exchange can be employed to remove heavy metals or
excess minerals from the water. Reverse osmosis can be used to remove dissolved
solids and improve taste and odor.Once treated, the water is distributed to consumers
through a network of pipes and storage facilities. It is crucial to manage groundwater
usage sustainably by monitoring and regulating its usage to prevent over-pumping and
depletion of aquifers. Implementing water conservation measures and protecting
groundwater sources from pollution are also essential for maintaining a sustainable
drinking water supply.

3.2.2 Agriculture and irrigation

Agriculture and irrigation are major users of groundwater resources. Groundwater is
often used for irrigation purposes due to its reliability and availability. It provides a
consistent water supply for crop cultivation, especially in areas where surface water
sources may be limited or unreliable.To utilize groundwater for agriculture, wells are
drilled into aquifers, similar to accessing groundwater for drinking water. The depth
and quality of the aquifer determine the type of well needed. Shallow wells are
suitable for areas with a high water table, while deep wells are required in regions
with deeper aquifers.Once the groundwater is pumped to the surface, it is used for
irrigation purposes. Various methods of irrigation can be employed, including
traditional flood irrigation, sprinkler systems, or drip irrigation. These methods
distribute water directly to the crops, ensuring efficient water usage and minimizing
wastage.However, it is crucial to manage groundwater resources sustainably in
agriculture and irrigation practices. Over-pumping of groundwater can lead to the
depletion of aquifers, causing long-term damage to the water supply. Therefore, it is
important to monitor and regulate groundwater usage, implement water conservation
measures, and promote efficient irrigation techniques.Additionally, agriculture can
contribute to groundwater pollution through the use of fertilizers and pesticides. These
chemicals can infiltrate the soil and contaminate the groundwater. Proper management
practices, such as using organic fertilizers and adopting integrated pest management
strategies, can help minimize the impact of agricultural activities on groundwater
quality.

7
3.2.3 Industrial use
Industrial use of groundwater is another major sector that relies on this resource.
Many industries, such as manufacturing, mining, and power generation, require large
amounts of water for their operations. Groundwater is often used due to its availability
and reliability.Similar to agriculture, industries access groundwater by drilling wells
into aquifers. The depth and quality of the aquifer determine the type of well needed.
Industries may require deep wells to access water from deeper aquifers or shallow
wells in areas with a high water table.Once the groundwater is pumped to the surface,
it is used for various industrial processes. It can be used for cooling machinery, as a
raw material in manufacturing processes, or for cleaning and rinsing purposes.
Groundwater is also used in power plants for steam generation and cooling towers.
However, industrial use of groundwater can have significant impacts on the resource.
Over-pumping can lead to the depletion of aquifers, causing long-term damage to the
water supply not only for industries but also for other users. It is crucial to monitor
and regulate groundwater usage in industrial sectors to prevent over-extraction.
Industrial activities can also contribute to groundwater pollution. Chemicals used in
manufacturing processes, such as solvents and heavy metals, can infiltrate the soil and
contaminate the groundwater. Proper management practices, including implementing
pollution prevention measures and treating wastewater before disposal, are essential to
protect groundwater quality. In some cases, industries may be required to obtain
permits or licenses for their groundwater use and implement monitoring and reporting
systems to ensure compliance with regulations. This helps in managing and
conserving groundwater resources for sustainable industrial development.

3.2.4 Ecosystem support

Groundwater plays a crucial role in supporting ecosystems by providing a source of
water for plants, animals, and microorganisms. It helps maintain wetlands, streams,
and rivers, which are essential habitats for many species.One of the key ways
groundwater supports ecosystems is through baseflow. Baseflow refers to the
continuous flow of water from aquifers into surface water bodies. During dry periods
or droughts, when surface water sources may be depleted, groundwater can continue
to provide a steady supply of water to support aquatic ecosystems.Groundwater also
helps maintain water levels in wetlands and provides a source of water for vegetation
in these areas. Wetlands are important ecosystems that provide habitat for a wide
8
variety of plants and animals, including migratory birds and endangered species.
Groundwater helps ensure the stability and health of these wetland ecosystems by
providing a constant supply of water.In addition to providing water, groundwater also
contributes to the overall health of ecosystems through nutrient cycling. As
groundwater flows through the soil and rocks, it picks up nutrients such as nitrogen
and phosphorus. These nutrients are then released into surface water bodies through
springs and seeps, providing essential nutrients for aquatic plants and
animals.Furthermore, groundwater can also act as a buffer against extreme
temperature fluctuations. During hot summer months, groundwater can help cool
down streams and rivers, providing a more stable and suitable environment for aquatic
organisms.However, it is important to note that excessive pumping of groundwater
can have negative impacts on ecosystems. Over-pumping can lower water tables,
leading to the drying up of wetlands and streams. This can result in the loss of habitat
for many species and disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems.Contamination of
groundwater through industrial activities or improper waste disposal can also have
detrimental effects on ecosystems. Pollutants can infiltrate the groundwater and then
be transported to surface water bodies, causing harm to aquatic life and disrupting the
overall ecosystem functioning. Therefore, sustainable management practices that
prioritize the protection and conservation of groundwater are essential for maintaining
the ecosystem support provided by this resource. This includes implementing
regulations and monitoring systems to prevent over-extraction and pollution, as well
as promoting responsible water use in industrial and agricultural sectors.

3.2.5 Natural springs and wells

Natural springs and wells are important sources of groundwater. Springs occur where
groundwater naturally flows to the surface, creating a constant flow of water. Wells,
on the other hand, are man-made structures that tap into underground aquifers to
access groundwater.Springs are formed when groundwater reaches the surface through
cracks or openings in the Earth's surface. The water that emerges from springs is
typically clear and cold, as it has been naturally filtered and purified as it percolates
through layers of soil and rock.Wells are drilled or dug deep into the ground to access
groundwater stored in aquifers. Aquifers are underground layers of permeable rock or
sediment that hold and transmit water. Wells are equipped with pumps to extract water
from the aquifer and bring it to the surface.Both springs and wells can provide a
9
reliable and consistent supply of water during periods of drought. The water stored in
underground aquifers is not as easily affected by drought conditions as surface water
sources, which can dry up or become limited during extended dry spells.It is
important to note that the sustainability of groundwater sources depends on
responsible management and conservation practices. Overpumping or excessive use of
groundwater can deplete aquifers, leading to long-term water shortages and land
subsidence. Therefore, it is crucial to carefully monitor and manage groundwater
resources to ensure their long-term availability.

