1

Advanced Grammar Review

By Kenneth Beare, About.com
http://esl.about.com/od/advancedgrammar/Advanced_Level_Grammar_for_ESL_Learners.htm

I. Tense Review
The following exercises serve two purposes:
1. Re-familiarization of standard tense names
2. Tense conjugation practice
The first exercise is very important as you may not remember exactly the names of the various tenses. This
exercise will help you remember the names of the tenses.
Once you have finished the first exercise, read the text through one more time to familiarize yourself with it
completely. Go on to the next exercise that asks you to conjugate the verbs in the extract. You should be
very familiar with the extract so you can concentrate on the correct conjugation. Notice how the tenses
relate to each other in time. Remember that many verbs are conjugated based on how they relate to one
another.
Here is the original text.
John has always travelled a lot. In fact, he was only two years old when he first flew to the US. His mother
is Italian and his father is American. John was born in France, but his parents had met in Cologne, Germany
after they had been living there for five years. They met one day while John's father was reading a book in
the library and his mother sat down beside him. Anyway, John travels a lot because his parents also travel a
lot.
As a matter of fact, John is visiting his parents in France at the moment. He lives in New York now, but has
been visiting his parents for the past few weeks. He really enjoys living in New York, but he also loves
coming to visit his parents at least once a year.
This year he has flown over 50,000 miles for his job. He has been working for Jackson & Co. for almost two
years now. He's pretty sure that he'll be working for them next year as well. His job requires a lot of travel.
In fact, by the end of this year, he'll have travelled over 120,000 miles! His next journey will be to Australia.
He really doesn't like going to Australia because it is so far. This time he is going to fly from Paris after a
meeting with the company's French partner. He'll have been sitting for over 18 hours by the time he arrives!
John was talking with his parents earlier this evening when his girlfriend from New York telephoned to let
him know that Jackson & Co. had decided to merge with a company in Australia. The two companies had
been negotiating for the past month, so it really wasn't much of a surprise. Of course, this means that John
will have to catch the next plane back to New York. He'll be meeting with his boss at this time tomorrow.
Tense Conjugation
Read the following short story and conjugate the verbs. Once you have conjugated the verb.

John Tense? _____ (always travel) a lot. In fact, he Tense? _____ (be) only two years old when he first
Tense? _____ (fly) to the US. His mother Tense? _____ (be) Italian and his father Tense? _____ (be)
American. John Tense? _____(be) born in France, but his parents Tense? _____ (meet) in Cologne,
Germany after they Tense? _____ (live) there for five years. They Tense? _____ (meet) one day while
John's father Tense? _____ (read) a book in the library and his mother Tense? _____ (sit down) beside him.
Anyway, John Tense? _____ (travel) a lot because his parents also Tense? _____ (travel) a lot.
As a matter of fact, John Tense? _____ (visit) his parents in France at the moment. He Tense? _____ (live)
in New York now, but Tense? _____ (visit) his parents for the past few weeks. He really Tense? _____
(enjoy) living in New York, but he also Tense? _____ (love) coming to visit his parents at least once a year.
This year Tense? _____ (fly) over 50,000 miles for his job. He Tense? _____ (work) for Jackson & Co. for
almost two years now. He Tense? _____ (be) pretty sure that heTense? _____ (work) for them next year as
well. His job Tense? _____(require) a lot of travel. In fact, by the end of this year, heTense? _____ over
120,000 miles! His next journey Tense? _____ (be) to Australia. He really Tense? _____ (not like) going to
Australia because it is so far. This time he Tense? _____ (fly) from Paris after a meeting with the
company's French partner. He Tense? _____ for over 18 hours by the time he Tense? _____ (arrive)!
John Tense? _____ (talking) with his parents earlier this evening when his girlfriend from New York Tense?
_____ (telephone) to let him know that Jackson & Co. Tense? _____ (decide) to merge with a company in
Australia. The two companies Tense? [_____ (negotiate) for the past month, so it really Tense? _____ (not
 2
be) much of a surprise. Of course, this Tense? _____ (mean) that John Tense? _____ (have to catch) the
next plane back to New York. He Tense? _____ with his boss at this time tomorrow.
Answers
John Tense? has always traveled (always travel) a lot. In fact, he Tense? was (be) only two years old when
he first Tense? flew (fly) to the US. His mother Tense? is (be) Italian and his father Tense? is (be)
American. John Tense? was (be) born in France, but his parents Tense? had met (meet) in Cologne,
Germany after they Tense? had been living (live) there for five years. They Tense? met (meet) one day
while John's father Tense? was reading (read) a book in the library and his mother Tense? sat down (sit
down) beside him. Anyway, John Tense? travels (travel) a lot because his parents also Tense? travel (travel)
a lot.
As a matter of fact, John Tense? is visiting (visit) his parents in France at the moment. He Tense? lives (live)
in New York now, but Tense? has been visiting (visit) his parents for the past few weeks. He really Tense?
enjoys (enjoy) living in New York, but he also Tense? loves (love) coming to visit his parents at least once a
year.
This year Tense? he has flown (fly) over 50,000 miles for his job. He Tense? has been working (work) for
Jackson & Co. for almost two years now. He Tense? is (be) pretty sure that heTense? will be working
(work) for them next year as well. His job Tense? requires (require) a lot of travel. In fact, by the end of
this year, heTense? will have traveled over 120,000 miles! His next journey Tense? will be (be) to Australia.
He really Tense? doesn't like (not like) going to Australia because it is so far. This time he Tense? is going
to fly (fly) from Paris after a meeting with the company's French partner. He Tense? will have been sitting
for over 18 hours by the time he Tense? arrives (arrive)!
John Tense? was talking (talking) with his parents earlier this evening when his girlfriend from New York
Tense? telephoned (telephone) to let him know that Jackson & Co. Tense? had decided (decide) to merge
with a company in Australia. The two companies Tense? had been negotiating (negotiate) for the past
month, so it really Tense? wasn't (not be) much of a surprise. Of course, this Tense? means (mean) that
John Tense? will have to catch (have to catch) the next plane back to New York. HeTense? will be meeting
with his boss at this time tomorrow.
Tense Identification
Read the following short story and identify the tenses used. Each tense is used at least once. Once you have
identified the tense from the chart below.

