4/6/2011

Theory of Elasticity in Geotechnical

Engineering

Lecture

Hadush Seged (Dr.)

April 07, 2011

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General Introduction
The subject of Elasticity:
9 an elegant and fascinating subject that deals with
the determination of the stresses and displacements
in a body as a result of applied loads.

9 a body y under elastic deformation

f reverts to its
original state on the removal of the loads.

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9 in this course we will focus on linear infinitesimal

elasticity
l (
(small
ll deformation
d f theory):
h )

ƒ stresses and displacements are linearly

proportional to applied loads.

ƒ displacements are small in comparison with the

characteristic length dimensions of the body.

ƒ linear superposition can be used to construct

solutions.

Principle of superposition:
For a given problem domain, if the state {σ(1)ij , ε(1)ij , u(1)i } is a
solution to the fundamental elasticity equations with
prescribed body forces F(1) i and surface tractions T(1) i, and the
state {σ(2)ij , ε(2)ij , u(3)i } is a solution to the fundamental
equations with prescribed body forces F(2)i and surface tractions
T(2)i, then the state {σ(1)ij + σ(2)ij , ε(1)ij + ε(2)ij, u(1)i + u(2)i } will be a
solution
l ti to t the
th problem
bl with
ith body
b d forces
f F(1) i + F(2) i and d surface
f
tractions T(1) i + T(2) i.

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Why study elasticity for soils?

Soil is neither linear nor p

pure elastic material.

The stress-strain behavior of soils is usually found to

be highly non-linear and hysteretic.

You may then ask: “why should I have to study the

linear theory of elasticity in relation to soils?
soils?”

The answer is two fold.

9 Elasticity
y is simple
p & convenient tool

theory of elasticity possess long history that is

distinguished not only by firm mathematical
foundation but also solutions of large number
of useful practical problems.

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9 Most soils behave like a linear elastic material at

relatively
l ti l small
ll applied
li d stresses
t
In many problems in foundation engineering the
level of shearing stresses within the soil deposit
is considerably lower than its ultimate strength.

Usually
U ll foundations
f d ti are designed
d i d with factors
f t off
safety of three or more, which means the stress
level in general terms is about one-third of the
ultimate strength.
7

Approximately
pp y linear in this range
g

Typical stress – strain behavior of a fine sand

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Therefore, for problems in which the soil is not

subjected to stresses larger than about one-third
of the ultimate strength, elasticity theory is not
only simple & convenient but also offers a
rational approximation to the load-deformation
b h i we may expect.
behavior t

9 Other reasons:
‰ elastic analysis involves only two constants: Young’s
Modulus E and Poisson’s ratio n – thus if we assume soil
is elastic, then we have a powerful but simple tool to
predict soil behavior.

‰ in geotechnical design, the settlement of a structure

under
d workingki l d should
load h ld be
b within
ithi tolerable
t l bl limits;
li it
and is preferred to be elastic so that no permanent
settlement occurs. Elastic analysis is thus needed to
calculate elastic settlement.

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‰ even for advanced inelastic soil models that are used to

describe the complexity of soil behavior,
behavior elastic analysis
is the first step.

‰ elasticity solutions will often give insight into the basic

mechanics of a problem and understanding of elasticity
and its use in geotechnical problems has frequently led
to new and innovative solutions to old problems.

‰ elasticity is a powerful tool in assessing the way a

structure interacts with a soil (soil-structure interaction).

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Basic Concepts of Continuum Mechanics

9 The linear theory of elasticity is a branch of a larger

di i li called
discipline ll d continuum
ti mechanics.
h i

Definition by A.J.M. Spencer (1966):

Continuum mechanics means mechanics of
continuous media, and a continuous medium is a
medium which occupies every point of a continuous
region of space.
space In continuum mechanics,
mechanics we treat
materials – gases, liquids, solids – as though they
completely fill up the region they occupy, with no
holes or gaps even if we know that this is not what
materials are really like.
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9 Soils are multiphase materials comprised of mineral

grains,
i air
i voids
id and d water.
t H
Hence, t h i ll
technically
speaking a soil can never be a continuum.

9 Ideally, the mathematical characterization of a soil

should, thus, be based on the behavior of individual
constituent elements and their interaction.

9 However, such an approach will be rather complex

and would not be fruitful in geotechnical
engineering applications.
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9 For any reasonable problem in geotechnical

engineering
i i theth characteristic
h t i ti dimension
di i or the
th scale
l off
practical interest will be in the order of meters, whereas
the characteristic dimension of a soil particle could
range from 2μm (e.g. clay) to 50 mm (gravel) .

9 Thus, the microscopic effects can be averaged and the

soil can be idealized as a continuum, provided that our
results will only be applied to volumes sufficiently
large enough to encompass significant numbers of soil
particles.

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Analysis of Stress in 3D
9 The analysis of stress is essentially a branch of
mechanics
h i whichhi h is
i concernedd with
ith the
th detailed
d t il d
description of the way in which the stress at a point
of a body varies.

9 For 2D stress analysis, the use of Mohr’s circle is

found to be most convenient. In 3D analysis,
however the use of index notation is preferred for
however,
the calculation of stresses across any plane at a
point.

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Definition of stress at a point:

A general loaded body cut by a plane Q along surface A

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9 The portion of the body on one side of Q exerts a force

on the portion of the body on the other side of Q.

9 This force is transmitted through the plane Q by direct

contact of the parts of the body on the two sides of Q.