3.2.6 Drought resilience

Groundwater sources, such as natural springs and wells, provide a reliable water
supply during periods of drought. Unlike surface water sources, which can dry up or
become limited during drought conditions, groundwater is stored in underground
aquifers and can continue to be accessed even when surface water is scarce.The
sustainability of groundwater sources during drought is due to the slow movement of
water through the subsurface. As water percolates through layers of soil and rock, it is
naturally filtered and purified, resulting in high-quality water in springs and wells.
This natural filtration process helps remove impurities and contaminants, ensuring
that the water remains safe to drink.Additionally, groundwater sources are less
vulnerable to pollution and contamination compared to surface water sources. The
water is protected by layers of soil and rock, making it less likely to be affected by
surface pollutants or human activities. This makes groundwater a more reliable and
resilient source of water during drought conditions.Understanding the characteristics
and formation of groundwater sources is crucial in building resilience to drought and
ensuring access to clean and reliable water supplies. By protecting and managing
these valuable resources, we can better prepare for and mitigate the impacts of
drought on our water systems.

3.2.7 Climate change adaptation

Climate change poses significant challenges to groundwater resources and their role in
supporting ecosystems. Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns can
affect the recharge of groundwater, leading to decreased availability in some areas.
This can have detrimental effects on ecosystems that rely on groundwater for their
water supply.In regions where groundwater levels are already declining due to
overextraction or other factors, climate change can exacerbate this issue and further
10
stress ecosystems. Reduced groundwater availability can lead to the drying up of
springs and wells, which in turn can disrupt the unique habitats and microclimates
they support.Furthermore, climate change can alter the quality of groundwater.
Increased temperatures can accelerate chemical reactions and the release of
contaminants, affecting the suitability of groundwater for both humans and
ecosystems. Changes in precipitation patterns can also lead to increased runoff and the
transport of pollutants into groundwater sources.Adapting to these challenges requires
a multifaceted approach. Sustainable management practices, such as implementing
groundwater recharge techniques and promoting water conservation, can help
maintain or restore groundwater levels. Protecting and restoring natural areas that
serve as recharge zones for groundwater can also contribute to its
sustainability.Additionally, monitoring and assessing the impacts of climate change on
groundwater resources is crucial for effective adaptation. This includes studying
changes in groundwater levels, quality, and recharge rates, as well as understanding
the potential impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity.Overall, adapting to climate
change in relation to groundwater requires a combination of sustainable management
practices, protection of natural areas, and ongoing research and monitoring. By
ensuring the availability and quality of groundwater, we can support ecosystems and
their biodiversity in the face of a changing climate.

CHAPTER 4 GROUND WATER

CONTAMINANTS
4.1 GENERAL
Groundwater pollution or contamination occurs when pollutants are released to the
ground and make their way into groundwater. This type of water pollution can also
occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant,
or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as
contamination rather than pollution. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site
sanitation systems, landfill leachate, effluent from wastewater treatment plants,
leaking sewers, petrol filling stations, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) or from over
application of fertilizers in agriculture. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur
from naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride.Using polluted
groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the spread of

11
disease (water-borne diseases).The pollutant often creates a contaminant plume within
an aquifer. Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant
over a wider area. Its advancing boundary, often called a plume edge, can intersect
with groundwater wells and surface water, such as seeps and springs, making the
water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. The movement of the plume, called a
plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater
model. Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on soil characteristics and site
geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Different
mechanisms have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g. diffusion, adsorption,
precipitation, decay, in the groundwater.The interaction of groundwater contamination
with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models. Interactions
between groundwater and surface water are complex. For example, many rivers and
lakes are fed by groundwater. This means that damage to groundwater aquifers e.g. by
fracking or over abstraction, could therefore affect the rivers and lakes that rely on it.
Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers is an example of such interactions. Prevention
methods include: applying the precautionary principle, groundwater quality
monitoring, land zoning for groundwater protection, locating on site sanitation
systems correctly and applying legislation. When pollution has occurred, management
approaches include point-of-use water treatment, groundwater remediation, or as a last
resort, abandonment.

4.2 SOURCE OF GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION

4.2.1 Industrial chemical spills
Industrial chemical spills have the potential to cause severe groundwater
contamination, posing risks to human health, ecosystems, and water resources.
Accidental releases or improper handling of hazardous chemicals can result in
pollutant migration through the soil and into underground aquifers, leading to
longterm contamination issues.Industrial chemical spills can occur in various
industrial settings, such as manufacturing plants, storage facilities, or transportation
accidents. Spills can involve a wide range of hazardous substances, including toxic
chemicals, petroleum products, solvents, heavy metals, and other industrial
pollutants.When chemical spills occur on land, the pollutants can penetrate the soil,
reaching the unsaturated zone and potentially infiltrating the groundwater. Absorption,

12
infiltration, and percolation processes can transport contaminants through the soil
matrix, leading to the downward movement and eventual contamination of
groundwater resources.Groundwater contamination from industrial chemical spills
poses significant risks to human health. Drinking water wells located near
contaminated areas can become sources of exposure to toxic substances, potentially
causing acute or chronic health issues. Ecosystems, including surface water bodies
and aquatic habitats, can also be affected by contaminated groundwater, leading to
adverse impacts on wildlife and habitats.Cleaning up groundwater contamination
resulting from industrial chemical spills can be challenging and costly. Remediation
methods may include the extraction and treatment of contaminated groundwater,
installation of containment systems, and sometimes the implementation of in-situ
remediation techniques to restore the affected aquifers. Preventing industrial chemical
spills is of utmost importance. Adequate storage, handling, and transport practices, as
well as spill prevention measures, can minimize the occurrence of spills. Well-
developed emergency response plans help mitigate the impacts of accidental spills,
ensuring quick response, containment, and cleanup to prevent the pollutants from
reaching groundwater sources. Governments and environmental agencies enforce
regulations and guidelines that require industries to adhere to stringent standards for
the handling, storage, and disposal of hazardous substances. Compliance with these
regulations, regular inspections, and thorough reporting help safeguard against
industrial chemical spills and reduce the risk of groundwater contamination.

