TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOUR FORCES OF FLIGHT.........................................................................................................................................................................................2

STABILITY...................................................................................................................................................................................................................33
AERODYNAMICS OF MANEUVERING FLIGHT........................................................................................................................................................52
SLOW FLIGHT.............................................................................................................................................................................................................72
STEEP TURNS............................................................................................................................................................................................................85
ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLYING.............................................................................................................................................................................88
FLIGHT LESSON 4: MANEUVERS AND ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT FLIGHT........................................................................................................100
FOUR FORCES OF FLIGHT
The Four Forces of Flight
Four forces act on an airplane at all times:
 Lift supports the airplane in flight and is created by the airflow above and below the wing.
 Weight opposes lift and is the result of gravity.
 Thrust propels the airplane forward and varies with the applied engine power.
 Drag opposes thrust and is a backward or retarding force that limits the speed of the airplane.

Using Vectors to Represent the Forces

Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
Vector arrows graphically represent forces acting upon an aircraft:
 The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the force.
 The orientation of the arrow represents the direction of the force.
Two or more vectors acting on an object at the same time can be added or subtracted to create a resultant vector.
Vectors acting in opposite directions and of equal magnitude cancel each other with a resultant of zero.
Equilibrium
A change in any single force creates changes of varying magnitude in the other forces.
Equilibrium exists when:
 Lift equals weight.
 Drag equals thrust.
A change in any one of the forces causes an acceleration in the direction of the stronger force.
For example, an increase in thrust causes the airplane to accelerate. As the airplane moves faster, drag increases
until the forces return to equilibrium.
When the airplane returns to equilibrium, there are no acceleration forces, and the airplane is in unaccelerated
flight.

Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton's laws of motion apply to all objects in motion or at rest.
Newton's laws make it much easier to understand the forces involved in flight.
Newton's First Law of Motion
Newton's first law of motion:
 An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an outside force.
 An object in motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by
an outside force.

Newton's Second Law of Motion

When a force is applied to a mass, the mass will accelerate.
F=ma

Where F is Force, m is mass and a is acceleration.

As an airplane moves, additional thrust might cause it to speed up, friction works to slow it down, and turning the
nosewheel might cause a change in direction.
Adding a little power causes it to accelerate only a little and adding full power causes a greater acceleration.
The airplane will accelerate more quickly when it is lightly loaded and accelerate more slowly when it is heavily
loaded.
Newton's Third Law of Motion
Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body always exerts an equal force in the opposite
direction.
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Bernoulli's Principle
Bernoulli's principle states that as the velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases.

Venturi Tubes
Venturi tubes have many practical applications.
Here are two examples:
 Carburetors
 Power for gyroscopic instruments
What is an Airfoil?
An airfoil is any surface that provides lift when it interacts with a moving stream of air.

Relative Wind and Flight Path

An aircraft's flight path is its line of travel through the air. When applied to the entire aircraft, relative wind is always
directly opposite to the flight path.

What is Angle of Attack?

The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the relative wind.
The angle of attack can change based on pilot input or external factors such as updrafts or wind gusts.
Creating Lift
The shape of the airfoil:
 Causes air flowing over the upper surface to speed up, which decreases the pressure above the airfoil.
 Causes the air flowing beneath it to slow down, which increases pressure.
The air pressure on the bottom surface of the wing is somewhat greater than the pressure on the upper surface.
This pressure difference creates lift.
The airfoil causes the air moving past it to curve downward, creating a strong downwash behind the airfoil.

How Air Velocity Affects Lift

The relationship between lift and air velocity is simple:
 When there is no air flowing over an airfoil, there is no lift.
 To generate lift, an airfoil needs motion relative to the air.
 The faster an airfoil moves relative to the air, the more lift it generates.
 If all other factors remain the same, doubling the airspeed quadruples the amount of lift.
Angle of Attack and Coefficient of Lift
The coefficient of lift (CL) is a way to measure lift as it relates to angle of attack. CL is determined by airfoil design
and angle of attack.
As angle of attack increases, CL increases.
The point of maximum lift is called CLmax.
If the maximum coefficient of lift is exceeded, lift decreases rapidly, and a stall occurs.

Factors that Affect Wing Design

An airfoil is a three-dimensional object that operates in a three-dimensional airflow.
Wing design is based on the anticipated use of the airplane and overall cost.
The four primary wing design factors are:
 Airfoil camber.
 Aspect ratio.
 Wing area.
 Wing planform.
Camber
Camber is the curvature of the airfoil from front to back.
Upper camber is the curvature of the upper surface.
Lower camber is the curvature of the lower surface.
Changing camber affects lift.
If upper camber increases and the lower camber remains the same, the velocity differential between the upper and
lower surfaces increases, increasing lift.
Choosing the Ideal
Camber
The ideal camber for an airfoil is chosen with the
airplane’s performance specification in mind,
especially the speed, range and the load-carrying
capacity.
Aspect Ratio
Aspect ratio is the relationship between the length and width of a wing.

Wing Span
Aspect Ratio=
Average Chord

Is Higher Always Better?

A high aspect ratio decreases drag, which allows more efficient cruising flight, while a low aspect ratio provides
quick roll response for fighters and aerobatic airplanes.
Long, thin wings with less structural weight provide lift more efficiently in conditions where the flight loads are less
demanding. Short wings have a higher strength-to-weight ratio, which allows them to withstand higher flight loads.

Wing Area
Wing area is the total surface area of the wings.
Wing area must be sufficient enough to:
 Support the weight of the airplane.
 Maintain lift.
The greater the wing area, the more lift it produces.
To calculate the lift needed to support the aircraft:

Aircraft Weight
=Lift (Pounds per Sq . Inch)
Wing A

Wing area is directly proportional to the amount of lift a wing produces.

Planform
Planform refers to the shape of an airplane wing when viewed from above or below.

Sweptback
Efficient at high speeds but exhibits degraded low-speed performance.
Combination of Rectangular / Tapered
Good compromise for low-speed aircraft. The rectangular inboard section exhibits good stall characteristics and is
cost-effective. The tapered outboard portion allows for a reduction in weight and an increase in aspect ratio.
Highly Tapered
Provides less drag and more lift for effective high-speed flight. Tapered wings have a tendency to stall first slightly
inboard of the wingtip.
Rectangular
Tends to stall first at the wing root, which provides adequate stall warning and aileron effectiveness.

Angle of Incidence
The angle of incidence is the upward angle formed between the chord line and a line parallel to the longitudinal
axis.
The angle of incidence:
 Places the wing at the best angle of attack at cruising airspeed.
 Keeps the fuselage aligned with the flight path to minimize drag.

Stall Strips
Stall strips disrupt the airflow at high angles of attack, which:
 Causes the wing roots to stall before the wingtips.
 Helps to preserve aileron effectiveness, providing an opportunity for recovery before the stall progresses to
the wingtips.

Wing Twist
Wing twist:
 Creates a lower angle of incidence at the wingtip than the wing root.
 Results in the wingtip having lower angle of attack than the root when approaching a stall.
 Causes the wing root to stall first and preserves wingtip and aileron effectiveness at the beginning of a stall.

How Stalls Occur

A drag is the sudden decrease in lift that occurs when the airfoil exceeds the angle of attack for C Lmax.
At any angle of attack above CLmax, lift decreases rapidly as the smooth airflow over the upper surface of the wing
becomes turbulent and separates.
For any given airplane, a stall always occurs at the same angle of attack, regardless of airspeed, flight attitude, or
weight. This angle is the critical angle of attack.

Pilot Control of Lift

Aircraft design factors and pilot control inputs determine the amount of lift generated during flight.
Pilots can control lift by:
 Increasing or decreasing the angle of attack
 Changing the airspeed.
 Changing the wing shape by lowering the flaps
Increasing lift also increases drag, which is a byproduct of lift.

Lift Equation
The lift equation expresses the mathematical relationship of the four main factors affecting the amount of lift
created by a wing:

2 ρ
Lift =C L ∙V ∙ ∙S
2

 Coefficient of lift (CL) = corresponds to the angle of attack.