9 Let the force that is transmitted through an incremental

area ΔA off A by
b the
h part on the
h one side
id off Q be
b denoted
d d
by ΔF. In accordance with Newton’s 3rd law, the portion
of the body on the other side of Q transmits through area
ΔA a force -ΔF .
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9 The magnitude of the average force per unit area is ΔF/ΔA

and this ratio is called the average stress acting on area ΔA.
A

9 The concept of stress at a point is obtained by letting ΔA

become an infinitesimal. Then the forces ΔF approaches
zero, but usually the ratio ΔF/ΔA approaches a limit
different from zero.

9 Th
The limiting
li i i ratioi off ΔF/ΔA as ΔA goes to zero ddefines
fi the
h
stress vector σ (also called traction vector T).

ΔF
σ = lim
ΔA→0 ΔA
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9 The force ΔF may y be resolved into components

p ΔFN and
ΔFS, along unit normal N and unit tangent S, respectively,
to the plane Q.

9 Similar definitions for the normal stress vector and shear

stress vector are given below:

ΔF ΔFS
σ n = lim N σ s = lim
ΔA→0 ΔA ΔA→0 ΔA

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Cauchy’s formula

Relation between stress vector (traction vector) acting on

arbitrary plane ni and the three stress vectors acting on the
coordinate plane
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9 Let us consider the equilibrium condition of an element

OABC with the stress vectors Ti(1), Ti(2), Ti(3), and Ti(n)
acting on its faces OBC, OAC, OAB, and ABC,
respectively.
9 Fi acts as the body force of the element OABC per unit
volume, and h is the length of the perpendicular
distance from O to plane ABC.

9 Let A be the area of plane ABC. Then the area of each

face perpendicular to the xi-axis is given by:
Ai = Ani
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A2 = 12 OP ⋅ AB OP = CP ⋅ cos θ = CP ⋅ n2
A2 = 12 CP ⋅ AB ⋅ n2 = An2 , A = 12 CP ⋅ AB

Similarly A1 = An1 A3 = An3

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9 The volume of the element OABC is given by: V = 13 Ah

From equilibrium condition of element OABC:

∑ F =0 i

Ti n ( A) + Ti ( −1) ( An1 ) + Ti ( −2 ) ( An2 ) + Ti ( −3) ( An3 ) + Fi ( 13 Ah) = 0 …...(1.1)

Di idi eqn. (1.1)

Dividing (1 1) by
b A and
d letting
l tti h tend
t d to
t 0,
0 we get:
t

Ti n = − Ti ( −1) n1 − Ti ( −2 ) n2 − Ti ( −3) n3 …...(1.2)

since Ti (1) = − Ti ( −1) , Ti ( 2) = − Ti ( −2 ) , and Ti (3) = − Ti ( −3)

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Eqn. (1.2) has, therefore, the simple form:

Ti n = Ti (1) n1 + Ti ( 2 ) n2 + Ti ( 3) n3 …...(1.3)

Eqn. (1.3) is known as Cauchy’s formula.

9 The stress vector Tin at a point with normal ni = (n1, n2, n3) is
expressed as a linear combination of the three stress vectors
on the
th plane-area
l elements
l t perpendicular
di l tto th
the th
three
coordinates at the point.

9 Therefore, the three stress vectors Ti(1), Ti(2),Ti(3) define the

state of stress at a point completely.
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9 Since Ti is a vector quantity, it can be more conveniently

represented by three components:
a normal stress and two tangential (or shear) stresses.
x3
9 For example, the stress vector Ti(2)
associated with the coordinate
plane y or x2 has the three
components:
x2
Ti ( 2 ) = [σ 21 , σ 22 , σ 23 ]
[ ]
= τ yx , σ y ,τ yz ..(4) x1
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9 The index notation of σ22 for normal stress and σ21, σ23 for
shear
h stresses andd the
h engineering
i i off σy for
i notation f normall
stress and τyx, τyz for shear stresses are used interchangeably.

9 In the same way, the stress vector at a point across a plane

whose normal is in the direction of x1 has the components:

[ ]
Ti (1) = [σ 11 , σ 12 , σ 13 ] = σ x ,τ xy ,τ xz …...(1.5)
9 Similarily:
[ ]
Ti (3) = [σ 31 , σ 32 , σ 33 ] = τ zx ,τ zy , σ z …...(1.6)

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9 In the above notations the first suffix denotes the

normal direction on the small area ΔA and the second
suffix denotes the direction in which the component
acts.
9 The nine quantities in equations (1.4) to (1.6) are called
components of the stress tensor σij at a point.

⎡Ti (1) ⎤ ⎡σ 11 σ 12 σ 13 ⎤ ⎡σ x τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σ ij = ⎢Ti ( 2 ) ⎥ = ⎢⎢σ 21 σ 22 σ 23 ⎥⎥ = ⎢τ yx σ y τ yz ⎥ …...(1.7)
⎢T ( 3) ⎥ ⎢σ σ σ ⎥ ⎢τ τ σz ⎥
⎣ i ⎦ ⎣ 31 32 33 ⎦ ⎣ zx zy ⎦
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Components of stress tensor σij

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Example 1

The state of a stress at a point is represented by the given

stress tensor:
⎡− 80 16 26 ⎤
σ ij = ⎢⎢ 16 26 − 28⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 26 − 28 − 36 ⎥⎦

For a plane with unit normal ni = ( 2 , 3 , ), calculate the

1 1 1
6
(n)
g
magnitude of the stress ((traction)) vector Ti .

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