4.2.2 Badly managed landfills

Improper management of landfills can have severe consequences on groundwater
quality, leading to contamination and potential risks to human health and the
environment. Landfills are sites where solid waste is disposed of, and if they are not
adequately designed, operated, or monitored, pollutants can infiltrate the soil and
contaminate groundwater sources. Landfills produce leachate, a highly contaminated
liquid that forms as rainwater percolates through the waste and extracts various
chemicals and pollutants. If landfills are poorly managed, leachate can seep into the
surrounding soil, potentially reaching groundwater sources. Once leachate reaches the
groundwater, it can transport a variety of contaminants, such as heavy metals, organic
compounds, pathogens, and nutrients. These substances can adversely affect water
quality and pose risks to human health if consumed through contaminated drinking
13
water sources. Groundwater contamination from badly managed landfills can
jeopardize drinking water supplies. If nearby groundwater wells draw from
contaminated aquifers, the pollutants can enter the drinking water distribution system,
posing significant health risks to communities. Groundwater contamination can have
far-reaching impacts on ecosystems. The release of pollutants can harm aquatic life,
disrupt food chains, and damage critical habitats. In addition, the contaminated
groundwater can reach surface water bodies through seeps and streams, further
exacerbating the ecological consequences. Addressing groundwater contamination
from badly managed landfills poses significant challenges. Remediation efforts often
require complex and costly techniques, such as pumping and treating contaminated
groundwater, installing remediation systems, or implementing engineered barriers to
prevent further contamination.Proper landfill design, construction, operation, and
closure practices are essential to mitigate groundwater contamination risks. This
includes the use of impermeable liners, leachate collection systems, and monitoring
programs to detect and address potential leaks or pollution in a timely manner.
Regular inspections, maintenance, and proper closure and post-closure management
help minimize the long-term risks associated with landfills. Governments and
environmental agencies enforce regulations and guidelines to ensure proper landfill
management and prevent groundwater contamination. Compliance with these
regulations, as well as regular monitoring and reporting, is necessary to protect
groundwater resources and public health.

4.2.3 Extensive use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers

The extensive use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers in agriculture, landscaping,
and other sectors can contribute to groundwater contamination. These chemicals are
designed to enhance crop growth, control pests, and manage weeds, but without
proper management, they can infiltrate the soil, enter groundwater sources, and pose
risks to human health and the environment.Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers are
extensively used in modern agricultural practices to boost crop yields. However,
excessive or improper application, as well as leaching and runoff, can result in the
movement of these chemicals into groundwater. When pesticides, herbicides, and
fertilizers are applied in excess or during inappropriate weather conditions, they can
leach into the soil and percolate through to the underlying groundwater. Similarly,
runoff from agricultural lands, gardens, and landscaped areas can carry these
14
chemicals into nearby surface water bodies, eventually reaching groundwater sources.
Some pesticides and herbicides are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs),
meaning they have long degradation times and can persist in the environment.
Examples of these include certain organochlorine compounds, such as DDT, which
are known for their persistence and potential to bioaccumulate. The presence of
pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers in groundwater can pose significant health risks.
Drinking water supplies drawn from contaminated wells or aquifers can expose
individuals to these chemicals, potentially leading to acute or chronic health effects,
including developmental and reproductive issues, neurological disorders, and even
cancer. Groundwater contamination from the use of these chemicals can have
detrimental effects on ecosystems. Aquatic organisms, including fish, amphibians, and
invertebrates, may be particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of pesticides and
herbicides. These chemicals can disrupt aquatic ecosystems and impact biodiversity,
compromising the health of sensitive species. Implementing best management
practices in agriculture and landscaping is essential to minimize potential groundwater
contamination. These practices may include precision farming techniques, careful
calibration and timing of chemical applications, integrated pest management
strategies, and effective erosion control measures to reduce runoff.

4.2.4 Drainage of house hold chemicals

The drainage of household chemicals into groundwater can lead to serious
contamination issues. This occurs when chemicals from various household products,
such as cleaning agents, pesticides, fertilizers, and automotive fluids, enter the
groundwater system through improper disposal methods or accidental spills.
Groundwater is the water that permeates through the soil and accumulates in
underground aquifers, which are a vital source of drinking water for many
communities. When household chemicals infiltrate the groundwater, they can pose a
significant risk to human health, as well as the environment. The main sources of
household chemical contamination in groundwater include improper disposal
practices, leaking storage tanks or containers, spills during transportation, and
accidents. These chemicals can seep into the ground, eventually reaching the
groundwater system. A wide range of chemicals found in household products can
contaminate groundwater. Some common examples include solvents (e.g., paint
thinners), pesticides (e.g., insecticides, herbicides), herbicides (e.g., weed killers),
15
fertilizers (e.g., nitrogen-based compounds), cleaning agents (e.g., bleach, detergents),
petroleum-based products (e.g., gasoline, motor oil), and heavy metals (e.g., lead,
mercury).Once these chemicals enter the groundwater system, their fate depends on
various factors such as their chemical properties, the characteristics of the soil and
aquifer, and the distance to groundwater sources. Some chemicals may travel
relatively quickly through the soil, while others may be adsorbed or degraded along
the way.Contamination of groundwater by household chemicals can have severe
consequences. Consuming contaminated groundwater can lead to acute or chronic
health effects, including gastrointestinal problems, liver and kidney damage,
respiratory issues, and even cancer in some cases. Additionally, household chemical
contamination can harm aquatic ecosystems, affecting plants, animals, and
microorganisms that rely on the groundwater. To prevent or reduce contamination of
groundwater from household chemicals, proper disposal practices are essential. This
includes following guidelines for hazardous waste disposal, recycling used products
whenever possible, and utilizing designated disposal centers or collection events for
specific chemicals. Spills and accidents should be promptly reported and cleaned up
to minimize the impact on groundwater.

CHAPTER 5 TYPES
OFCONTAMINATION
OFGROUND WATER
5.1 GENERAL
This chapter focuses on the types of contamination of ground water.