 Velocity (V) = corresponds to airspeed.
 Air density (ρ) = corresponds to altitude.
 Wing area (S) = the size of the wing
Lift equals the coefficient of lift multiplied by the velocity squared, multiplied by one-half air density times the wing
area.

Normal Takeoff Checklist: Flaps

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) records attribute 87 accidents to improper use of an aircraft
procedures checklist, either as a cause or factor, from 1988 through 1993. Forty-three accidents occurred during
the approach and landing phase of flight, and 35 occurred during takeoff. Landing gear featured in 36 accidents,
fuel systems in 28, and flaps were involved in 11 of the reports. The most serious accidents involving misuse of
checklists occurred when flaps were improperly configured, usually during takeoff.
This type of accident frequently involves some form of distraction or disruption of normal flight routine. When a
distraction occurs while using a written checklist, it is better to start the checklist at the beginning instead of trying to
remember the last item you completed. Properly using checklists can help you manage workload and maintain
situational awareness during flight operations.

High-Lift Devices
High-lift devices increase the efficiency of the airfoil at low speeds.
Flaps are the most common high-lift device. A flap is a surface at the trailing edge of a wing that has hinges or
tracks so its trailing edge can move downward.
Leading edge devices to provide better stall characteristics, reduce landing speeds, and can increase airfoil
camber.
Slots allow the airflow to remain attached over the outer portion of the wings after the roots have stalled. When the
wing is at low angles of attack, relatively little air flows from the bottom of the leading edge through the opening, so
slots do not cause a substantial change in the effectiveness of the airfoil.
Slats are portions of the leading edge that can move forward and down to create a path for air similar to a slot.
Leading edge flaps usually increase both wing camber and area, allowing the wing to develop more lift at reduced
airspeeds.
Extending the flaps:
 Changes camber to increase the coefficient of lift
 Changes the chord line and increases the angle of attack. Helps maintain lift at low airspeeds, such as during
approach and landing.
 Increases the lifting efficiency and decreases stall speed.
Using full flaps during approach allows for steep descent angles without gaining airspeed.
Flaps increase both lift and drag, allowing the airplane to fly at a lower airspeed for safer landings on challenging
runways.

Flaps and Configuration

Configuration is the position of the landing gear and flaps.
Retractable gear airplanes are in clean configuration when the gear and the flaps are up.
Fixed gear airplanes are in a clean configuration when the flaps are up.
You can change configuration by:
 Raising or lowering the gear.
 Moving the flaps.

Types of Flaps
There are four basic types of flaps:
 Plain flaps extend and pivot downward from the trailing edge of the wing; increase the overall camber of the
wing, change the chord line, and increase the wing's lifting capacity.
 Split flaps are hinged only to the lower surface of the wing; the flaps increase lift but produce greater drag.
 Slotted flaps change the camber and chord line, allow high-pressure air from beneath the wing to flow over
the flap surface, increase lift and delay airflow separation at higher angles of attack.
 Fowler flaps attach to the wing by a track and roller system, extend both rearward and down to increase wing
area and change the camber and chord line.
Because of aerodynamic stresses, an airplane's maximum operating speed with extended flaps is lower than its
maximum cruising speed.

The Force of Weight

Weight is the force of gravity, which acts vertically toward the center of the earth.
Weight can be thought of as acting through a single point called the center of gravity.

Factors Affecting Weight

The weight of the airplane varies over the duration of a flight.
The weight of the airplane increases as you add:
 Fuel.
 Baggage.
 Pilot and passengers.
The total weight of the airplane decreases as fuel is consumed.
Some specialized flight activities reduce aircraft weight:
 Crop dusting.
 Firefighting.
 Skydiving.

Generating Thrust
Thrust is the forward force that propels the aircraft through the air.
The expansion of burning gases in the engine creates a force that turns the propeller.
The propeller accelerates a mass of air backward.
An equal and opposite force results. This force is thrust acting in a forward direction. The blades rotate in a circular
path called the plane of rotation.
The angle of the propeller blade relative to the plane of rotation is the blade angle, or pitch.

Propeller Characteristics That Affect Thrust

The propeller provides the thrust that moves the airplane forward through the air.
Each propeller blade works like an airplane wing.
Airflow creates high air pressure on the rear face of the propeller and a low air pressure on the front face. The
difference in pressure creates force moving toward the front of the propeller called thrust.
When the propeller is turning but the aircraft is not moving, the blade angle, or pitch, is equivalent to the angle of
attack for an airplane wing. The plane of rotation is equivalent to the flight path of a wing.
The propeller blade twists slightly from root to tip and is thicker at the root. These design features help compensate
for the fact that the blade tips travel at a higher speed than the roots.
Near the root, each blade has a thick airfoil optimized for low rotational speeds and set at a high angle of attack.
At the tip, the blade has a thin airfoil designed for high speeds and is set at a relatively low angle of attack.
The airfoil shape and the angle of attack change smoothly between the root and the tip, so each section has the
optimum airfoil shape and angle of attack for its rotational speed at that point.

Propeller Blade Speeds

The propeller blade tip moves at a much higher speed than the root of the blade. Even though the whole propeller
is turning at a constant RPM, the tip travels a greater distance in the same amount of time.

What is Drag
Drag is a backward, or retarding, force that limits the forward speed of an aircraft.
Types of Drag
Drag is separated into two main types:
 Induced drag is a result of the wings producing lift. It decreases as the airplane goes faster.
 Parasite drag is any drag that is unrelated to the production of lift. It increases with speed.

Parasite Drag
There are three types of parasite drag:
 Form drag results from the turbulent wake that occurs when airflow separates from the surface of an object.
Streamlining decreases form drag by reducing the airflow separation.
Form drag is never eliminated entirely.
 Interference drag, created when the air flowing around one part of the airplane interacts with air moving at a
different speed or in a different direction around an adjacent part.
 Skin friction drag, caused by the roughness of the airplane's surfaces.
Air clings to rough surfaces, causing eddies that contribute to drag.

How Airspeed Affects Parasite Drag

Parasite drag is proportional to the square of the airspeed: doubling your airspeed quadruples parasite drag.
An airplane's top speed is limited by the rapid increase in parasite drag.

Induced Drag
Induced drag is a byproduct of generating lift. When a wing produces lift, it also produces a proportional amount of
drag.
Induced drag is a rearward component of lift that results from a change in the average relative wind.
High-pressure air beneath the wing flows into the low- pressure air above the wing. This produces a spiral or vortex
that trails behind each wingtip.
Wingtip vortices deflect the airstream downward behind each wingtip, changing the relative wind for the wingtip.
This changes the average relative wind for the entire wing, inclining it downward and toward the rear.
The total lift produced by the wing is perpendicular to the relative wind, so the lift vector is inclined aft.
The component of lift that acts in a rearward direction is induced drag.

Factors Affecting Induced Drag

Induced drag is typically greater at low airspeeds and decreases at higher airspeeds.
Low airspeeds require a higher angle of attack to generate enough lift to support the airplane. The greater pressure
difference between the upper and lower wing surfaces generates more powerful wingtip vortices, which are the
primary cause of induced drag.
At higher airspeeds, a lower angle of attack generates sufficient lift, so the wingtip vortices are less powerful and
create less induced drag.

What is Total Drag?

For an airplane, total drag is the sum of parasite and induced drag.
Each point on the total drag curve is the sum of induced drag and parasite drag at that airspeed.
Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D)
Comparing the lift generated by the wings to the total drag provides the lift/drag ratio (L/D).

Lift
=LD Ratio
Drag

The lift/drag ratio is the total lift divided by total drag. The L/D ratio varies with the angle of attack of the airfoil.

L/Dmax and Performance

L/Dmax is the angle of attack where the lift-drag ratio reaches its maximum value.
L/Dmax corresponds to the lowest point on the total drag curve. This is the airspeed at which total drag is at its
minimum.
L/Dmax corresponds to the power-off glide speed that provides the best glide ratio of the airplane.
L/Dmax also provides the most efficient fuel economy.
The airspeed for achieving L/Dmax varies with the weight of the airplane; however, the angle of attack for L/D does
not vary significantly.