John has always travelled Tense?____ a lot. In fact, when he was Tense? ____ only two years old when he
first flew Tense? ____ to the US. His mother is Tense? ____ Italian and his father is Tense? ____
American. John was born Tense? ____ in France, but his parents had met Tense? ____ in Cologne,
Germany after they had been living Tense? ____ there for five years. They met Tense? ____ one day while
John's father was reading Tense? ____ a book in the library and his mother sat down Tense? ____ beside
him. Anyway, John travels Tense? ____ a lot because his parents also travel Tense? ____ a lot.
As a matter of fact, John is visiting Tense? ____ his parents in France at the moment. He lives Tense? ____
in New York now, but has been visiting Tense? ____his parents for the past few weeks. He really enjoys
Tense? ____ living in New York, but he also loves Tense? ____ coming to visit his parents at least once a
year.
This year he has flown Tense? ____ over 50,000 miles for his job. He has been working Tense? ____ for
Jackson & Co. for almost two years now. He's Tense? ____ pretty sure that he'll be working Tense? ____
for them next year as well. His job requires Tense? ____ a lot of travel. In fact, by the end of this year, he'll
have travelled Tense? ____ over 120,000 miles! His next journey will be Tense? ____ to Australia. He
really doesn't like Tense? ____ going to Australia because it is so far. This time he is going to fly Tense?
____from Paris after a meeting with the company's French partner. He'll have been sitting Tense? ____ for
over 18 hours by the time he arrives!
John was talking Tense? ____ with his parents earlier this evening when his girlfriend from New York
telephoned Tense? ____ to let him know that Jackson & Co. had decided Tense? ____ to merge with a
company in Australia. The two companies had been negotiating Tense? ____ for the past month, so it really
wasn't Tense? ____ much of a surprise. Of course, this means Tense? ____ that John will have to catch
Tense? ____ the next plane back to New York. He'll be meeting Tense? ____ with his boss at this time
tomorrow.
 3
simple present simple past simple future
present perfect past perfect future perfect
present continuous past continuous future continuous
present perfect continuous past perfect continuous future perfect continuous
future intention
Answers
John has always travelled Tense? present perfect a lot. In fact, when he was Tense? simple past only two
years old when he first flew Tense? simple past to the US. His mother is Tense? simple present Italian and
his father is Tense? simple present American. John was born Tense? simple past (passive) in France, but
his parents had met Tense? past perfect in Cologne, Germany after they had been living Tense? past perfect
continuous there for five years. They met Tense? simple past one day while John's father was reading
Tense? past continuous a book in the library and his mother sat down Tense? simple past beside him.
Anyway, John travels Tense? simple present a lot because his parents also travel Tense? simple present a
lot.
As a matter of fact, John is visiting Tense? present continuous his parents in France at the moment. He lives
Tense? simple present in New York now, but has been visiting Tense? present perfect continuous his
parents for the past few weeks. He really enjoys Tense? simple present living in New York, but he also
loves Tense? simple present coming to visit his parents at least once a year.
This year he has flown Tense? present perfect over 50,000 miles for his job. He has been working Tense?
present perfect continuous for Jackson & Co. for almost two years now. He's Tense? simple present pretty
sure that he'll be working Tense? future continuous for them next year as well. His job requires Tense?
simple present a lot of travel. In fact, by the end of this year, he'll have travelled Tense? future perfect over
120,000 miles! His next journey will be Tense? simple future to Australia. He really doesn't like Tense?
simple present going to Australia because it is so far. This time he is going to fly Tense? future intention
with going to from Paris after a meeting with the company's French partner. He'll have been sitting Tense?
future perfect continuous for over 18 hours by the time he arrives!
John was talking Tense? past continuous with his parents earlier this evening when his girlfriend from New
York telephoned Tense? simple past to let him know that Jackson & Co. had decided Tense? past perfect to
merge with a company in Australia. The two companies had been negotiating Tense? past perfect
continuous for the past month, so it really wasn't Tense? simple past much of a surprise. Of course, this
means Tense? simple present that John will have to catch Tense? simple future the next plane back to New
York. He'll be meeting Tense? future continuous with his boss at this time tomorrow.

II. Discourse Markers - Linking Your Ideas in English

Some words and phrases help to develop ideas and relate them to one another. These kinds of words and
phrases are often called discourse markers. Note that most of these discourse markers are formal and used
when speaking in a formal context or when presenting complicated information in writing.

With regard to; regarding; as regards; as far as ……… is concerned, as for

These expressions focus attention on what follows in the sentence. This is done by announcing the subject in
advance. As regards and as far as………is concerned usually indicate a change of subject
Examples:
His grades in science subjects are excellent. As regards humanities …
With regard to the latest market figures we can see that ...
Regarding our efforts to improve the local economy, we have made ...
As far as I am concerned, we should continue to develop our resources.
As for John's thoughts, let's take a look at this report he sent me.
On the other hand; while; whereas
These expressions give expression to two ideas which contrast but do not contradict each other.
Examples:
Football is popular in England, while in Australia they prefer cricket.
We've been steadily improving our customer service centre. On the other hand our shipping department
needs to be redesigned.
Jack thinks we're ready to begin whereas Tom things we still need to wait.
 4
However, nonetheless, nevertheless
All these words are used to present two contrasting ideas.
Examples:
Smoking is proved to be dangerous to the health. Nonetheless, 40% of the population smokes.
Our teacher promised to take us on a field trip. However, he changed his mind last week.
Peter was warned not to invest all of his savings in the stock market. Nevertheless, he invested and lost
everything.
Moreover, furthermore, in addition
We use these expressions to add information to what has been said. The usage of these words is much more
elegant than just making a list or using the conjunction 'and'.
Examples:
His problems with his parents are extremely frustrating. Moreover, there seems to be no easy solution to
them.
I assured him that I would come to his presentation. Furthermore, I also invited a number of important
representatives from the local chamber of commerce.
Our energy bills have been increasing steadily. In addition to these costs, our telephone costs have doubled
over the past six months.
Therefore, as a result, consequently
These expressions show that the second statement follows logically from the first statement.
Examples:
He reduced the amount of time studying for his final exams. As a result, his marks were rather low.
We've lost over 3,000 customers over the past six months. Consequently, we have been forced to cut back
our advertising budget.
The government has drastically reduced its spending. Therefore, a number of programs have been cancelled.

III. Passive and Active:

Active to Passive Transformations
Put the following sentences into the passive voice or form. Once you have decided on your answer.
1. They make shoes in that factory.
Shoes ……….. in that factory.
2. People must not leave bicycles in the driveway.
Bicycles …………. in the driveway.
3. They built that skyscraper in 1934.
That skyscraper ……….. in 1934.
4. The students will finish the course by July.
The course …………. by July.
5. They are repairing the streets this month.
The streets …………. this month.
6. They make these tools of plastic.
These tools …………. of plastic.
7. They have finished the new product design.
The new product design …………….
8. They were cooking dinner when I arrived.
Dinner ………… when I arrived.
9. Smithers painted 'Red Sunset' in 1986.
'Red Sunset' …………. in 1986 by Smithers.
10. Did the plan interest you?
…………….. in the plan?
11. They had finished the preparations by the time the guests arrived.
The preparations ………….. by the time the guests arrived.
12. You should take care when working on electrical equipment.
Care ………. when working on electrical equipment.
13. They are going to perform Beethoven's Fifth Symphony next weekend.
Beethoven's Fifth Symphony …………. next weekend.
 5
14. Someone will speak Japanese at the meeting.
Japanese ………… at the meeting.
15. Karen is going to prepare the refreshments.
The refreshments …………… by Karen.
Passive to Active Transformations
Take the following sentences in the passive voice and put them into the active voice.
1. The instructions have been changed.
Someone has changed the instructions.
2. She will have to be taught.
Someone ………….. her.
3. This car was manufactured in Japan by Toyota.
Toyota ……………. .this car in Japan.
4. Why aren't the exercises being finished on time?
Why ………… the exercises on time?
5. Last year 2,000 new units had been produced by the time we introduced the new design.
We ………. 2,000 new units by the time we introduced the new design last year.
6. Casual clothes must not be worn.
You ……….. casual clothes.
7. $400,000 in profit has been reported this year.
The company ………… $400,000 in profit this year.
8. The test will be given at five o'clock this afternoon.
The school …………. the test at five o'clock this afternoon.
9. Students are required to wear uniforms at all times.
The school …………… students to wear uniforms at all times.
10. This rumour must have been started by our competitors.
Our competitors ………… this rumour.
11. All work will have been completed by five o'clock this evening.
You ………… all work by five o'clock this evening.
12. We were told to wait here.
Someone ………… us to wait here.
13. Lunch was being served when we arrived.
They ………… lunch when we arrived.
14. Lectures are recorded and posted on the Internet.
They ………….. lectures on the Internet.
15. Portuguese has always been spoken in this village.
People in this village ……….. Portuguese.