5.2 TYPES
Table 5.2 : Tyipical Groundwater Contaminants And Their Treatment Options

Contaminant Main Source Treatment Technology

Trichloroethylene Degreasing of Metal •Pump and Treat
(TCE) and Electronic parts, •Activated Carbon
Extract for oil and •Thermal and Biological
waxes, fumigant, carries
in paints and adhesives
Methyl tert-butyl MTBE can be released •Air Sparging
ether (MTBE) to groundwater by •In-Situ oxidation
leaking underground ( H2O2 and Fe)
storage tanks and •Bioremediation/Bioaugmentation
piping, atmospheric •Pump and Treat.
16
 deposition, spills during
transportation, and leaks
at refineries
Ethylene Dichloride & From EDC and VCM In-situ Bioremediation.
chloroform (EDC) Plants, storage tanks,
Dense Non aqueous pipelines etc.
liquids (DNAPL)
Gasoline (Light non Gasoline and other •In-situ Bioremediation
aqueous phase petroleum fuels tanks, •Vapor extraction
liquids ) (LNAPL petrol stations, storage
tanks and pipelines.
Ammonia Ammonia Storage •Pump and Treat
Tanks, Landfill leaks, •Combination of Air Stripping,
Waste stockpile, etc. Nitrification, Ion Exchange.
5.2.1 Trichloroethylene (TCE)
Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a chemical compound that is commonly found in ground
water as a result of industrial activities, such as manufacturing and metal degreasing.
TCE contamination in ground water can have serious health effects on humans and
the environment.Exposure to TCE through contaminated drinking water can lead to
various health issues. Short-term exposure to high levels of TCE can cause dizziness,
headaches, confusion, and respiratory irritation. Long-term exposure to lower levels
of TCE has been linked to more serious health problems, including liver and kidney
damage, nervous system disorders, and an increased risk of certain types of cancer,
such as kidney and liver cancer. Pregnant women who are exposed to TCE may also
experience adverse effects on fetal development.The main cause of TCE
contamination in ground water is improper handling and disposal of industrial
chemicals. Leakage or spills from storage tanks, improper waste disposal practices,
and accidental releases during manufacturing processes are common sources of TCE
contamination. TCE is highly soluble in water, which means it can easily migrate
through soil and contaminate ground water sources.Preventing TCE contamination in
ground water requires strict adherence to proper handling and disposal practices.
Industrial facilities should implement measures to prevent leaks and spills, such as
regular inspection and maintenance of storage tanks and the use of containment
systems. Proper waste management procedures should be followed to ensure that TCE
and other hazardous chemicals are disposed of safely. Implementing monitoring
systems to detect any leaks or releases early on can also help prevent TCE

17
contamination.If TCE contamination is detected in ground water, remediation
techniques can be employed to reduce its concentration. Common remediation
methods include pump-and-treat systems, where contaminated water is pumped out of
the ground, treated to remove TCE, and then returned to the ground. Other techniques,
such as air stripping, activated carbon adsorption, and advanced oxidation processes,
can also be used to remove or reduce TCE concentrations. In conclusion, TCE
contamination in ground water poses significant risks to human health and the
environment. Preventive measures, such as proper handling and disposal practices,
along with prompt detection and remediation efforts, are essential in minimizing TCE
contamination and protecting ground water sources.

Fig 5.2.1 Trichloroethylene (TCE) [Shan Zaho 2022]

5.2.2 Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE)
Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) is a chemical compound that is commonly used as a
gasoline additive to increase octane ratings and reduce air pollution. However, it is
highly soluble in water and can easily contaminate ground water sources. This article
discusses the effects, causes, and prevention measures related to MTBE contamination
in ground water.MTBE contamination in ground water can have various effects on
human health. Exposure to MTBE through contaminated drinking water can lead to
gastrointestinal problems, liver and kidney damage, respiratory irritation, and an
increased risk of cancer, particularly bladder cancer. Additionally, MTBE
contamination can have detrimental effects on aquatic life and ecosystems. It can
impair the growth and reproduction of aquatic organisms and contaminate surface
water bodies, disrupting the overall balance of ecosystems.There are several causes of
MTBE contamination in ground water. Leaking underground storage tanks that
contain gasoline or gasoline-blended with MTBE can result in MTBE seeping into the
surrounding soil and eventually reaching ground water sources. Accidental spills or
leaks during transportation or handling of gasoline or gasoline-blended with MTBE

18
can also directly contaminate ground water. Improper disposal of gasoline or gasoline-
blended with MTBE, such as pouring it down drains or into the soil, can also
contribute to MTBE contamination in ground water.To prevent MTBE contamination
in ground water, several measures can be taken. Regular inspection and maintenance
of underground storage tanks are crucial to prevent leaks and spills. Implementing
leak detection systems can help identify any issues early on. Following strict protocols
for handling and transporting gasoline or gasoline-blended with MTBE can minimize
the chances of spills or leaks. The use of alternative fuel formulations that do not
contain MTBE, such as ethanol-blended gasoline, can reduce the risk of MTBE
contamination in ground water. Providing education and raising awareness among the
public, industry professionals, and policymakers about the risks and proper handling
of gasoline and MTBE can also help prevent contamination. In case of MTBE
contamination, various remediation techniques, such as air stripping, activated carbon
adsorption, and advanced oxidation processes, can be employed to remove or reduce
MTBE concentrations in ground water.In conclusion, MTBE contamination in ground
water can have significant adverse effects on human health and the environment.
Implementing preventive measures, such as proper storage and handling practices,
improved fuel formulations, and education, along with prompt remediation efforts, are
crucial in minimizing MTBE contamination and protecting ground water sources.

Fig 5.2.2 Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) [Worawit Intrchom 2022]

5.2.3 Ethylene Dichlor-ide & Chloroform (EDC)

Ethylene Dichlor-ide & Chloroform (EDC), can contaminate ground water through
various sources such as industrial activities, improper disposal, or leaks. EDC is
commonly used in the production of vinyl chloride, which is used to make PVC pipes

19
and other plastic products. Once EDC enters the ground water, it can persist for a long
time due to its low solubility and resistance to degradation.Exposure to
EDCcontaminated ground water can pose risks to human health and the environment.
Short-term exposure to high levels of EDC can cause symptoms such as dizziness,
headaches, nausea, and respiratory irritation. Long-term exposure to lower levels of
EDC has been associated with liver and kidney damage, as well as an increased risk of
certain types of cancer, including liver and bladder cancer.Remediation of EDC
contamination in ground water can be challenging due to its low solubility. Traditional
pump-and-treat systems, which involve extracting contaminated ground water and
treating it above ground, may not be effective in removing EDC. Advanced techniques
such as chemical oxidation, thermal treatment, or enhanced bioremediation may be
required to effectively remove or reduce the concentrations of EDC in ground
water.Preventing EDC contamination in ground water requires proper handling and
disposal practices in industrial activities that use or produce EDC. This includes
implementing appropriate containment measures, regular maintenance and inspection
of storage tanks and pipelines, and ensuring proper disposal of EDC-containing waste.
Regular monitoring and early detection of any leaks or releases are also important in
preventing EDC contamination of ground water sources.