Total Drag and Airspeed

Total drag is lowest at the airspeed which produces the highest ratio of lift to drag (L/Dmax). At airspeeds below
L/Dmax, total drag increases due to induced drag, and at speeds above L/Dmax, total drag increases because of
parasite drag.
The airspeed that gives the lowest total drag (L/Dmax) will provide the best power off glide distance, as well as the
greatest range. As aircraft weight decreases, the airspeed for L/Dmax also decreases.

Ground Effect
When an airplane flies within one wingspan's distance from the ground or water, the earth's surface alters the
three-dimensional airflow around the airplane and reduces induced drag.
There is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices. This phenomenon is called ground effect.
Induced drag is reduced when the aircraft is within a wingspan's height above the ground.
Ground effect is more noticeable in low-wing airplanes because the wings are closer to the ground.

Ground Effect's Relationship to Drag

The change in the airflow pattern due to ground effect:
 Modifies the average relative wind.
 Causes more of the wing's lift to act vertically.
 Decreases induced drag.
 Allows the wings to create enough lift at a lower speed to support the weight of the airplane.

Ground Effect and Performance

Because of ground effect, your airplane can take off at a lower-than-normal airspeed.
However, when you fly out of ground effect:
 More thrust is required to sustain lift. However, there may not be any more thrust available because you
normally take off with maximum thrust.
  Induced drag suddenly increases.
 Increased drag slows the airplane and reduces lift.
Ground effect may allow an overloaded or improperly configured airplane to lift off, but it will not be able to climb.
Ground effect is also responsible for "floating" during the landing flare.
In ground effect, the wing can create more lift at the same angle of attack. You might need to reduce your pitch
angle slightly to maintain a descent.
You must reduce thrust to continue slowing the airplane for landing.
On a short field, ground effect could cause the airplane to float so far down the runway that you wouldn't have room
enough to stop after touchdown.
 STABILITY

What is Stability?
There are three design characteristics that affect the handling of an airplane:
 Stability is the airplane's tendency to return to equilibrium, or steady flight, when disturbed by control inputs or
external factors.
  Maneuverability is the ability to move the airplane away from equilibrium and withstand the stress resulting
from the maneuver.
 Controllability is how well the airplane responds to control inputs.
Designers must balance the need for stability with the competing need for maneuverability and controllability.

Static vs. Dynamic Stability

There are two main types of stability:
 Positive Static stability = An airplane's initial response after a disturbance disrupts its equilibrium.
 Positive Dynamic stability = How an airplane responds over time after a disturbance.
 Neutral Static Stability
 Negative Static Stability
 Neutral Dynamic stability = The disturbance changes the direction but remains the same.
 Negative Dynamic stability = The disturbance changes the direction and increases over time.

Three Axes of Flight

Aircraft movement takes place around one or more of three axes of rotation:
 The longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose of the aircraft to the tail.
 The lateral axis which extends from wing tip to wing tip.
  The vertical axis which extends vertically, through the center of gravity.
The common reference point for the three axes is the airplane center of gravity, a theoretical point where the weight
of the airplane is concentrated because all three axes pass through this point, you can say that the airplane always
rotates around its CG.
The primary flight controls are the pilot's primary means of controlling motion around these three axes.
Generally, there are three primary flight controls:
 The ailerons control the rotation around the longitudinal axis, which is called roll. Because of this, the
longitudinal axis is sometimes called the roll axis. The ailerons always move in opposite directions when one
goes up, the other goes down, changes aerodynamic shape and therefore the amount of lift each wing
produces. Rolling movement about the longitudinal axis will continue as long as the ailerons are deflected to
stop the roll, you must return the ailerons to their neutral position.
 The elevator controls rotation around the lateral axis. This rotation is called pitch. The elevator changes the
aerodynamic shape of the tail and the amount of lift that the horizontal portion of the tail produces. For
example, raising the elevator forces the tail down, pushing the nose up and increasing the pitch of the
airplane.
 The rudder controls rotation around the vertical axis. This rotation is called Yaw. The rudder changes the
aerodynamic shape of the vertical portion of the tail and moves the tail to the left or right.

Factors Affecting Longitudinal Stability

Longitudinal stability = The airplane's ability to resist pitching motions.
Longitudinal stability depends on:
 Location of the center of lift
  P factor position
 Tail-down force created by horizontal stabilizer.
 Power effects / thrust.

Location of Center of Lift

The distance between the center of lift and the CG affects longitudinal stability. The center of lift is the point along
the wing chord line where lift is concentrated.
Manufacturers achieve longitudinal stability in most of their airplanes by positioning the center of gravity slightly
ahead of the center of lift. This creates a slight nose-heavy tendency.
On a cambered wing, the center of lift moves forward as the angle of attack increases and moves aft as the angle
of attack decreases.
A center of lift that's forward and closer to the CG decreases the nose-down pitching tendency at a high angle of
attack. If an engine fails, this helps to prevent a stall. The reverse is true as the angle of attack decreases, and the
center of lift moves further aft of the CG.

CG Position
The position of the center of gravity (CG), which is determined by the distribution of weight either by design or by
the pilot, can also affect the longitudinal stability of an airplane.
All airplanes have forward and aft limits for the position of the CG. The distance between these limits is called the
CG range. An airplane becomes nose heavy if it's loaded so that the CG is too far forward. As the CG moves to an
extreme forward position, the stabilator or elevator effectiveness will be insufficient to raise the nose, for example,
during landing.
A CG that is too far aft is even more hazardous. With an aft CG, the airplane becomes tail heavy and very unstable
in pitch, regardless of speed. As the CG moves aft, elevator effectiveness decreases, and the airplane becomes
progressively more difficult to control. Eventually, it may become too difficult to lower the nose to recover from a
stall or spin.

Factors Affecting Lateral Stability

Four of the most common factors that influence lateral stability are:
 Weight distribution.
 Dihedral.
 Sweepback.
 Keel Effect.

Tail-Down Force
When the airplane is properly loaded, the CG remains forward of the center of pressure and the airplane is slightly
nose heavy.
The nose-heavy tendency is offset by the position of the horizontal stabilizer, which is designed with a negative
angle of attack. This produces a downward force on the tail to counteract the nose heaviness. The downward force
is called the tail-down force.
On most single engine propeller-driven airplanes, downwash from the propeller and wings exerts forces on
horizontal tail surfaces.
The strength of this downward force is related to the angle of attack, the speed of the airplane, and the power
setting.
Any variance in the downwash strength, such as a power change, affects the tail-down force.
T-tail designs are not subject to the same downwash effect, because the horizontal tail surface is above all or most
of the downwash.

Power Effects / Thrust

Power effects, such as increasing or decreasing thrust, cause changes to the tail-down force, which affects
longitudinal stability:
Reducing power during flight reduces the downwash on the elevator. This creates a nose-down pitching tendency.
The nose-down attitude helps to maintain airspeed.
Increasing power has the opposite effect. It increases downwash on the horizontal stabilizer, causing the nose of
the airplane to pitch up.
The influence of power on longitudinal stability also depends on the airplane design. Because power provides
thrust, the alignment of thrust in relation to the longitudinal axis, the CG, the wings, and the stabilizer are all factors
that affect longitudinal stability.

Weight Distribution
Improve lateral stability through proper weight distribution.

Dihedral
Dihedral = Upward angle that each wing makes when viewed from the front.
The dihedral produces roll that returns an airplane to a laterally balanced flight condition when a sideslip occurs
due to a disturbance.

Sweepback
Sweepback = The backward angle of the wings from the roots to the wingtips.
Sweepback improves lateral stability. During an unintentional roll, the low wing moves forward into the relative
wind, and the lift on the low wing increases until the airplane rolls to its original flight attitude.
Wing Blanking = The side of the aircraft blocks the wind hitting the opposite wing, thus creating less lift.