IV. Modal Verb Basics - Quiz

Match the following statements with the meaning below.
 Jack could get to work earlier.
 Jack must get to work earlier.
 Jack should get to work earlier.
 Jack needs to get to work earlier.
 Jack might get to work earlier.
 Jack has to get to work earlier.
 Jack couldn't get to work earlier.
 Jack doesn't have to get to work earlier.
 Jack mustn't get to work earlier.
 Jack shouldn't get to work earlier.
 It's absolutely necessary for Jack to get to work earlier.
 It's possible for Jack to get to work earlier.
 Jack's unable to get to work earlier.
 It isn't necessary for Jack to get to work earlier.
 It's forbidden for Jack to get to work earlier.
 6
 It's important for Jack to get to work earlier.
 It's a good idea for Jack to get to work earlier.
 It's absolutely necessary for Jack to get to work earlier and someone forces him to do so.
 It's a good idea for Jack to get to work earlier.
 It isn't a good idea for Jack to get to work earlier.
 It's a possibility that Jack might get to work earlier.
Answers
 Jack could get to work earlier.
Answer: It's possible for Jack to get to work earlier.
 Jack must get to work earlier.
Answer: It's absolutely necessary for Jack to get to work earlier.
 Jack should get to work earlier.
Answer: It's a good idea for Jack to get to work earlier.
 Jack needs to get to work earlier.
Answer: It's important for Jack to get to work earlier.
 Jack might get to work earlier.
Answer: It's a possibility that Jack might get to work earlier.
 Jack has to get to work earlier.
Answer: It's absolutely necessary for Jack to get to work earlier and someone forces him to do so.
 Jack couldn't get to work earlier.
Answer: Jack's unable to get to work earlier.
 Jack doesn't have to get to work earlier.
Answer: It isn't necessary for Jack to get to work earlier.
 Jack mustn't get to work earlier.
Answer: It's forbidden for Jack to get to work earlier.
 Jack shouldn't get to work earlier.
Answer: It isn't a good idea for Jack to get to work earlier.