Fig 5.2.3 Ethylene Dichlor-ide & Chloroform (EDC) [David.C 2018]

5.2.4 Dense Non Aqueous Phase Liquids(DNAPL)

Dense Non Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPLs) are another type of contaminant that
can be found in ground water. DNAPLs are organic compounds that have a higher
density than water, causing them to sink and accumulate in the subsurface.Common
examples of DNAPLs include chlorinated solvents like trichloroethylene (TCE) and
perchloroethylene (PCE), as well as coal tars and creosote. These compounds are
often used in industrial processes such as degreasing, dry cleaning, and metal
20
cleaning. DNAPL contamination can occur through spills, leaks, or improper disposal
practices. Once DNAPLs enter the ground water, they can create a persistent source of
contamination that is difficult to remove.Exposure to DNAPL contaminated ground
water can have serious health effects. Short-term exposure to high levels of DNAPLs
can cause symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, and skin irritation. Long-term
exposure to lower levels of DNAPLs has been associated with an increased risk of
cancer, as well as damage to the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system.
Remediation of DNAPL contamination in ground water is challenging due to the
complex behavior and properties of these substances. Traditional pump-and-treat
systems may not be effective in removing DNAPLs, as they tend to form separate
pools or residual saturation zones in the subsurface. Advanced techniques such as soil
vapor extraction, in situ chemical oxidation, and enhanced bioremediation may be
necessary to effectively treat DNAPL contaminated ground water.Preventing DNAPL
contamination in ground water requires implementing proper handling and disposal
practices in industrial activities that use or produce these substances. This includes
using containment measures such as double-walled storage tanks, regular inspection
and maintenance of equipment, and proper disposal of DNAPL containing waste. It is
also important to monitor and detect any leaks or releases early on to prevent DNAPL
contamination of ground water sources.

Fig 5.2.4 Dense Non Aqueous Phase Liquids(DNAPL) [David.C 2018]

5.2.5 Light Non Aqueous Phase Liquids. (LNAPL)

Light Non Aqueous Phase Liquids (LNAPLs) are another type of contaminant that can
be found in ground water. LNAPLs are organic compounds that have a lower density
than water, causing them to float and accumulate at the water table or on top of the
ground water.Common examples of LNAPLs include gasoline, diesel fuel, and oil.

21
These substances are often released from underground storage tanks, pipelines, or
industrial activities such as oil and gas production.LNAPL contamination can occur
through leaks, spills, or improper handling and storage practices. Once LNAPLs enter
the ground water, they can create a persistent source of contamination that can spread
and impact surrounding areas.Exposure to LNAPL-contaminated ground water can
have adverse health effects. Inhalation of volatile components from LNAPLs can cause
respiratory issues, while ingestion or dermal contact with contaminated water can lead
to gastrointestinal problems and skin irritation. Some components of LNAPLs, such as
benzene, are known carcinogens and can increase the risk of cancer with longterm
exposure.Remediation of LNAPL contamination in ground water can be challenging
due to the complex behavior and properties of these substances. Traditional pump-and-
treat systems may be effective in removing free-phase LNAPLs, but residual saturation
and dissolved phase contamination may require additional treatment methods such as
air sparging, biosparging, or chemical oxidation.Preventing LNAPL contamination in
ground water involves implementing proper handling, storage, and spill prevention
measures. This includes regular inspection and maintenance of storage tanks and
pipelines, using secondary containment systems, and promptly addressing any leaks or
spills. It is also important to monitor ground water quality near potential sources of
LNAPLs to detect and mitigate contamination early on.

Fig 5.2.5 Light Non Aqueous Phase Liquids. (LNAPL) [[David.C 2018]

5.2.6 Ammonia
Ammonia in ground water is another type of contaminant that can pose risks to human
health and the environment. Ammonia is a compound made up of nitrogen and
hydrogen atoms and is commonly found in fertilizers, animal waste, and industrial
processes.Ammonia contamination in ground water can occur through various

22
sources, including agricultural runoff, sewage treatment plants, and industrial
discharges. High levels of ammonia in ground water can indicate pollution from
nearby sources or improper waste management practices.Exposure to ammonia-
contaminated ground water can have adverse health effects. Ingesting or coming into
contact with water that contains high levels of ammonia can cause irritation and burns
to the skin, eyes, and respiratory system. Prolonged exposure to ammonia can also
lead to respiratory issues, digestive problems, and kidney damage.Remediation of
ammonia contamination in ground water typically involves treating the water to
remove or reduce the ammonia levels. This can be done through various methods,
such as activated carbon filtration, ion exchange, or biological treatment processes.
Additionally, addressing the source of ammonia contamination is crucial to prevent
further pollution of the ground water.Preventing ammonia contamination in ground
water requires proper management of agricultural activities, including responsible use
of fertilizers and proper disposal of animal waste. Industrial facilities should also
implement appropriate wastewater treatment processes to remove or reduce ammonia
levels before discharge. Regular onitoring of ground water quality near potential
sources of ammonia contamination is essential to detect and address any issues
promptly.

Fig 5.2.6 Ammonia [Li Meng 2021]

23
 CHAPTER 6 GROUND WATER
REMEDIATION
6.1 GENERAL
Groundwater remediation refers to the process of removing contaminants or pollutants
from groundwater sources. Groundwater is the water that is present beneath the
Earth's surface in saturated zones known as aquifers. It is a vital source of drinking
water for many communities and plays a crucial role in sustaining ecosystems.
However, due to human activities such as industrial processes, agriculture, and
improper waste disposal, groundwater can become contaminated with various
substances including heavy metals, pesticides, petroleum products, and solvents.
These contaminants pose a significant risk to human health and the environment.
Groundwater remediation aims to restore the quality of contaminated groundwater by
employing various techniques and technologies. The choice of remediation method
depends on factors such as the type and extent of contamination, site-specific
conditions, and regulatory requirements. Common groundwater remediation
techniques include pump-and-treat systems, where contaminated water is pumped to
the surface for treatment before being discharged back into the environment. Other
methods include in situ bio remediation, which involves stimulating the growth of
microorganisms that can naturally degrade contaminants, and chemical oxidation,
where chemicals are injected into the groundwater to break down pollutants. The
success of groundwater remediation efforts relies on thorough site characterization,
effective monitoring systems, and ongoing maintenance. It is a complex and
challenging process that requires careful planning, implementation, and evaluation to
ensure the long-term protection of groundwater resources. Overall, groundwater
remediation plays a vital role in safeguarding public health and protecting the
environment. By removing harmful contaminants from groundwater sources, it helps
ensure the availability of clean and safe drinking water for present and future
generations.