Keel Effect
Keel effect = Provides lateral stability through vertical fin and side area of fuselage above the CG.
As the aircraft encounters the side force of the air, keel effect rolls the aircraft back toward a wings-level attitude.

Dihedral in Low-Wing vs. High-Wing Aircraft

Low-wing airplanes generally have more dihedral than high-wing airplanes. The reason has to do with how the
fuselage influences the relative wind during a sideslip.
In high-wing airplanes, the relative wind creates an upwash near the wing root at the leading edge of the upwind
(low) wing, and a slight downwash at the root of the downwind (high) wing. This increases the local angle of attack
on the upwind (low) wing, while decreasing it on the downwind (high) wing, with the resulting difference in lift
tending to roll the airplane out of the slip.
The situation is reversed with a low-wing airplane. The sideslip creates a downwash for the upwind (low) wing and
an upwash for the downwind (high) wing, which tends to increase the roll into the sideslip. Low-wing airplanes need
to have a certain amount of dihedral to overcome the destabilizing effect of the fuselage, and an additional amount
to provide lateral stability.

Dutch Roll
In Dutch roll, the airplane makes a continuous back-and-forth rolling and yawing motion with the airplane always
yawing away from the direction of bank.
Dutch roll is usually dynamically stable, that is, the oscillations tend to decrease in amplitude, but pilot input is
usually required to completely stop the oscillations.
In some airplanes, incorrect pilot input can aggravate Dutch roll, and it can become dangerous.

Factors Affecting Directional Stability

Directional stability = An airplane's ability to resist yaw.
The tendency of the airplane to "weathervane into the relative wind is due to the greater side area behind the
center of gravity, plus the force created by the vertical tail.
If the airplane yaws from its original attitude, the airflow strikes the vertical tail surface from the side and tends to
return it to its original flight path.

Factors Affecting Stalls

Stalls always occur when the airfoil exceeds its critical angle of attack, also known as the stalling angle of attack.
Factors that cause the airplane to exceed the critical angle of attack:
  Lower airspeeds = At lower airspeeds, less air flows over the wing, so to maintain altitude, increase the angle
of attack.
 Aircraft weight = More weight requires more lift. To generate this lift, the angle of attack must increase, which
increases the airplane's stall speed.
 Weight distribution = A forward CG requires more tail- down force to balance the airplane, which adds to the
weight the wings must support, increasing the stall speed. Flying with the CG too far aft makes the airplane
less stable and can lead to stalls through abrupt control movements.
 Turbulence = Turbulence can cause a stall at a higher airspeed than in smooth conditions.
 Snow, ice, or frost = Snow, ice, or frost on the wing's surface changes the stall characteristics. On any part of
the airplane, these contaminants disrupt the airflow and increase both weight and drag, all of which increase
stall speed.
An airplane always stalls when the critical angle of attack is exceeded regardless of airspeed, flight attitude, or
weight.

Airflow Separation
Airflow separation begins as the angle of attack approaches CLmax. As the angle of attack increases to CLmax and
beyond, lift decreases rapidly, and the stall occurs.
Avoiding Stalls
To avoid a stall:
 Don't fly with ice on the wings.
 Load airplane within the approved CG limits.
 Don't overload the airplane.
 Maintain coordinated flight.
Typical indications of a stall include:
 A mushy feeling in the flight controls.
 A stall warning alert.
 Reduction in the sound of air flowing along the fuselage.
 Buffeting, pitching, or vibration.
 Kinesthetic sense.

Types of Stalls
Stalls are classified according to whether:
 The airplane is flying straight ahead or turning.
  The power is on or off.
Power-on stalls = usually practiced in a takeoff configuration, with landing gear up and flaps set for takeoff.
Power-off stalls = usually practiced in a landing configuration, with the gear and flaps down. You can practice both
types of stalls in either straight ahead or turning flight.
Accelerated stalls = caused by abrupt or excessive control movement or by flight at high load factors. They
commonly occur during steep turns or rapid dive recoveries. Accelerated stalls are often unexpected because of
the relatively high airspeed.
Crossed-control stall = occurs when you cross the flight controls by applying rudder pressure in one direction and
ailerons in the opposite direction. This is most likely to occur during a poorly executed turn to final approach.
Elevator trim stall = usually occurs during a go-around from a landing approach. In this case, you've adjusted the
airplane's trim for approach, with considerable nose-up trim. As you apply power for the go-around, the nose
normally pitches up, and without positive pressure to counteract the strong control forces, the nose will continue to
pitch up.

Preventing Stalls
The following guidelines can help you avoid an accidental stall or spin:
 If an emergency that requires a forced landing occurs immediately after takeoff, do not attempt to return to
the runway. Select a suitable landing site straight ahead or slightly off to the side.
  Maintain coordinated flight as much as possible. Particularly avoid skidding turns near the ground.
 Use a higher-than-normal airspeed during takeoffs and landings in gusty winds.
 Always concentrate on flying the aircraft and avoid prolonged distractions.

Stall Recovery
When a stall is imminent, your primary goal is to maintain positive control.
At the first indication of an impending stall, apply these stall recovery techniques simultaneously:
 Decrease the angle of attack.
 Level the wings.
 Smoothly apply maximum allowable power to increase airspeed and minimize altitude loss. As the airplane
recovers, maintain coordinated flight while adjusting the power as necessary.
Avoid stalling the airplane a second time.

Causes of Spins
A spin is a complex flight maneuver that can be described as an aggravated stall resulting in rotation.
Spins begin when one wing stalls more than the other one.
During a spin:
  The wings remain unequally stalled.
 The angle of attack remains greater than the stalling angle of attack.
 High drag combines with the large upward component of the relative wind.
 Rotation continues as the unequal lift on each wing combines with the unequal drag.

Phases of a Spin
1. Incipient Phase:
 Starts with the stall and lasts until the spin stabilizes.
 Occurs rapidly in light airplanes. At about the half-turn point, the airplane is pointed down steeply but the
angle of attack remains above the stalling angle because of the downward flight path.
 2. Fully Developed Phase:
 Rotation continues.
 The flight path becomes more nearly vertical.
 The rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed stabilize.

3. Recovery Phase:
 Anti-spin forces overcome pro-spin forces. The angle of attack on both wings decreases below the stalling
angle and the rotation rate slows.
 This phase can range from one-quarter of a turn to several turns.

Types of Spins
There are three main types of spins:
 Upright (Erect) Spin = Roll and yaw are in the same direction.
 Inverted Spin = Roll and yaw are in opposite directions.
 Flat Spin = Rapid rotation, near level pitch attitude. Recovery might be impossible.
Avoiding Spins
To avoid entering a spin:
 Prevent stalls by keeping the wing below the critical angle of attack.
 Prevent yaw during a stall by maintaining coordinated flight.
 Keep the CG within approved limits.

Weight and Balance Considerations

Altering the CG by adding a back seat passenger or a suitcase to an aft baggage compartment can change the
characteristics of a spin.
Any concentration of weight or unbalanced weight distribution that is too far from the CG is undesirable.

Approved for Spins?

It is important for you to understand the aircraft operating limitations placarded in the airplane or included in the
pilot's operating handbook (POH)
Normal category airplanes are prohibited from intentional spins. However, during aircraft certification tests, they
must demonstrate recovery from a one-turn spin or a three-second spin, whichever takes longer. Because they are
only tested to these minimum standards, their ability to recover beyond these limits is unknown.
Utility category airplanes must meet the same spin requirements as normal category airplanes, unless they are
certified for spins. In that case, they must satisfy the spin requirements for acrobatic airplanes. Approval for spins in
utility category airplanes may be limited to a reduced weight and with a much narrower CG range.
Acrobatic category airplanes must recover from six-turn spins within 1.5 additional turns.
 Normal Category = Intentional spins prohibited. Very limited spin tests during certification. Must recover from
a one-turn or three-second spin within one additional turn.
 Utility Category = Same certification requirements as for normal category, unless certified for spins, then
same requirements as for acrobatic category
 Acrobatic Category = Must recover from a six-turn spin within 1.5 additional turns.