V. Preposition Use
ABOUT
Use the following adjectives followed by 'about'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related
meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
 angry / annoyed / furious about something
Example: I'm really angry about our losses on the stock market!
 excited about something
Example: He's excited about his birthday party next week.
 worried / upset about something
Example: He's worried about his upcoming examinations.
 sorry about something
Example: I'm very sorry about Losing your book.
AT
Use the following adjectives followed by 'at'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings.
Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
 good / excellent / brilliant at something OR at doing something
Example: They are excellent at planning fun parties.
 bad / hopeless at something OR at doing something
Example: Unfortunately, I'm hopeless at being on time.
AT / BY
Use the following adjectives followed by 'at' or 'by'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related
meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
 amazed / astonished / shocked / surprised at OR by something
Example: I was amazed at his stamina.
FOR
 7
Use the following adjectives followed by 'for'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings.
Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
 angry with someone for something
Example: I'm really angry with John for his total lack of responsibility.
 famous for something
Example: She's famous for her watercolour paintings.
 responsible for something
Example: You'll have to speak to John, he's responsible for customer complaints.
 sorry for doing something
Example: He says he's sorry for shouting at you.
 (to feel or be) sorry for someone
Example: I really feel sorry for Pam.
FROM
Use the following adjectives followed by 'from'.
 different from someone / something
Example: His photographs are very different from his paintings.
For / while / during
FOR
Use 'for' with a period of time to express the duration or 'how long' something has happened:
 for three weeks
 for many years
WHILE
Use 'while' plus a verb form:
 while I was watching TV
 while I lived in New York
DURING
Use 'during' with a noun to express 'when' something happens:
 during class
 during my vacation
 during the discussion
In / at / to / nothing - prepositions of place and movement
IN
Use 'in' with static (non-movement) verbs and cities, countries, states, etc.:
 stay in the USA
 work in New York
AT
Use 'at' with static (non-movement) verbs and places:
 at the cinema
 at work
 at home
TO
Use 'to' with verbs of movement such as go, come, drive, etc.:
 go to work
 drive to California
IMPORTANT NOTES
The use of ' ' (nothing)
 With verbs of movement and the noun 'home' - He went home. - they drove home.
 With the verb 'visit' - She visited France last summer.
In / at / on - prepositions of place
IN
Use 'in' with spaces:
 in a room / in a building
 in a garden / in a park
Use 'in' with bodies of water:
 8
 in the water
 in the sea
 in a river
Use 'in' with lines:
 in a row / in a line
 in a queue
AT
Use 'at' with places:
 at the bus-stop
 at the door
 at the cinema
 at the end of the street
In / at / on - prepositions of time and date
IN
Use 'in' months and years and periods of time:
 in January
 in 1978
 in the twenties
Use 'in' a period of time in the future:
 in a few weeks
 in a couple of days
AT
Use 'at' with precise time:
 at six o'clock
 at 10.30
 at two p.m.
ON
Use 'on' with days of the week:
 on Monday
 on Fridays
Use 'on' with specific calendar days:
 on Christmas day
 on October 22nd
IMPORTANT NOTES
in the morning / afternoon / evening - at night
We say in the morning, afternoon or evening BUT we say 'at night'
Noun Prepositions
FOR
Use 'for' preceded by the following nouns:
 a check for (amount of money)
Example: She gave me a check for $50.
 a demand for something
Example: Unfortunately, there wasn't enough demand for our product.
 a need for something
Example: There is a real need for discipline in this class.
 a reason for something
Example: I have a reason for doing that!
IN
Use 'in' preceded by the following nouns:
 a rise in something
Example: There has been a rise in prices recently.
 an increase in something
Example: We have seen many increases in production levels.
 a fall in something
 9
Example: There has been a fall in prices recently.
 a decrease in something
Example: We have seen many decreases in production levels.
OF
Use 'of' preceded by the following nouns:
 a cause of something
Example: She is the cause of all his problems.
 a photograph OR a picture of something or someone
Example: He took a photograph of the mountains.
TO
Use 'to' preceded by the following nouns:
 damage to something
Example: I did a lot of damage to my car the other day.
 an invitation to a celebration of some type
Example: We were invited to their wedding.
 reaction to something
Example: Her reaction to his behaviour was quite funny.
 a solution to a problem
Example: He provided the solution to our financial situation.
 an attitude to something (or TOWARDS something)
Example: Your attitude to your problems doesn't help them get resolved.
WITH
Use 'with' preceded by the following nouns:
 a relationship with someone or something
Example: My relationship with Mary is wonderful.
 a connection with someone or something
Example: His connections with the CIA are very limited.
 a contact with someone or something
Example: Have you had any contact with Sarah?
BETWEEN
Use 'between' preceded by the following nouns:
 a connection between TWO things
Example: There is no connection between the two crimes.
 a relationship between TWO things
Example: The relationship between the two friends was very strong.
 a contact between TWO things
Example: There is little contact between the two parents.
 a difference between TWO things
Example: There is no difference between those two colours.
Prepositions Nouns
BY
Use 'by' with the following nouns:
 to pay by check (credit card)
Example: I paid the bill by check.
 to do something by accident
Example: I broke the vase by mistake.
 to do something by mistake
Example: I'm afraid I brought the wrong book by mistake.
 to do something by chance
Example: I saw Jack at the supermarket by chance.
 a play, song, book, etc. by someone
Example: The opera 'Otello' is by Giuseppe Verdi.
FOR
Use 'for' with the following nouns:
 10
 (to go / come) for a walk
Example: Let's go for a walk.
 (to go / come) for a swim
Example: We went for a swim as soon as we arrived.
 (to go / come) for a drink
Example: Would you like to come over for a drink?
 (to go / come) for a visit
Example: I'd love to come for a visit sometime.
 (to have something) for breakfast / lunch / dinner / supper (US English)
Example: I had bacon and eggs for breakfast.
IN
Use 'in' with the following nouns:
 to be OR to fall in love with someone
Example: I fell in love with my wife at first sight.
 in my opinion
Example: In my opinion, we need to invest in some development.
 a need for something
ON
Use 'on' with the following nouns:
 (to be) on fire
Example: Help! The house is on fire!
 (to be) on the telephone / phone
Example: I think Tom is on the phone at the moment.
 on television
Example: There is a good film on television tonight.
 on the radio
Example: Mahler's fifth was on the radio last night.
 (to be / go) on a diet
Example: I really need to go on a diet.
 (to be / go) on strike
Example: The sanitary engineers have gone on strike again.
 (to be / go) on holiday (UK English) / vacation (American English)
Example: I really need to go on vacation soon.
 (to be / go) business
Example: He went away this weekend on business.
 (to be / go) on a trip
Example: We were on a trip this past weekend.
 (to be / go) a tour
Example: Have you ever been on a tour of the French countryside?
 (to be / go) on an excursion
Example: We went on an excursion to Versailles when we were in Paris.
Adjective Preposition Combinations - 'of / on / to / with'
OF
Use the following adjectives followed by 'of'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings.
Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
 nice / kind / good / generous of someone (to do something)
Example: It was very nice of him to buy me a present.
 mean of someone (to do something)
Example: It was very mean of Susan to say that to Tom.
 stupid / silly of someone (to do something)
Example: I'm afraid it was stupid of me to come.
 intelligent / clever / sensible of someone (to do something)
Example: That was quite sensible of Tom.
 polite of someone (to do something)
 11
Example: It was very polite of Peter to invite my sister to the party.
 impolite / rude of someone (to do something)
Example: I can't believe how rude it was of Jack to shout at his daughter in front of all those people.
 unreasonable of someone (to do something)
Example: Don't be so hard on yourself! It's unreasonable of you to expect to understand everything
immediately.
 proud of something or someone
Example: I'm very proud of my daughter's wonderful progress in school.
 ashamed of someone or something
Example: She's ashamed of her bad grades.
 jealous / envious of someone or something
Example: She's really envious of her sister's wealth.
 aware / conscious of something
Example: Teens are often overly conscious of skin blemishes.
 capable / incapable of something
Example: Peter is quite capable of conducting the meeting on his own.
 fond of someone or something
Example: She is so fond of her niece.
 short of something
Example: I'm afraid I'm short of cash tonight.
 tired of something
Example: I'm tired of your complaining!
ON
Use the following adjective followed by 'on'. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
 to be keen on something
Example: She is very keen on horses.
TO
Use the following adjectives followed by 'to'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings.
Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
 married / engaged to someone
Example: Jack is engaged to Jill.
 nice / kind / good / generous to someone
Example: She was very generous to me when I was staying with her.
 mean / impolite / rude / unpleasant / unfriendly / cruel to someone
Example: How can you be so unfriendly to your neighbours?
 similar to something
Example: His painting is similar to Van Gough.
WITH
Use the following adjectives followed by 'with'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings.
Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
 angry / annoyed / furious with someone for something
Example: I'm furious with my brother for having lied to me!