6.2 EX- SITU TECHNOLOGY

Ex situ groundwater remediation technologies refer to the methods that involve the
removal of contaminated groundwater from the subsurface for treatment at a separate
location. These technologies are typically used when the contamination is widespread

24
or when in situ techniques are not feasible or effective. One commonly used ex situ
technology is the pump-and-treat system. In this method, groundwater is extracted
from wells using pumps and transported to a treatment facility. At the facility, the
water undergoes various treatment processes, such as filtration, chemical treatment,
and biological degradation, to remove or reduce the concentration of contaminants.
Once treated, the water is either discharged back into the environment or reused for
non-potable purposes. Another ex situ technology is air stripping, which involves
exposing the contaminated groundwater to air in order to volatilize and remove
volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The contaminated water is pumped into a tower
or column where it comes into contact with air, allowing the VOCs to evaporate. The
vaporized contaminants are then collected and treated separately, while the treated
water is discharged or reused. Ex situ technologies also include various physical and
chemical treatment methods, such as activated carbon adsorption, ion exchange, and
membrane filtration. These methods involve the use of specific materials or
membranes to selectively remove contaminants from the groundwater. While ex situ
technologies can be effective in removing contaminants from groundwater, they often
require significant infrastructure and energy inputs. They may also generate waste
streams that need proper disposal or treatment. Therefore, careful consideration of
site-specific conditions and regulatory requirements is necessary when selecting and
implementing ex situ groundwater remediation technologies.

6.2.1 Stream stripping

Stream stripping is a type of ex situ groundwater remediation technology that involves
the use of air or steam to remove volatile contaminants from groundwater. It is
commonly used to treat groundwater contaminated with volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) such as gasoline, solvents, and industrial chemicals. In stream stripping,
contaminated groundwater is pumped into a specially designed treatment system,
typically a tower or column. The water is then evenly distributed over a packing
material or trays, allowing it to come into contact with a flowing stream of air or
steam. As the water flows downward through the tower, the volatile contaminants
transfer from the water phase to the gas phase due to the difference in vapor pressure.
The contaminated air or steam leaving the tower is then treated separately to remove
or destroy the VOCs. This can be done using techniques such as activated carbon
adsorption, thermal oxidation, or catalytic oxidation. The treated air is typically
25
discharged into the atmosphere, while the treated water is either discharged back into
the environment or reused. Stream stripping is an effective technology for removing
volatile contaminants from groundwater, as it takes advantage of the high vapor
pressure of these compounds. However, it requires careful design and operation to
ensure efficient mass transfer between the water and air/steam phases. Factors such as
temperature, air/steam flow rate, packing material, and residence time need to be
optimized to achieve effective removal of contaminants. Like other ex situ
groundwater remediation technologies, stream stripping may have infrastructure and
energy requirements. It may also generate waste streams that require proper treatment
or disposal. Therefore, site-specific conditions and regulatory considerations should
be taken into account when considering stream stripping as a remediation option.

6.2.2 Oxygen Sparging

Oxygen sparging is another ex situ groundwater remediation technology that involves
the injection of oxygen into contaminated groundwater to enhance the natural
degradation of organic contaminants. It is commonly used to treat groundwater
contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons, such as gasoline and diesel fuel. In
oxygen sparging, oxygen is introduced into the groundwater through a network of
wells or pipes installed in the contaminated area. The oxygen bubbles rise through the
groundwater, providing a source of dissolved oxygen for aerobic microorganisms.
These microorganisms then use the oxygen to break down the organic contaminants
into harmless byproducts, such as carbon dioxide and water. The effectiveness of
oxygen sparging depends on various factors, including the concentration and type of
contaminants, the availability of suitable microorganisms, and the distribution of
oxygen throughout the contaminated area. It may be necessary to monitor and adjust
the oxygen injection rates and locations to optimize the remediation process. Oxygen
sparging is generally considered a low-cost and environmentally friendly remediation
option, as it utilizes natural processes and does not require the use of chemicals.
However, it may not be suitable for all types of contaminants or site conditions. Other
factors, such as the presence of non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) or low
permeability soils, may affect the efficiency of oxygen sparging and may require
additional remediation techniques. As with stream stripping, site-specific conditions
and regulatory requirements should be considered when implementing oxygen
sparging as a groundwater remediation method. Monitoring and periodic evaluation of
26
the remediation progress are also important to ensure its effectiveness and to make
any necessary adjustments to the treatment approach.

6.2.3 Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a groundwater remediation technique that involves the use of
microorganisms to degrade or transform contaminants in the groundwater. It can be
used to treat a variety of organic and inorganic contaminants, including petroleum
hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, and heavy metals. In bioremediation, specific
microorganisms are introduced into the contaminated groundwater, either through
direct injection or by stimulating the growth of indigenous microorganisms already
present in the groundwater. These microorganisms break down the contaminants
through various metabolic processes, such as aerobic or anaerobic degradation,
bioaccumulation, or transformation into less toxic forms. The effectiveness of
bioremediation depends on several factors, including the type and concentration of
contaminants, the availability of suitable microorganisms, and the environmental
conditions (e.g., temperature, pH, oxygen levels) that support microbial activity. It
may be necessary to optimize these conditions through the addition of nutrients,
electron acceptors, or other amendments to enhance the biodegradation process.
Bioremediation is often considered a cost-effective and sustainable remediation
option, as it utilizes natural processes and does not require extensive site excavation or
the use of chemicals. However, its applicability and efficiency may vary depending on
site-specific conditions, such as the presence of high concentrations of contaminants
or low permeability soils. Monitoring and regular evaluation of the bioremediation
process are essential to ensure its effectiveness and make any necessary adjustments.
This may involve sampling and analysis of groundwater and monitoring parameters
such as microbial activity, contaminant concentrations, and groundwater quality
indicators. Overall, bioremediation offers a potential solution for remediating
contaminated groundwater in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner.
However, its success relies on careful site characterization, selection of appropriate
microorganisms, and ongoing monitoring and optimization of the remediation
process.

27
6.2.4 Carbon Adsorption
Carbon adsorption is a groundwater remediation technique that involves the use of
activated carbon to remove contaminants from the water. Activated carbon is a highly
porous material with a large surface area, which allows it to adsorb organic and
inorganic contaminants. In carbon adsorption, the contaminated groundwater is passed
through a bed or column filled with activated carbon. As the water flows through the
carbon, the contaminants are adsorbed onto the surface of the carbon particles. This
process effectively removes a wide range of contaminants, including volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), pesticides, and certain heavy metals. The effectiveness of carbon
adsorption depends on several factors, including the type and concentration of
contaminants, the contact time between the water and the carbon, and the quality of
the activated carbon used. The carbon bed may need to be periodically replaced or
regenerated to maintain its adsorption capacity. Carbon adsorption is a commonly
used and proven technology for groundwater remediation. It is particularly effective
for removing low to moderate concentrations of organic contaminants. However, it
may not be suitable for treating high concentrations of contaminants or certain types
of inorganic compounds. Monitoring and regular evaluation of the carbon adsorption
process are important to ensure its effectiveness. This may involve sampling and
analysis of the treated water to determine contaminant concentrations and monitoring
parameters such as flow rate and pressure drop across the carbon bed. Overall, carbon
adsorption is a reliable and widely used method for remediating contaminated
groundwater. It is often used in combination with other remediation techniques to
achieve optimal results. However, its applicability and efficiency may vary depending
on site-specific conditions and the nature of the contaminants present.