Spin Recovery
Always recover from an inadvertent spin as soon as possible to prevent excessive altitude loss and reduce
recovery time.
Spin recovery techniques vary considerably for different airplanes.
To recover from a spin, it is best to follow the spin recovery procedures in your POH.
If you cannot remember the POH recovery procedures, follow these general spin recovery guidelines:
 1. Reduce the power to idle.
2. Position the ailerons to neutral.
3. Apply full opposite rudder against the rotation.
4. Apply a positive and brisk, straight, forward movement of the elevator control forward of neutral to break
the stall.
After rotation stops:
5. Neutralize the rudder.
6. Begin applying back-elevator pressure to raise the nose to level flight.
 AERODYNAMICS OF
MANEUVERING FLIGHT

How Vectors Change During Climbs

In a stabilized climb, the aerodynamic forces are in equilibrium, but the relationship among those forces is altered.
Weight consists of a component that acts 90 degrees to the flight path and a rearward component that opposes
thrust.
Transitioning into Climbs
A transition from level flight into a climb requires:
 An increase in the pitch attitude
 An increase in power
The thrust required to sustain a given airspeed for cruising flight is not enough to maintain the same airspeed in a
climb.
For a sustained climb, you need excess thrust, not excess lift.

When is No Lift Required to Fly?

During a normal sustained climb, a component of weight is opposed by lift. However, in a true sustained vertical
climb, such as the one performed by the Lockheed Martin/Boeing F-22, the wings supply no vertical lift, and thrust
is the only force opposing weight. Depending on an aircraft's thrust-to-weight ratio, a sustained vertical climb can
be maintained under certain conditions. The thrust-to-weight ratio of the F-22 is approximately 1.3 to 1. In contrast,
the thrust-to-weight ratio of the Boeing 747 is about 0.26 to 1.
Factors that Cause Left-Turning Tendencies
Four factors that cause left-turning tendencies in a propeller-driven aircraft:
 Torque
 Gyroscopic precession
 Asymmetrical thrust of the propeller (P-factor)
 Spiraling slipstream

Torque
In most single-engine airplanes, the propeller rotates clockwise when viewed from the pilot's seat. The clockwise
rotation of a spinning propeller causes a reaction force, called torque, which tends to roll the airplane left about its
longitudinal axis.
Gyroscopic Precession
A turning propeller exhibits the characteristics of a gyroscope: rigidity in space and precession. Gyroscopic
precession occurs when a force is applied to the tip of the moving propeller. The resultant force acts in the direction
of the rotation, approximately 90 degrees ahead of the point where force is applied.

Any change in pitch attitude applies a force to the propeller:

 Downward pitch applies a force to the top of the propeller.
Gyroscopic precession causes the airplane to yaw to the left.
 Upward pitch applies a force to the bottom of the propeller.
Gyroscopic precession causes the airplane to yaw to the right.

P-Factor
turn occurs when you fly an airplane at a high angle of attack, such as during takeoff or a climb.
Flying the airplane at a high angle of attack causes uneven angles of attack between the ascending and
descending propeller blades, which causes the airplane to yaw to the left.
The ascending blade produces less thrust on the left than the descending blade on the right.
This asymmetrical thrust produces a tendency for the airplane to yaw to the left.
P-factor is most pronounced when the engine is operating at a high power setting, and when the airplane is flying at
a high angle of attack.

Spiraling Slipstream
As the propeller rotates, it produces a backward flow of air, or slipstream, which wraps around the airplane.
The spiraling slipstream strikes the left side of the vertical tail, and the resulting force causes the airplane to yaw
about its vertical axis, moving the nose to the left.

How Weight Affects Airspeed

In stabilized descending flight, aerodynamic forces are in equilibrium with the force of weight, which consists of two
components:
 Weight that acts perpendicular to the flight path
 Weight that acts forward along the flight path
In a power-on descent, the forward component of weight increases, which increases airspeed without increasing
thrust.
The increase in airspeed also increases parasite drag. which balances the forward component of weight.
In a power-off descent, lowering the nose increases the forward component of weight, which counteracts drag and
enables the aircraft to glide at a constant airspeed.

Lift-to-Drag Ratio
The lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) determines gliding efficiency.
The glide ratio represents the distance an airplane can travel forward without power in relation to altitude loss.
The glide angle is the angle between the glide path and the horizon.
Glide angle increases as drag increases, and decreases as drag decreases.
A shallow glide with minimum drag provides the maximum gliding distance for any given altitude. Adjust pitch to
counteract any corresponding changes in drag during a power-off glide.
The maximum lift-to-drag ratio (L/Dmax) is the specific angle of attack that generates the greatest lift with the least
amount of drag. The best glide ratio of an aircraft is available only at the optimum angle of attack associated with
L/Dmax.

At a given weight, L/Dmax will correspond to a certain airspeed that is usually noted in your airplane's POH or on a
placard in the aircraft. Memorize the airspeed associated with L/Dmax for your aircraft in case of emergency.

L/Dmax provides:
 The maximum gliding distance.
 The best glide angle for descent

Best Glide Speed

At any given weight, L/Dmax corresponds to a specific airspeed called the best glide speed.
Maintaining best glide speed is critical after an engine failure. Deviation from best glide speed will increase drag
and reduce the distance you can glide.
Maintaining the best glide speed published by your airplane's manufacturer ensures an optimum glide.
How Weight Affects a Glide
Glide ratio is not affected by weight variations.
Aerodynamically identical aircraft carrying different weight can glide the same distance from the same altitude, but:
 The heavier airplane must fly at a higher airspeed.
 The heavier airplane will sink faster and reach the ground sooner.
Both airplanes will travel the same distance if the best glide speed for the actual weight is maintained.

How Configuration Affects a Glide

Any change in aircraft configuration that increases drag reduces glide efficiency.
Lowering flaps and landing gear increases both parasite drag and total drag, which reduces the airplane's
maximum lift-to-drag ratio and glide ratio.
To maintain airspeed with landing gear extended, lower the nose of the airplane. This increases the rate of
descent, which causes it to reach the ground sooner than a gear-up, "clean" configuration.
How Wind Affects a Glide
The airplane always moves relative to the air, but the glide path is affected by the movement of the air over the
ground.
Headwinds reduce glide distance.
In a strong headwind, increase glide speed to optimize the distance you can travel for a given altitude.
Tailwinds increase glide distance.
Decrease the normal best glide speed to take advantage of strong tailwinds.
Look in your aircraft POH for recommended adjustments to best glide speed during strong headwinds or tailwinds.

Comparing Glide Ratios

The glide ratio of an airplane is a matter of design. Some aircraft, such as high-speed military fighters, are designed
with an emphasis on maneuverability. Their wings are generally short and have a low aspect ratio, which produces
a low glide ratio. At the other end of the spectrum are aircraft such as gliders, which depend on a high aspect ratio
and high glide ratio to stay airborne.
Forces Involved in a Turn
Centripetal force is the horizontal component of lift that causes the airplane to turn.
Centrifugal force is the apparent force that results from inertial resistance to a turn. Centrifugal force (inertia)
opposes centripetal force.
To maintain altitude during a turn, you must increase lift until the vertical component of lift equals weight.

Coordinated Turns
Coordinated turns occur when centrifugal force equals the horizontal component of lift.
Weight = Total Lift
An imbalance of turning forces causes uncoordinated flight conditions such as slips or skids.

Correcting Uncoordinated Turns (Slips)

A slip occurs when centrifugal force is less than the horizontal component of lift:
 Ball to inside of turn.
 Pilot feels a sideways force to the inside of turn.
To correct a slip, either decrease the amount of bank or increase the rate of turn by applying more rudder pressure
in the direction of the turn.

Correcting Uncoordinated Turns (Skids)

A skid occurs when centrifugal force exceeds the horizontal component of lift.
 Ball to outside of turn.
 Pilot feels a sideways force to the outside of a turn.
To correct a skid, either increase the amount of bank or decrease the rate of turn by applying less rudder pressure
in the direction of the turn.