 delighted / pleased / satisfied with something
Example: He is quite satisfied with his results.
 disappointed with something
Example: She's really disappointed with her new car.
 bored / fed up with something
Example: Let's go. I'm fed up with this party.
 crowded with (people, tourists, etc.)
Example: Disneyland is crowded with tourists in July.
Prepositions of Place and Direction
Look at this plan of the ground floor of a skyscraper:
Here are a number of preposition combinations that can be used to describe the floor plan:
 12
Prepositions of Position
at the back of
at the bottom of
at the top of
behind
between
in the corner of
in the middle of
next to
to the left of
on the other side of
to the right of
on the side of
on top of
opposite
Example Sentences
There is a large garden in the middle of the skyscraper.
The smallest room is located to the left of the internal garden.
The entrance to room number three is opposite the entrance to room number two.
Prepositions of Direction
Here are a number of prepositions that can be used to show direction and movement around the floor plan:
across
between
into
out of
past
round
through
towards
Example Sentences
Walk through the exit of room two and enter into building number three.
Walk across the indoor garden to reach room number five.
Walk past the side entrance to reach the main entrance.
Verb + Preposition Combinations
Verbs + About
The following verbs are commonly used with 'about'. Each verb + about combination includes an example
sentence to provide context.
be about something - That book is about his experiences in Africa.
argue about (doing) something - The boys argued about which bus to take.
be concerned about (doing) something - I'm concerned about your grades.
be worried about (doing) something - She is worried about her exams.
boast about (doing) something - Thomas boasted about his golfing ability.
decide about (doing) something - Anna decided about her goals.
dream about (doing) something - Mark dreams about becoming a ballet dancer.
protest about (doing) something - The students protested about the invasion.
Verbs + Against
The following verbs are commonly used with 'against'. Each verb + against combination includes an
example sentence to provide context.
be against something / someone - I am against the new regulation.
insure something against something - We insured our house against storm damage.
protest against (doing) something - The students are protesting against the invasion.
Verbs + At
The following verbs are commonly used with 'at'. Each verb + at combination includes an example sentence
to provide context.
 13
be at something - The exhibition is at the modern art gallery.
glance at something - Can I glance at that for a moment?
guess at something - She guessed at the answer.
hint at something - My mom hinted at my present.
marvel at something - I marvel at your math abilities.
Verbs + For
The following verbs are commonly used with 'for'. Each verb + for combination, includes an example
sentence to provide context.
be for something / someone - I'm for Mayor Martini.
account for something - That accounts for his success.
allow for something - I think you need to allow for misunderstandings.
apologize for something / someone - Jackson apologized for his rude behaviour.
blame someone for (doing) something - I blame Janet for the broken pottery.
care for (doing) something / someone - He doesn't care for playing golf.
charge someone for (doing) something - The accountant charged him $400 for his advice.
count for something - Your good marks count for 50% of your grade.
earmark something for a use - Congress earmarked $6 million for safety improvements.
pay for someone / something - Let me pay for Tom.
Verbs + From
The following verbs are commonly used with 'from'. Each verb + from combination includes an example
sentence to provide context.
bar someone from (doing) something - Jack has barred Jennifer from visiting his daughter.
bar someone from a place - The police barred Peter from the shopping mall.
benefit from (doing) something - Students benefit from listening to news reports on the radio.
derive something from something - He derived the meaning from the context of the sentence.
deter someone from (doing) something - Please deter your children from walking across busy avenues.
differ from something - Our cheese differs from our competitor's cheese because of its superior quality.
distinguish one thing from another thing - I'm afraid he can't distinguish a British accent from a Irish accent.
distract someone from something - Please distract Tim from the television.
exempt someone from (doing) something - The judge exempted the young man from doing extra community
service.
expel someone from a place - The children were expelled form school for their bad behavior.
refrain from (doing) something - Nancy refrains from smoking at work.
resign from (doing) something - Jacques resigned from his position.
result from (doing) something - The unrest results from our politicians lack of seriousness about the
situation.
stem from (doing) something - The poor results stem from his lack of experience.
suffer from (doing) something - He will suffer from studying too little.
Verbs + In
The following verbs are commonly used with 'in'. Each verb + about in combination includes an example
sentence to provide context.
be absorbed in (doing) something - Peter was absorbed in reading his book.
confide in someone - I confided in Tom my desire to find a new job.
be engrossed in (doing) something - I surprised Jane who was engrossed in watching TV.
implicate someone in (doing) something - The boss implicated Peter in the crime.
involve someone in (doing) something - You should involve your children in physical activities.
result in something - His decision resulted in increased profits.
specialize in (doing) something - My daughter specializes in teaching physics.
succeed in (doing) something - Jane succeed in getting a new job.
Verbs + Of
The following verbs are commonly used with 'of'. Each verb + of combination includes an example sentence
to provide context.
accuse someone of (doing) something - His mother accused him of eating the entire cake.
convict someone of (doing) something - Johnson was convicted of armed robbery.
 14
remind someone of (doing) something / someone - Peter reminded me of Tom.
suspect someone of (doing) something - The police suspect Agnes of breaking into the bank.
Verbs + On
The following verbs are commonly used with 'on'. Each verb + on combination includes an example
sentence to provide context.
be on something / someone - She is on Peter to do his best.
base something on something - I base my conclusions on market research.
blame something on someone - She blames the lack of interest on the teacher's poor explanation.
concentrate something on (doing) something - They concentrate their efforts on improving the infrastructure.
congratulate someone on (doing) something - Tom congratulated Lisa on getting her diploma.
decide on something - I've decided to get a new job.
depend on someone / (doing) something - We depend on our customers' suggestions.
elaborate on (doing) something - Can you elaborate on the process?
impose on someone - The mother imposed severe restrictions on her daughter.
insist on something / someone doing something - I insist on Peter's studying every day for two hours.
pride oneself on (doing) something - I like to pride myself on my ability to concentrate.
Verbs + To
The following verbs are commonly used with 'to'. Each verb + to combination includes an example sentence
to provide context.
appeal to someone - Let me appeal to you for your help in this matter.
apply oneself to (doing) something - I think you should apply yourself to getting a degree.
apply to something - He applied glue to the board.
attend to (doing) something - Chris attended to doing the grocery shopping.
attribute something to someone - Professor Samson attributes this painting to Leonardo.
be resigned to (doing) something - I'm resigned to not having any success in that field.
commit oneself to (doing) something - She committed herself to finding a new job.
confess to (doing) something - The boy confessed to stealing the apple.
devote oneself to (doing) something - I'm going to devote myself to playing the piano after I retire.
prefer one thing to another thing - I prefer roast potatoes to French fries.
react to something - He reacted poorly to the news.
refer to (doing) something - Please refer to your notes.
refer someone to someone - I referred Ken to Doctor Jones.
resort to (doing) something - Please don't resort to violence.
see to (doing) something - I'll see to those chores.
subject someone to (doing) something - She subjected her daughter to swimming lessons.
Verbs + With
The following verbs are commonly used with 'with'. Each verb + with combination includes an example
sentence to provide context.
acquaint someone with something - I acquainted Mary with French cuisine.
associate something with (doing) someone - Susan associates chocolate with childhood.
be faced with (doing) something - She's faced with working overtime this weekend.
charge someone with (doing) something - The officer charged Mr Smith with blackmail.
clutter with something - The room was cluttered with paper.
coincide with something - My birthday coincides with a national holiday.
collide with something - The car collided with a truck and blocked traffic.
comply with something - He complies with each and every order.
confront someone with something - I confronted Vivian with the evidence.
confuse someone / something with someone / something - I'm afraid I confused you with someone else.
cram with something - My closed is crammed with dirty clothes!
deal with someone / (doing) something - I can't deal with so much overtime.
discuss something with someone - I'd like to discuss our next conference with the boss.
ingratiate oneself with someone - Ingratiate yourself with the headmaster and your life with be easy!
meet with something - The congressman met with strong opposition to his plan.
pack with something - Peter packed his case with extra brochures.
 15
plead with someone - He plead with his teacher to give him one more chance.
provide someone with something - The instructor provided the students with a number of examples.
tamper with something - Do not tamper with this equipment.
trust someone with something - I trust Bob with all of my financial information.
Prepositional Phrase Reference
Here is a reference sheet of some of the most common prepositional phrases arranged by preposition:
AT BY FOR FROM UNDER WITHOUT