6.3 IN-SITU TECHNOLOGY

In situ groundwater remediation technologies are techniques used to treat
contaminated groundwater without the need for extraction and treatment above
ground. These technologies are designed to treat the groundwater in its original
location, minimizing disruption to the surrounding environment. One commonly used
in situ technology is in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO). This involves injecting
oxidizing agents, such as hydrogen peroxide or potassium permanganate, directly into
the contaminated groundwater. The oxidizing agents react with the contaminants,
breaking them down into less harmful substances.Another in situ technology is in situ
28
bioremediation. This technique utilizes naturally occurring microorganisms to degrade
or transform contaminants in the groundwater. Bioremediation can be enhanced by
adding nutrients or oxygen to stimulate microbial activity. In situ thermal remediation
is another technology used to treat contaminated groundwater. This involves heating
the subsurface to vaporize or desorb contaminants, which can then be collected and
treated above ground. Heat can be applied through various methods, such as steam
injection or electrical resistance heating. In situ technologies have several advantages
over traditional groundwater remediation methods. They can be more cost-effective,
as they eliminate the need for extracting and treating large volumes of groundwater. In
addition, they can be less disruptive to the surrounding environment and can often be
implemented more quickly. However, in situ technologies also have limitations. They
may not be suitable for all types of contaminants or site conditions. The effectiveness
of these technologies can vary depending on factors such as the type and
concentration of contaminants, the hydrogeology of the site, and the presence of
natural barriers that may hinder the distribution of treatment agents. Overall, in situ
groundwater remediation technologies offer a range of options for effectively treating
contaminated groundwater. The selection of the most appropriate technology depends
on sitespecific conditions and the specific contaminants present. Regular monitoring
and evaluation are important to ensure the effectiveness of these technologies and to
make any necessary adjustments to optimize treatment outcomes.

6.3.1 Air Sparging

Air sparging is another in situ groundwater remediation technology used to treat
contaminated groundwater. It involves injecting air or oxygen into the subsurface to
strip volatile contaminants from the groundwater and enhance their removal through
volatilization. During air sparging, air is injected into the saturated zone of the
groundwater through a series of wells or blowers. The injected air rises through the
groundwater, creating a zone of air bubbles that strip volatile contaminants from the
water. These contaminants then rise to the surface and can be collected and treated.
Air sparging can be combined with other remediation technologies, such as soil vapor
extraction, to further enhance the removal of contaminants. Soil vapor extraction
involves extracting vapors from the unsaturated zone above the groundwater table
using a vacuum system. One advantage of air sparging is that it can effectively treat
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other volatile contaminants. It can also be
29
used in conjunction with other in situ technologies to target a wide range of
contaminants.
However, air sparging may not be suitable for all types of contaminants or site
conditions. It is most effective for shallow groundwater contamination and may not be
as effective for deeper contamination or non-volatile contaminants. Like other in situ
technologies, regular monitoring and evaluation are important to ensure the
effectiveness of air sparging and to make any necessary adjustments to optimize
treatment outcomes.

6.3.2 Phythoremediation
Phytoremediation is another groundwater remediation technology that involves using
plants to remove or degrade contaminants from the groundwater. It utilizes the natural
abilities of certain plants to absorb, metabolize, and break down contaminants. During
phytoremediation, specific plant species are selected based on their ability to tolerate
and accumulate contaminants. These plants are then planted in the contaminated area
or grown hydroponically in a controlled environment. As the plants grow, they take up
water and contaminants from the groundwater through their roots. Once inside the
plant, contaminants can be broken down or transformed through various processes,
such as phytoextraction, rhizodegradation, or phytostabilization. Phytoextraction
involves plants accumulating contaminants in their tissues, which can then be
harvested and removed from the site. Rhizodegradation occurs when plants release
enzymes or other compounds through their roots that break down contaminants in the
surrounding soil or water. Phytostabilization involves plants immobilizing
contaminants in their root zone, preventing them from spreading further.
Phytoremediation is often used for less volatile and non-volatile contaminants, such as
heavy metals, pesticides, and petroleum hydrocarbons. It is particularly effective for
shallow groundwater contamination and can be used in conjunction with other
remediation technologies to enhance overall treatment efficiency. One advantage of
phytoremediation is its low cost and low maintenance requirements compared to other
remediation methods. It is also an environmentally friendly approach that can provide
additional benefits, such as habitat restoration and erosion control. However,
phytoremediation may have limitations in terms of its effectiveness for certain
contaminants or site conditions. It can be a slow process and may require long-term
implementation to achieve desired results. Additionally, the success of
30
phytoremediation depends on factors such as plant selection, soil conditions, and
contaminant concentrations. Regular monitoring and evaluation are crucial to assess
the progress of phytoremediation and make any necessary adjustments to optimize
treatment outcomes.