Correcting Uncoordinated Turns (Adverse Yaw)

Adverse yaw occurs during a turn when the outside wing produces more lift and induced drag than the inside wing.
Yawing tendency occurs opposite the direction of the turn.
To correct this, coordinate the use of aileron and rudder to compensate for the adverse yaw.

Correcting Uncoordinated Turns (Overbanking Tendency)

Overbanking tendency is caused by additional lift on the outside wing after increasing the angle of bank.
The outside wing travels faster than the inside wing, producing more lift, causing excess roll.
To correct for overbanking tendency, use a small amount of opposite aileron to maintain the desired angle of bank.

Proverse Yaw
Adverse yaw might not be a factor on aircraft that don't exclusively employ ailerons to control roll. Some aircraft use
spoilers either as the primary method of controlling roll or as a complement to ailerons. Spoilers work by "spoiling"
the lift on the wing in the direction of the desired roll. A secondary effect of using spoilers is the propensity for
creating proverse yaw. As you might expect, proverse yaw is essentially the opposite of adverse yaw
The Boeing 727 has 14 spoilers, 10 of which assist the two sets of ailerons in rolling the aircraft. During high-speed
flight the outboard set of ailerons is locked in a trim position, while the inboard ailerons and spoilers work to roll the
aircraft.
Although proverse yaw might be common to spoiler-equipped aircraft and could be considered at beneficial
characteristic, spoilers are most suitable for use on high-speed aircraft. Because spoilers dump lift, they might not
be desirable for training aircraft or other low-speed airplanes.

Rate, Radius, Bank Angle, and Airspeed

Rate of turn is the amount of time necessary for an airplane to turn a specified number of degrees.
Radius of turn is the amount of horizontal distance an aircraft uses to complete a turn.
Every airplane, regardless of type, will turn at the same rate when flown at the same airspeed and angle of bank.
The turning radius will also be the same.
Airspeed affects the rate and radius of turn in a number of ways:
 Increased airspeed at a constant angle of bank decreases the rate of turn and increases the radius. (It takes
longer to complete a 360-degree turn.)
 Reduced airspeed at a constant angle of bank increases the rate of turn and decreases the radius of turn. (It
takes less time to complete a 360-degree turn.)
The angle of bank affects both the rate and radius of a turn in these ways:
 Increased angle of bank at a constant airspeed decreases the turn radius and increases the rate of turn. (It
takes less time to complete a 360 degree turn.)
 Decreased angle of bank at a constant airspeed increases the radius of turn and decreases the rate of turn.
(It takes more time to complete a 360 degree turn.)

What is Load Factor?

Load factor is the ratio of the weight supported by the airplane's wings to the actual weight of the aircraft and its
contents.
Load factor is measured in terms of G-forces (Gs), with normal unaccelerated flight equal to one G.
Turning or banking the airplane while maintaining a constant altitude increases the load factor.
Load factor changes during flight due to pilot input or environmental conditions, and these changes can occur in
straight-and-level flight as well as in turns.

lbs. supported by the wings

=Gs (Load Factor)
lbs . actual aircraft weight
Calculate load factor by dividing the load that the wings are supporting by the weight of the aircraft and its contents.

Zero Gravity
If you abruptly push the control stick forward, you feel as if your weight suddenly decreases because your body
inertia is continuing forward while the aircraft is diving away from the original flight path. If the effects of inertia and
centripetal force cancel each other, you experience the weightless sensation of zero Gs. If inertia overcomes
centripetal force, negative G-loading occurs.
How Many Gs is Too Many?
From the files of the NTSB
Aircraft: Pitts S-2A-destroyed.
Crew: One, seriously injured
Narrative: The witness stated the pilot was performing aerobatic maneuvers. At the top of the loop (approx. 3,000 ft
AGL), the aircraft remained inverted, power was reduced, and an inverted spin was entered. The aircraft remained
in the inverted spin to water impact. The pilot does not recall the accident flight, but stated he had been having
problems with G-loads and low blood pressure.

It is possible, even likely, that some aerobatic aircraft might be able to withstand more Gs than the pilot. A pilot's G-
tolerance is a function of many factors, including the intensity, duration, and direction of the G-forces. The main
physical problems associated with G-forces are caused by basic reactions within the cardiovascular system.
Positive Gs create a pooling of blood in the lower extremities of the body, impairing circulation and reducing blood
pressure in the head. Continued or increased G-loading results in decreased visual acuity, followed by
unconsciousness, or blackout. The human body is even less tolerant of negative Gs, which force blood into the
head. Large amounts of sustained negative Gs can result in uncomfortable symptoms such as facial pain and red-
out. Although some experienced aerobatic pilots might be able to withstand seven or eight positive Gs before
blacking out, most will be incapacitated by as little as negative 3Gs. You can improve your G-tolerance by
maintaining good physical conditioning and avoiding smoking, hyperventilation, and hypoxia. However, most civil
pilots will not encounter G-forces of sufficient strength during normal flight to cause any significant problems.

How Angle of Bank Affects Load Factor

Load factor is proportional to angle of bank. It increases as the angle of the bank increases.
At 45 degrees angle of bank, load factor is 1.4Gs.
At 60 degrees angle of bank, it increases to 2Gs.
During constant altitude turns, the relationship between load factor and angle of bank is the same for all airplanes,
regardless of speed or size. In any airplane, flying in a 60-degree bank requires two Gs to maintain level flight.
The vertical component of lift decreases in a turn, causing altitude loss until you increase the thrust to maintain
airspeed and increase the angle of attack by increasing the back pressure on the control stick.

G Forces in Turns
The forces that act on a turning airplane are similar to the forces that occur as you enter a banked turn while riding
on a rollercoaster.
On a rollercoaster, you can feel the resultant force created by the combination of centripetal force and inertia as an
increase in seat pressure. This pressure is an increased positive load factor that causes you to feel heavier in the
turn than when you are on a flat portion of the track.

How Load Factor Affects Stall Speed

Load factor and stall speed are directly proportional; increasing load factor increases stall speed.
An airplane that has a 1G stalling speed of 70 knots, when rolled into a 60-degree bank, will stall at 98 knots at 2Gs
(40% increase).
At 75 degrees angle of bank, the load factor increases to 4Gs and there is a 100 percent increase in stall speed.
The relationship between load factor, angle of bank, and stall speed is the same for all airplanes, regardless of
speed or size.
Accelerated stalls occur when you exceed the critical angle of attack (CLmax)

What is Limit Load Factor

Limit load factor is the amount of stress, or load factor, that an airplane can withstand before structural damage
occurs.
The POH specifies the limit load factor, expressed as maximum positive and negative Gs.
Adhere to proper loading techniques and fly within the limits listed in the POH to help avoid structural damage.

The Envelope
The V-g diagram depicts the envelope of an airplane's velocity (V) and load factor (G).
Flying within the boundaries depicted by the V-g diagram minimizes the risk of stalls, spins, and structural damage.

Maneuvering Speed and Structural Limits

Design maneuvering speed (VA) is the maximum speed at which you can use full, abrupt flight control
movement without overstressing the airframe.
Operating at or below maneuvering speed causes the airplane to stall before you exceed the limit load factor, which
prevents damage to the airplane.
At airspeeds higher than maneuvering speed, excess load can cause structural damage before a stall occurs.

How Weight Affects Maneuvering Speed

Maneuvering speed decreases as weight decreases.
A lighter aircraft has a greater margin between the angle of attack necessary for level flight and the stalling angle of
attack.

SLOW FLIGHT
Slow Flight
Establish and maintain an airspeed:
 Approximately 2 knots above the speed at which the first stall warning occurs.
 At which the airplane is capable of maintaining controlled flight without a stall warning.