at first by for now from now on under age without fail

at least accident for instance from then on under control without notice
at most by far for example from bad to under the without exception
at times by all for sale worse impression without someone's
at any rate means for a while from my point of under guarantee consent
at last by heart for the view under the without success
at the latest by chance moment from what I influence of without warning
at once by and by for ages understand under obligation
at short notice by the for a change from personal under no
at an way for better or experience obligation
advantage by the worse under suspicion
at a time under his thumb
disadvantage by no under discussion
at risk means under
at a profit / by name consideration
loss by sight
by now
by then
Prepositional Phrases – Quiz 1
Choose the correct preposition to complete the prepositional phrase in the question.

Q 1: I'd rather have wine ____ beer.

instead than
instead from
instead to
instead of
.
Q 2: The local police are talking to Tom. I think he is _____ for the crime.
under suspicion
to suspicion
from suspicion
in suspicion
Prepositional Phrases Quiz - 2
Improve your knowledge of some of the most important and common combinations of prepositions used in
English. These phrases are in standard usage and can not be altered. They are used to connect, explain and
show the relationship between ideas and things. Each short phrase is used once: at the latest ; at short notice;
under control; for ages; at a profit / loss; by far; from bad to worse; under her thumb; by heart; for a change;
at most; by the time; at last; for instance:

There are many things you can do to get in shape. For instance, you can go to the local gym.
By the time he finishes the projections, we'll have done the necessary research to complete the project.
 16
She's very pleased that they were able to sell their house at last.
The situation is horrible here. Things are going from bad to worse.
He's been living in Italy for ages.
You can trust John to have everything under control.
Those customers are by far the most demanding we've ever had.
Unfortunately, I might have to leave for Boston at short notice.
For better or worse, you're just going to have to try and get along with your new boss.
It'll cost $500 at most.
I think we'll go to the mountains this year for a change.
They learned all their lines for the play by heart.
They should arrive by six o'clock at the latest.
You've arrived at last

VI. Inversion
Inversion refers to an irregular verb placement form:
Use of Question Form
In this case, the question form (auxiliary + subject + main verb) takes the place of the standard positive
sentence structure (i.e. He goes to work every day):
Examples
Not only do I enjoy classical music, but I also have a season ticket to the symphony.
Seldom has the boss been so upset!
In this case, the question form is substituted for standard sentence structure in a statement. Generally, an
inversion is used to stress the uniqueness of an event and begins with a negative.
Negative Adverbials
Time expressions: never, rarely, and seldom
These time expressions are used with a perfect form or with modals and often include comparatives:
Examples
Never have I been more insulted!
Seldom has he seen anything stranger.
Time expressions: hardly, barely, no sooner, or scarcely
These time expressions are used when a there are a succession of events in the past.
Examples
Scarcely had I got out of bed when the doorbell rang.
No sooner had he finished dinner, when she walked in the door.
After 'Only' Expressions such as 'only after', 'only when', 'only then', etc.
'Only' is used with a time expression.
Examples
Only then did I understand the problem.
Only after understanding the situation does the teacher make a comment.
After 'Little'
'Little' is used in a negative sense.
Examples
Little did he understand the situation.
Little have I read concerning nanotechnology.
Inversion after 'So', 'Such', and 'That'
'So'
'So + adjective ... that' combines with the verb 'to be'.
Examples
So strange was the situation that I couldn't sleep.
So difficult is the test that students need three months to prepare.
'Such'
'So + to be + noun ... (that)':
Examples
 17
Such is the moment that all greats traverse.
Such is the stuff of dreams.
Inverted Conditional Forms
Sometimes conditional forms are inverted as a means of sounding more formal. In this case, the conditional
'if' is dropped and the inverted forms takes the place of the 'if clause'.
Examples
Had he understood the problem, he wouldn't have committed those mistakes.
Should he decide to come, please telephone.

VII. Adding Emphasis in English - Special Forms

Place the three adjectives in the correct order before the noun. When you have decided on the correct order,
click on the arrow to see if you have answered correctly.
 book interesting - small - Spanish
An interesting small Spanish book
 picture modern - ugly - rectangular
An ugly modern rectangular picture
 opinion old - boring - American
A boring gold American picture
 apple ripe - green - delicious
A delicious ripe green apple
 suit woollen - large - black
Large black woollen suit
 house beautiful - modern - small
A beautiful small modern house
 magazine German - slender - strange
A strange slender German magazine
 cap cotton - funny - green
A funny green cotton cap