6.3.3 Thermal Treatment

Thermal treatment is another groundwater remediation technology that involves the
use of heat to remove or degrade contaminants from the groundwater. It utilizes high
temperatures to either volatilize contaminants, destroy them through chemical
reactions, or enhance microbial activity for biodegradation. There are several thermal
treatment methods used in groundwater remediation, including thermal desorption,
steam injection, and in-situ thermal remediation. Thermal desorption involves heating
the contaminated soil or water to vaporize the contaminants, which can then be
collected and treated separately. Steam injection involves injecting steam into the
subsurface to heat the contaminants and promote their volatilization or enhance
microbial activity. In-situ thermal remediation involves heating the subsurface using
various techniques, such as electrical resistance heating or thermal conduction, to
directly treat the contaminants in place. Thermal treatment is particularly effective for
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and some semi-volatile organic compounds
(SVOCs). It can also be used for certain types of contaminants, such as petroleum
hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents. One advantage of thermal treatment is its
ability to rapidly and effectively treat contaminated groundwater. It can achieve high
removal efficiencies and reduce contaminant concentrations to acceptable levels
within a relatively short period. Thermal treatment can also treat a wide range of
contaminants and is not limited by their chemical properties. However, thermal
treatment can be expensive and energy-intensive compared to other remediation
methods. It requires specialized equipment and expertise to implement and may cause
disturbance to the surrounding environment. It is also important to consider potential
risks, such as the release of volatile compounds during treatment or the generation of
hazardous byproducts. Regular monitoring and evaluation are necessary during
thermal treatment to ensure that the desired treatment goals are being met and to
address any potential issues or challenges. Post-treatment monitoring is also important
to verify the long-term effectiveness of the remediation and ensure that contaminants
do not reappear over time
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6.3.4 In-well air stripping
In addition to thermal treatment, another groundwater remediation technology is well
air stripping. Well air stripping involves the use of aeration or air injection systems to
remove volatile contaminants from groundwater. The process works by extracting
groundwater from wells and allowing it to come into contact with a stream of air or
oxygen. As the water is exposed to the air, volatile contaminants transfer from the
water phase to the gas phase, where they can be captured and treated separately. This
method is particularly effective for contaminants such as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and certain gases like radon. Well air stripping can be conducted in both
above-ground treatment systems and in-situ treatment systems. In above-ground
systems, groundwater is pumped to the surface and passed through a series of trays or
packed towers, where it is exposed to air or oxygen. In in-situ systems, wells are
installed directly into the contaminated groundwater zone, and air or oxygen is
injected through the wells to strip the contaminants. One advantage of well air
stripping is that it can achieve high removal efficiencies for volatile contaminants. It is
also a relatively simple and cost-effective technology compared to other remediation
methods. Well air stripping systems can be easily designed and implemented, and they
require minimal maintenance once installed. However, well air stripping may not be
effective for contaminants that are not volatile or do not readily transfer from the
water phase to the gas phase. It is also important to consider potential risks, such as
the release of volatile compounds into the atmosphere or the generation of hazardous
byproducts during treatment. Regular monitoring and evaluation are necessary during
well air stripping to ensure that the desired treatment goals are being met and to
address any potential issues or challenges. Post-treatment monitoring is also important
to verify the long-term effectiveness of the remediation and ensure that contaminants
do not reappear over time.

6.3.5 Chemical Oxidation

Chemical oxidation is another groundwater remediation technology that can be used
in addition to thermal treatment and well air stripping. This method involves the
introduction of chemical oxidants into the contaminated groundwater to break down
and remove the contaminants. The process works by injecting oxidizing agents, such
as hydrogen peroxide, ozone, or permanganate, into the groundwater. These oxidants
react with the contaminants, causing them to undergo chemical reactions that break
32
them down into less harmful substances. The oxidants can also enhance the natural
degradation processes already present in the groundwater. Chemical oxidation can be
conducted in situ, meaning the oxidants are injected directly into the contaminated
groundwater zone, or ex situ, where the groundwater is pumped to the surface and
treated in above-ground systems. In situ chemical oxidation is often preferred as it
minimizes the need for extraction and reduces potential impacts on surrounding areas.
One advantage of chemical oxidation is its ability to treat a wide range of
contaminants, including both organic and inorganic compounds. It can effectively
remove various types of pollutants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, chlorinated
solvents, and heavy metals. Chemical oxidation is also a relatively quick and efficient
remediation method. It can achieve high removal efficiencies for contaminants and
can be completed within a shorter timeframe compared to some other technologies.
Additionally, it can be applied in combination with other remediation methods to
enhance overall treatment effectiveness. However, there are some considerations and
challenges associated with chemical oxidation. The selection of the appropriate
oxidant and dosage requires careful evaluation of site-specific conditions and
contaminant characteristics. The process may generate byproducts that need to be
managed and treated properly. In some cases, multiple injections may be required to
achieve desired results. Regular monitoring and evaluation are essential during
chemical oxidation to ensure that the treatment is progressing as intended and to
address any potential issues or challenges. Post-treatment monitoring is also important
to confirm the long-term effectiveness of the remediation and to ensure that
contaminants do not reoccur over time.

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 CHAPTER
7
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION
7.1 GENERAL REVIEW
Environmental regulation of groundwater contamination refers to the laws and
regulations put in place to protect groundwater resources from pollution and ensure
proper remediation of contaminated sites. These regulations aim to prevent further
contamination, restore groundwater quality, and protect human health and the
environment. Regulatory agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) in the United States, set standards and guidelines for acceptable levels of
contaminants in groundwater. They also establish requirements for reporting,
monitoring, and remediation of contaminated sites. Remediation refers to the process
of cleaning up and restoring contaminated groundwater. It involves various
technologies and methods to remove or treat the contaminants and restore the
groundwater to a safe and usable state. The choice of remediation method depends on
factors such as the type and extent of contamination, site conditions, and regulatory
requirements. Thermal treatment, well air stripping, and chemical oxidation are some
examples of groundwater remediation technologies. Environmental regulations play a
crucial role in guiding and overseeing the remediation process. They ensure that
appropriate methods are used, proper monitoring is conducted, and the remediation is
carried out in compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Compliance with
environmental regulations is important to avoid penalties and legal consequences. It

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 CHAPTER
also helps protect public health and the environment by ensuring that contaminated
groundwater is properly addressed and restored.

8
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, groundwater contamination is a serious issue that can have significant
impacts on human health and the environment. Environmental regulations are put in
place to prevent contamination, regulate acceptable levels of contaminants, and ensure
proper remediation of contaminated sites. Remediation is the process of cleaning up
and restoring contaminated groundwater. Various technologies and methods are used
to remove or treat contaminants and restore the groundwater to a safe and usable state.
The choice of remediation method depends on factors such as the type and extent of
contamination, site conditions, and regulatory requirements. Environmental
regulations play a crucial role in guiding and overseeing the remediation process.
They ensure that appropriate methods are used, proper monitoring is conducted, and
the remediation is carried out in compliance with applicable laws and regulations.
Compliance with these regulations is important to avoid penalties and legal
consequences, and to protect public health and the environment. Overall,
environmental regulation of groundwater contamination and proper remediation are
essential for protecting our valuable groundwater resources and ensuring a safe and
sustainable water supply for future generations.

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 CHAPTER
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2. Batool M.A. M. S. Al-Azawi (2020) . “Groundwater Contamination”. Ministry
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3. David C. Mays and Timothy D. Scheib (2018), “Groundwater Contamination,
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4.Shan Zaho , Jianhua Wang and Wenjin Zhu (2022), “Controlled-Release Materials
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