Safety Procedures
Before every maneuver, perform clearing turns (two turns of 90 degrees) for collision avoidance.
For maneuvers such as slow flight and stalls, select an entry altitude high enough for you to recover no lower than
1,500 feet AGL.
Steps for Performing Slow Flight
Decrease the airspeed.
 Reduce power.
 Add back pressure on the control stick to maintain altitude.
 Use the rudder pedals to stay on heading and maintain coordinated flight.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.
Stabilize at the desired airspeed.
 Lower the flaps in increments.
 Add power to maintain altitude and airspeed.
 Use right rudder to offset the left-turning tendencies.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.
Perform climbs, descents, and shallow turns.
 Climb = coordinate an increase in pitch and power to maintain airspeed.
  Descend = coordinate a decrease in pitch and power to maintain airspeed.
 Turn = add power to maintain airspeed and avoid a stall.
Return to cruise flight.
 Lower the nose and add full power.
 Raise the flaps in Increments.
 Reduce right rudder pressure as airspeed increases.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.

Preventing Inadvertent Stalls

Power-off stalls are most likely to occur:
 When you become distracted flying at slow airspeeds. such as during traffic pattern operations.
 During the base-to-final turn when the loss of lift in the turn and slow airspeed reduce the margin above a
stall.
Power-on stalls are most likely to occur:
 During takeoff and departure when your workload is high and there are many distractions.
 While applying excessive back pressure on the control stick to climb over an obstacle after takeoff, especially
if your climb performance is compromised due to high density altitude.

Characteristics of an Impending Stall

There are several characteristics of an impending stall that you must know to operate an airplane safely:
 Degraded control effectiveness.
 Changes in the tone and intensity of the slipstream noise.
 Stall warning indicator such as a horn or annunciator.
 Airframe buffeting.

Safety Procedures
Before every maneuver, perform clearing turns for collision avoidance.
For maneuvers such as slow flight and stalls, select an entry altitude high enough for you to recover no lower than
1,500 feet AGL.
Steps for Performing a Power-off Stall
Establish a glide.
 Reduce the power to idle.
 Gradually apply back pressure to the control stick to maintain altitude and slow the airplane to approach
speed.
 Let the nose pitch down to descend.
 Extend the flaps in increments.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.
Induce the stall.
 Maintain coordinated fight using the rudder.
 Increase back pressure on the control stick to raise the nose to an attitude that will induce the stall.
 Maintain that pitch attitude until the stall Occurs.
Recover from the stall.
  Release back pressure on the control stick to reduce the angle of attack.
 Level the wings using coordinated aileron and rudder pressure.
 Add full power.
 Retract the flaps to an Intermediate setting.
Stop the descent by gently pulling back on the control stick.

Establish a climb.
 Retract the remainder of the flaps upon reaching the best rate-of-climb speed (VY).
 Trim to relieve control pressures.
Return to straight-and-level flight.
 Level off and accelerate to the desired airspeed.
 Return to the proper heading.
 Adjust the power as needed.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.

Power-Off Turning Stall Considerations

Consider these elements when performing a power-off turning stall:
 The power-off turning stall simulates an inadvertent stall during the turn from downwind to base or base to
final.
  The entry procedure for a power-off turning stall is the same as that for a straight-ahead stall except that you
roll into a turn of up to a 30° bank angle prior to inducing the stall.
 The recovery procedure is the same as for a straight-ahead stall except that you also must roll out of the turn
using coordinated aileron and rudder pressure.

Steps for Performing a Power-On Stall

Slow to takeoff speed.
 Reduce the power.
 Apply back pressure to the control stick to maintain altitude and slow the airplane to takeoff speed.
 Set the flaps to the take off position.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.
Induce the stall.
 Add takeoff power.
 Apply right rudder pressure as needed to maintain coordinated flight.
 Increase back pressure on the control stick to raise the nose to an attitude that will induce the stall.
 Maintain that pitch attitude until the stall occurs.
Recover from the stall.
 Release back pressure on the control stick to reduce the angle of attack.
  Level the wings using coordinated aileron and rudder pressure.
 Add full power.
Stop the descent by gently pulling back on the control stick.
Establish a climb.
 Retract the flaps upon reaching the best rate-of-climb speed.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.

Return to straight- and-level flight.

 Level off and accelerate to the desired airspeed.
 Return to the proper heading.
 Adjust the power as needed.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.

Power-On Turning Stall Considerations

Consider these elements when performing a power-on turning stall:
 The power-on turning stall simulates an inadvertent stall that can occur while turning to leave the pattern on
departure.
 The entry procedure is the same as that for a straight-ahead stall except that as you approach takeoff speed,
you roll into a turn of up to a 20° bank angle.
 A power-on stall entry may require right rudder pressure to maintain coordinated flight even in a left turn.
 The angle of bank tends to steepen in a left turn due to torque and P-factor and become shallower in a right
turn.
  The recovery procedure is the same as that for a straight- ahead stall except that you must roll out of the turn
using coordinated aileron and rudder pressure.

Overview of Demonstrated Stalls

The FAA requires you to receive aeronautical knowledge training and demonstrate understanding of:
 Secondary stalls.
 Accelerated maneuver stalls.
 Elevator trim stalls.
 Cross-control stalls.
 Spin entry and recovery.
Your instructor might demonstrate these types of stalls and instruct you on spin recovery procedures.
You should never practice spins or demonstrated stalls solo.

Secondary Stall
Secondary Stall Cause
You pitch up too quickly during a stall recovery before the airplane reaches sufficient flying speed.
Secondary Stall Recovery
 Release back pressure on the control stick to reduce the angle of attack.
 Ensure full power is set.
 Stop the descent by gently pulling back on the control stick.

Accelerated Maneuver Stall

Accelerated Maneuver Stall Cause
You impose high maneuvering loads by using excessive back pressure in steep turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt
changes in attitude, causing a stall at a higher-than- normal airspeed.
Accelerated Maneuver Stall Recovery
 Immediately release the back pressure on the control stick.
 Add power.
 To prevent one wing from dropping suddenly, use coordinated aileron and rudder pressure to return to
straight-and-level flight.

Elevator Trim Stall

Elevator Trim Stall Cause
You perform a go-around and let the airplane pitch up to a stall attitude because the trim is set for landing, or you
perform a takeoff with excessive nose-up trim.
Imminent Elevator Trim Stall Recovery
 Apply forward pressure on the control stick to return to a normal climb attitude.
 Trim to relieve the excess control pressure and continue the climb until reaching the desired altitude.

Cross-Control Stall Causes and Hazards

You risk a cross-control stall on a poorly executed turn from base to final.
Here's how the deadly scenario plays out:
 You try to increase the rate of turn by applying excessive rudder pressure.
 You move the control stick in the opposite direction to avoid a steep bank angle close to the ground.
 You add extra back pressure to maintain your pitch attitude.
 In this cross-control situation the airplane stalls with almost no warning.
 When the stall occurs, the nose pitches down, the inside wing drops, and the airplane enters a spin. You will
probably not be able to recover so close to the ground.
Don't let this happen to you. If you do overshoot a turn to final, make sure you maintain coordinated flight, and keep
the nose down to maintain approach speed and add power as needed to maintain a safe altitude.
Cross-Control Stall Demonstration
Cross-Control Stall Cause
You overshoot the extended runway centerline on a poorly executed turn from base to final.
Cross-Control Stall Recovery
 Release back pressure on the control stick to reduce the angle of attack.
 Quickly release the aileron deflection and rudder pressure.
 Add power to return to straight-and-level flight, unless an unusual attitude develops.

Conditions for a Spin

A spin is an aggravated stall that results in autorotation, in which the airplane descends in a corkscrew path.
For an airplane to enter a spin:
 The wings must stall.
 The ailerons and rudder must be uncoordinated.
 One wing must be more fully stalled than the other wing.

Spin Recovery
You must follow the specific spin recovery procedures from your airplane's POH. If there isn't a POH procedure
available, the following general steps are recommended by the FAA:

1. Reduce the power to idle.

2. Position the ailerons to neutral.
3. Apply full opposite rudder against the rotation.
4. Apply a positive and brisk straight forward movement of the elevator control forward of neutral to break the
stall.
5. After the spin rotation stops, neutralize the rudder.
6. Begin applying back-elevator pressure to raise the nose to level flight.