VIII. Using Adverb Clauses

What is an Adverb Clause?
“He saw Mary when he was in New York” and “They studied hard because they had a test” are adverb
clauses. Adverb clauses express when, why, opposition and conditions and are dependent clauses. This
means that an adverb clause can not stand by itself – in other words, “When he went to New York” is not a
complete sentence. It needs to be completed by an independent clause. Example: He went to the
Guggenheim museum when he was in New York.
Punctuation
When an adverb clause begins the sentence, use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: As soon as
he arrives, we will have some lunch.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a
comma. Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town.
1. Using Adverb Clauses to Express Conditions
These type of clauses are often called "if clauses" in English grammar books and follow conditional
sentence patterns. Take a look at the chart below to study the various usages of different time expressions.
Punctuation
When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: If he comes,
we will have some lunch.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma.
Example: He would have invited me if he had known.
More information on the correct tense usage for the conditionals
If  If we win, 'If' clauses express the conditions
we'll go to Kelly's to necessary for the result. If clauses
celebrate! are followed by expected results
 She would based on the condition.
buy a house, if she
had enough money.
 18
Even if  Even if she In contrast to sentences with 'if'
saves a lot, she won't sentences with 'even if' show a
be able to afford that result that is unexpected based on
house. the condition in the 'even if'
clause. Example: COMPARE: If
she studies hard, she will pass the
exam AND Even if she studies
hard, she won't pass the exam.
Whether  They won't 'Whether or not' expresses the
or not be able to come idea that neither one condition or
whether or not they another matters; the result will be
have enough money. the same. Notice the possibility of
 Whether they inversion (Whether they have
have money or not, money or not) with 'whether or
they won't be able to not'.
come.
Unless  Unless she 'Unless' expresses the idea of 'if
hurries up, we won't not' Example: Unless she hurries
arrive in time. up, we won't arrive in time.
 We won't go MEANS THE SAME AS: If she
unless he arrives doesn't hurry up, we won't arrive
soon. in time. 'Unless' is only used in
the first conditional.
In case  In the case 'In case' and 'in the event' usually
(that), in you need me, I'll be mean that you don't expect
the event at Tom's. something to happen, but if it
(that)  I'll be does... Both are used primarily for
studying upstairs in future events.
the event he calls.
Only if  We'll give 'Only if' means 'only in the case
you your bicycle that something happens - and only
only if you do well if'. This form basically means the
on your exams. same as 'if'. However, it does
 Only if you stress the condition for the result.
do well on your Note that when 'only if' begins the
exams will we give sentence you need to invert the
you your bicycle. main clause.
A. Conditional Forms
The Basics: What Are the Conditional Forms?
Conditional forms are used to discuss things that happen based on the condition that something else happens.
There are three main conditional forms.
The first conditional is used to consider real, possible events in the present or future:
If it rains, I'll take an umbrella.
The second conditional is used to speculate about unreal, improbable events in the present moment or future:
If I had a million dollars, I'd buy a big house.
The third conditional concerns imaginary (unreal) outcomes of past events:
If he had spent more time studying, he would have passed the exam.
Conditional Forms Overview:
First Conditional
If + S + present simple + objects, S + will + verb + objects
-> If the boys finish their homework early, they will play baseball.
Second Conditional
 19
If + S + past simple + objects, S + would + verb + objects
-> If he bought a new car, he would buy a Ford.
Third Conditional
If + S + past perfect + objects, S + would have + past participle + objects
-> If she had seen him, she would have discussed the issues with him.
Listed below are examples, uses and formation of Conditionals followed by a quiz.
Conditional 0
Situations that are always true if something happens.
NOTE
This use is similar to, and can usually be replaced by, a time clause using 'when' (example: When I am late,
my father takes me to school.)
If I am late, my father takes me to school.
She doesn't worry if Jack stays out after school.
Conditional 0 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by a comma the present
simple in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using a comma between the
clauses.
If he comes to town, we have dinner.
OR
We have dinner if he comes to town.
Conditional 1
Often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real - or possible - situations. These situations take
place if a certain condition is met.
NOTE
In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means 'if ... not'. In other words, '...unless he hurries up.'
could also be written, '...if he doesn't hurry up.’
If it rains, we will stay at home.
He will arrive late unless he hurries up.
Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.
Conditional 1 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by a comma will verb
(base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using a comma between the
clauses.
If he finishes on time, we will go to the movies.
OR
We will go to the movies if he finishes on time.
Conditional 2
Often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or improbable - situations.
This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation.
NOTE
The verb 'to be', when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as 'were'.
If he studied more, he would pass the exam.
I would lower taxes if I were the President.
They would buy a new house if they had more money.
Conditional 2 is formed by the use of the past simple in the if clause followed by a comma would verb (base
form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using a comma between the
clauses.
If they had more money, they would buy a new house.
OR
They would buy a new house if they had more money.
Conditional 3
Often referred to as the "past" conditional because it concerns only past situations with hypothetical results.
Used to express a hypothetical result to a past given situation.
If he had known that, he would have decided differently.
Jane would have found a new job if she had stayed in Boston.
 20
Conditional 3 is formed by the use of the past perfect in the if clause followed by a comma would have past
participle in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using a comma between the
clauses.
If Alice had won the competition, life would have changed OR Life would have changed if Alice had won
the competition.
B. Conditional Sentences - Alternate Forms
First Conditional
Most students learn the standard construction forms for the conditional forms in English. There are,
however, a number of alternate forms used with the conditional. The first page provides a look at alternate
forms for the first conditional, while the second page provides alternate forms for the second and third
conditionals.
First Conditional Alternate Forms
Going to
'Going to' is often used to replace 'will' in the first conditional. This is often done to emphasize a certain
result.
Example
If you apply to that school with your excellent marks, you're going to be accepted!
'Going to' is also used to mean 'intend to' after 'if'.
Example
If you're going to skip school, you certainly won't pass your exams.
Present Perfect
With the first conditional, the present perfect is used to focus on the completion of an action.
Example
We'll meet for lunch if you've finished your work.
Should
'Should' implies that something is possible, but improbable.
Example
If he should arrive, we'll invite him along to dinner.
This is stronger than in the second conditional in which an unreal or imaginary situation is presented.
Compare:
If he studied, he'd pass the exam.
In this example, I am sure that the student will NOT pass the exam, the second conditional expresses an
IMAGINARY situation.
If he should study, he'll pass the exam.
In this case, I think that the student will probably not study, but if he does, he'll pass the exam.
Happen to / Should happen to
These two forms emphasize the chance nature of the conditional. In this way, the condition, while still true,
is a less likely to occur.
Examples
If they happen to come to town, we'll have dinner.
If he should happen to get stuck in that town, he'll be able to find a hotel room for the night.
Modals in Result Clause
Modals can be used in the result clause to indicate future possibilities, permission and advice.
Examples
If you finish your homework, you can go out and play.
You should see a doctor if you continue to feel bad.
If you arrive early, you might give Tom a call.
If and Adjectives
With the verb 'to be' plus and adjective, the subject and verb of the 'if' clause can be omitted. The result
clause follows in the imperative form.
Example
If interested, apply for the position.
Provided (that), As long as
 21
'Provided (that)' and 'as long as' are used to instead of 'if' to show specific conditions that must be met in
order for something to happen.
Example
Provided he finishes his studies, he'll find an excellent job.
As long as she pays off the loan, the house will be hers at the end of next year.
Conditional Sentences - Alternate Forms
Second and Third Conditional
Second Conditional Alternate Forms
Could in Result Clause
Modals can be used in the result clause to indicate hypothetic possibilities.
Examples
If you were more serious about your work, you could find a new job.
Were to
If followed by subject + 'were to' emphasizes the hypothetical character of the statement.
Example
If I were to buy a new car, what would you say?
If it were not for
'If it were not for' emphasizes that one event depends on another for completion. This form is often used to
show the negative results without a certain person or thing.
Example
If it weren't for his dedication, this company wouldn't exist!
Supposing
'Supposing' is used in place of 'if' to emphasize the imaginary. It is more commonly used in everyday speech.
Example
Supposing he came to visit you, what would you do?
Third Conditional Alternate Forms
Modals in Result Clause
Modals can be used in the result clause to indicate past hypothetical possibilities, permission and advice.
Examples
If he had known, he could have given you a hand.
You might have finished the assignment on time, if you had planned more carefully.
If you hadn't prepared, you should have told the professor.
But for
'But for' replaces 'if not' and is followed by a noun. It is usually used in formal speech.
Example
But for our savings, we wouldn't have been able to make the payments.
If it hadn't been for
'If it hadn’t been for' emphasizes that one event depended on another for completion. This form is often used
to show what the negative results would have been without a certain person or thing.
Example
If it hadn't been for Jack, we would have failed.
Mixed Conditional
A result clause can use the conditional to express a present hypothetical result based on a past action.
Example
If she hadn't helped me, I wouldn't work here now.
2. Adverb Clauses with Expressions of Cause and Effect
These type of clauses explain the reasons for what happens in the main clause. Example: He bought a new
home because he got a better job.. Take a look at the chart below to study the various usages of different
expressions of cause and effect. Note that all of these expressions are synonyms of 'because'.
Punctuation
When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: Because he
had to work late, we had dinner after nine o'clock.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no
need for a comma. Example: We had dinner after nine o'clock because he had to work late.
For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an explanation of the usage.
 22
Adverb Clauses of Cause and Effect
Because  They received a Notice how because can be
high mark on their exam used with a variety of tenses
because they had studied based on the time
hard. relationship between the two
 I'm studying hard clauses.
because I want to pass my
exam.
 He works a lot of
overtime because his rent
is so expensive
Since  Since he loves 'Since' means the same as
music so much, he because. 'Since' tends to be
decided to go to a used in more informal
conservatory. spoken English. Important
 They had to leave note: "Since" when used as a
early since their train left conjunction is typically used
at 8.30. to refer to a period of time,
while "because" implies a
cause or reason.
As long as  As long as you 'As long as' means the same
have the time, why don't as because. 'As long as' tends
you come for dinner? to be used in more informal
spoken English.
As  As the test is 'As' means the same as
difficult, you had better because. 'As' tends to be
get some sleep. used in more formal, written
English.
Inasmuch  Inasmuch as the 'Inasmuch as' means the
as students had successfully same as because. 'Inasmuch
completed their exams, as' is used in very formal,
their parents rewarded written English.
their efforts by giving
them a trip to Paris.
Due to the  We will be staying 'Due to the fact that' means
fact that for an extra week due to the same as because. 'Due to
the fact that we haven not the fact that' is generally
yet finished. used in very formal, written
English.
3. Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions
These type of clauses are often called "time clauses" in English grammar books and follow specific patterns.
Take a look at the chart below to study the various usage of different time expressions.
Punctuation
When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: As soon as
he arrives, we will have some lunch.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a
comma. Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town.
For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an explanation of the usage.
Adverb Clauses with Time
When  He was talking on 'When' means 'at that moment, at that time, etc.'. Notice
the phone when I arrived. the different tenses used in relationship to the clause
 When she called, he beginning with when. It is important to remember that
 23
had already eaten lunch. 'when' takes either the simple past OR the present - the
 I washed the dishes dependent clause changes tense in relation to the 'when'
when my daughter fell clause.
asleep.
 We'll go to lunch
when you come to visit.
Before  We will finish 'Before' means 'before that moment'. It is important to
before he arrives. remember that 'before' takes either the simple past OR the
 She (had) left before present.
I telephoned.
After  We will finish after 'After' means 'after that moment'. It is important to
he comes. remember that 'after' takes the present for future events
 She ate after I (had) and the past OR past perfect for past events.
left.
While, as  She began cooking 'While' and 'as' mean 'during that time'. 'While' and 'as' are
while I was finishing my both usually used with the past continuous because the
homework. meaning of 'during that time' which indicates an action in
 As I was finishing progress.
my homework, she began
cooking.
By the time  By the time he 'By the time' expresses the idea that one event has been
finished, I had cooked completed before another. It is important to notice the use
dinner. of the past perfect for past events and future perfect for
 We will have future events in the main clause. This is because of the
finished our homework by idea of something happening up to another point in time.
the time they arrive.
Until, till  We waited until he 'Until' and 'till' express 'up to that time'. We use either the
finished his homework. simple present or simple past with 'until' and 'till'. 'Till' is
 I'll wait till you usually only used in spoken English.
finish.
Since  I have played tennis 'Since' means 'from that time'. We use the present perfect
since I was a young boy. (continuous) with 'since'. 'Since' can also be used with a
specific point in time.
As soon as  He will let us know 'As soon as' means 'when something happens -
as soon as he decides (or as immediately afterwards'. 'As soon as' is very similar to
soon as he has decided). 'when' it emphasizes that the event will occur immediately
after the other. We usually use the simple present for
future events, although present perfect can also be used.
Whenever, every  Whenever he comes, 'Whenever' and 'every time' mean 'each time something
time we go to have lunch at happens'. We use the simple present (or the simple past in
"Dick's". the past) because 'whenever' and 'every time' express
 We take a hike habitual action.
every time he visits.
The first, second,  The first time I went The first, second, third, fourth etc., next, last time means
third, fourth etc., to New York, I was 'that specific time'. We can use these forms to be more
next, last time intimidated by the city. specific about which time of a number of times something
 I saw Jack the last happened.
time I went to San
Francisco.
 The second time I
 24
played tennis, I began to
have fun.
4. Adverb Clauses to Show Opposition
These type of clauses show an unexpected or non self-evident result based on the dependent clause.
Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive. Take a look at the chart below to study the
various usages of adverb clauses showing opposition.
Punctuation
When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: Even
though the it was expensive, he bought the car.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no
need for a comma. Example: He bought the car even though it was expensive.
For more information about how to use these words click on the link for an explanation of the usage.
Adverb Clauses Showing Opposition
Even  Even though it Notice how 'though, even
though, was expensive, he though' or 'although' show a
though, bought the car. situation which is contrary to
although  Though he loves the main clause to express
doughnuts, he has given opposition. Even though,
them up for his diet. though and although are all
 Although he synonyms.
course was difficult, he
passed with the highest
marks.
Whereas,  Whereas you 'Whereas' and 'while' show
while have lots of time to do clauses in direct opposition
your homework, I have to each other. Notice that you
very little time indeed. should always use a comma
 Mary is rich, with 'whereas' and 'while'.
while I am poor.