STEEP TURNS
Maneuvering Speed for Steep Turns
Perform steep turns at or below maneuvering speed (VA) because:
 The airplane's load factor increases with an increase in bank angle.
 Too much load on the airplane can cause structural damage, but at or below VA, the wings stall before the
load factor becomes excessive.

Safety Procedures
Before every maneuver, perform clearing turns for collision avoidance.
Steps for Performing a Steep Turn
Establish references and the proper airspeed.
 Select a prominent landmark on the horizon for a heading reference.
 Note the heading and altitude by referring to the instruments.
 Verify that you are at or below maneuvering speed (VA) by referring to the airspeed indicator.
Establish the turn.
 Roll into a coordinated 45° bank turn.
 Add power and increase back pressure on the control stick to maintain altitude.
Maintain the angle of bank and the altitude.
  Establish and maintain a reference point on the airplane to the horizon.
 Verify the correct bank angle by referring to the attitude indicator.
 Verify the proper pitch attitude to maintain altitude by referring to the altimeter and the vertical speed
indicator.
Roll out on the entry heading and altitude.
 Lead the desired heading by ½ of the bank angle, approximately 20°.
 Decrease back pressure on the control stick.
 Reduce power.
 ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT
FLYING

Four-Step Process for Attitude Instrument Flying

To enhance your ability to maintain and change attitudes when practicing attitude instrument flying, use a four-step
process:
1. Establish the attitude.
Use the attitude indicator as the primary reference when changing pitch or bank.
2. Trim to relieve control pressures.
Use the trim to eliminate the need to apply force to the control stick to maintain the established attitude.
3. Cross check to verify the attitude.
Scan and interpret the instruments to determine the magnitude of any deviations.
4. Adjust for deviations.
Make small corrections for minor changes in pitch and bank using the attitude indicator as the primary reference.

Radial Cross-Check
When performing the radial cross-check to scan the instruments, keep your eyes on the attitude indicator 80% to
90% of the time, transitioning from the attitude indicator to the other instruments for the remainder of the time.

Attitude Instrument Flying Common Errors

To become proficient in performing basic maneuvers by instrument reference, you should avoid two common
errors associated with attitude instrument flying:
 Fixation = applying your full concentration to a single instrument and excluding all others.
 Omission = failing to anticipate significant instrument indications following attitude changes.
Bank Angle for Standard-Rate Turn
To determine the approximate angle of bank required for a standard rate turn, divide your airspeed by 10 and add
one-half the result.

120 ÷ 10=12

12+6=18 °of bank

Actions to Maintain Straight-and-Level Flight

To maintain the correct attitude when flying straight and level by reference to instruments:
1. Position the aircraft symbol on the horizon line of the attitude indicator.
2. Use the attitude indicator as your primary reference for pitch and bank changes and cross check the
other instruments.
3. Adjust the pitch when you notice changes on the:
 Attitude indicator.
  Altimeter.
 Vertical speed indicator (VSI).
 Airspeed indicator.
4. Adjust the bank when you notice changes on the:
 Attitude indicator.
 Heading indicator.

Steps for Performing a Constant Airspeed Climb

1. Establish the climb attitude.
 Simultaneously add power and position the aircraft symbol to the desired pitch above the horizon line on the
attitude indicator.
 Use the airspeed indicator and vertical speed indicator to establish the desired airspeed and rate of climb.
 Refer to the attitude indicator and heading indicator to maintain directional control.
2. Maintain the climb attitude.
Adjust the pitch when you notice changes on the:
 Attitude indicator.
 Airspeed indicator.
 Vertical speed indicator (VSI).
Adjust the bank when you notice changes on the:
 Attitude indicator.
 Heading indicator.
 Cross check the altimeter to determine your progress toward the desired altitude.
3. Level off at the appropriate point.
 Refer to the altimeter to begin leveling off at approximately 10 percent of your climb rate below the desired
altitude.
 Adjust the pitch to place the aircraft symbol on the horizon line of the attitude indicator.
 Cross check the altimeter and VSI to establish the proper pitch.
4. Return to cruise flight.
 Use the attitude indicator as your primary reference for straight-and-level flight.
 Cross check the airspeed indicator and adjust pitch and power as necessary when you have accelerated to
cruise airspeed.
Steps for Performing a Constant Airspeed Descent
1. Establish the descent attitude.
 In straight-and-level flight at your desired descent airspeed, reduce power.
 Refer to the attitude indicator and heading indicator to maintain directional control.
2. Maintain the descent attitude.
Adjust the pitch when you notice changes on the:
  Attitude indicator.
 Airspeed indicator.
 Vertical speed indicator (VSI)
Adjust the bank when you notice changes on the:
 Attitude indicator.
 Heading indicator.
 Cross check the altimeter to determine your progress toward the desired altitude.
3. Level off at the appropriate point.
 Refer to the altimeter to begin leveling off at approximately 10 percent of your descent rate above the desired
altitude.
 Simultaneously add power to the cruise power setting and adjust the pitch to place the aircraft symbol on the
horizon line of the attitude indicator.
 Cross check the altimeter and VSI to establish the proper pitch.

4. Return to cruise flight.

 Use the attitude indicator as your primary reference for straight-and-level flight.
 Cross check the airspeed indicator and adjust pitch and power as necessary when you have accelerated to
cruise airspeed.
Steps for Performing a Turn to a Heading
1. Roll into the turn.
 Apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure in the direction of the turn.
 Use the attitude indicator to establish the approximate pitch and bank required for a standard rate turn.
 Refer to the turn rate indicator to verify the standard-rate turn.
 Cross check the altimeter and VSI to adjust the pitch as the vertical lift component decreases with an
increase in bank.
2. Maintain the turn attitude.
Adjust the pitch when you notice changes on the:
 Attitude indicator.
 Altimeter.
 Vertical speed indicator (VSI).
 Airspeed indicator.
Adjust the bank when you notice changes on the:
 Turn rate indicator.
 Attitude indicator.
 Cross check the heading indicator to determine your progress.

3. Roll out of the turn.

 Refer to the heading indicator to begin rolling out at approximately 1/2 the angle of bank prior to your
heading.
 Use the attitude indicator as your primary reference for rolling out.
 Cross check the altimeter to maintain altitude.
Nose-High Unusual Attitudes
Instrument indications:
 Nose-high pitch of the aircraft symbol on the attitude indicator.
 Rapidly increasing altitude on the altimeter.
 High rate of climb on the VSI.
 Rapidly decreasing airspeed.
To recover, perform these actions almost simultaneously but in the following sequence:
1. Add power.
2. Lower the nose to place the aircraft symbol on the horizon line of the attitude indicator.
 3. Level the wings using the attitude indicator as a reference.

Nose-Low Unusual Attitudes

Instrument indications:
 Nose-low pitch of the aircraft symbol on the attitude indicator.
 Rapidly decreasing altitude on the altimeter.
 High rate of descent on the VSI.
 Rapidly increasing airspeed.
To recover, perform these actions almost simultaneously but in the following sequence:
1. Reduce power.
2. Level the wings using the attitude indicator as a reference.
3. Raise the nose to place the aircraft symbol on the horizon line of the attitude indicator.
 FLIGHT LESSON 4:
MANEUVERS AND ATTITUDE
INSTRUMENT FLIGHT

Flight Lesson 4: Flight Maneuvers and Attitude Instrument

Flight
 Complete the tasks listed in the Review table of the Mission to gain proficiency.
 Conduct flight at various airspeeds from cruise to slow flight,
 Understand how to configure the airplane for slow flight and maneuver during slow flight.
 Conduct power-off and power-on stalls and recovery procedures.
 Conduct climbing and descending turns using outside visual references.
  Conduct straight-and-level flight by reference to flight instruments.
 Conduct constant airspeed climbs and descents by reference to flight instruments.
 Conduct steep turns.

Mission of the 4th Flight Lesson

Guidelines of the 4th Flight Lesson