List of Words (subordinating conjunctions) Introducing Adverb Clauses

TIME CAUSE OPPOSITION CONDITION
AND
EFFECT
after, before, because, although, even if, only if, unless,
when, while, as, since, as, as though, though, whether (or not),
by the time long as, so whereas, while even if, providing
(that), as soon as, long as, due (that), in case
since, until, to the fact (that), provided
whenever, the that (that), in the event
first time (that), (that) -
the next time
(that), the last
time (that), every
time (that) -
5. Relative Clauses
Use relative clauses to provide extra information. This information can either define something (defining
clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added information (non-defining clause).
Relative clauses can be introduced by:
 a relative pronoun: who (whom), which, that, whose
 no relative pronoun, Ø.
 where, why and when instead of a relative pronoun
 25
You need to consider the following when deciding which relative pronoun to use:
 Is the subject or object or possessive of a relative clause?
 Does it refers to a person or an object?
 Is the relative clause a defining or non-defining relative clause?
NOTE: Relative clauses are often used in both spoken and written English. There is a tendency to use non-
defining relative clauses mostly in written, rather than in spoken, English.
Defining or Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Defining Relative Clauses
The information provided in a defining relative clause is crucial in understanding the meaning of the
sentence.
Example: The woman who lives in apartment No. 34 has been arrested.
The document that I need has 'important' written at the top.
The purpose of a defining relative clause is to clearly define who or what we are talking about. Without this
information, it would be difficult to know who or what is meant.
Example: The house is being renovated.
In this case it is not necessarily clear which house is being renovated.
Non-defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses provide interesting additional information which is not essential to
understanding the meaning of the sentence.
Example: Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent, lives on the corner.
Correct punctuation is essential in non-defining relative clauses. If the non-defining relative clause occurs in
the middle of a sentence, a comma is put before the relative pronoun and at the end of the clause. If the non-
defining relative clause occurs at the end of a sentence, a comma is put before the relative pronoun.
NOTE: In defining relative clauses there are no commas.
Relative Pronouns in Defining Relative Clauses
Person Object

Subject who, that which, that

Object Ø, that, who, whom Ø, which, that

Possessive whose whose, of which

Relative Pronouns Used As The Subject of Defining Relative Clauses
Example: Children who (that) play with fire are in great danger of harm.
The man who bought all the books by Hemingway has died.
Generally, who and which are more usual in written English whereas that is more usual in speech when
referring to things.
Relative Pronouns Used As The Object of Defining Relative Clauses
Example: That's the boy (Ø , that, who, whom) I invited to the party.
There's the house (Ø, that, which) I'd like to buy.
Relative Pronouns Used As A Possessive In A Defining Relative Clauses
Example: He's the man whose car was stolen last week.
They were sure to visit the town whose location (OR the location of which) was little known.
NOTE: It is preferable to use that (not which) after the following words: all, any(thing), every (thing), few,
little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing), and after superlatives. When using the pronoun to refer to
the object, that can be omitted.
Example: It was everything (that) he had ever wanted.
There were only a few (that) really interested him.
Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Person Object
Subject who which
Object who, whom which
Possessive whose whose, of which
 26
Relative Pronouns Used As The Subject of Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Example: Frank Zappa, who was one of the most creative artists in rock 'n roll, came from California.
Olympia, whose name is taken from the Greek, is the capitol of Washington State.
Relative Pronouns Used As The Object of Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Example: Frank invited Janet, who (whom) he had met in Japan, to the party.
Peter brought his favourite antique book, which he had found at a flee market, to show his friends.
NOTE: 'That' can never be used in non-defining clauses.
Relative Pronouns Used As A Possessive In Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Example: The singer, whose most recent recording has had much success, signing autographs.
The artist, whose name he could not remember, was one of the best he had ever seen.
NOTES
In non-defining relative clauses, which can be used to refer to an entire clause.
Example: He came for the weekend wearing only some shorts and a t-shirt, which was a stupid thing to do.
After numbers and words like many, most, neither, and some, we use of before whom and which in non-
defining relative clauses. Example: Many of those people, most of whom enjoyed their experience, spent at
least a year abroad. Dozens of people had been invited, most of whom I knew.
Relative Clauses and Preposition Use: Where, Why and When
Where, referring to a place, why, referring to a reason, and when, referring to a time, can be used instead of
a relative pronoun after a noun.
In defining relative clauses why and when, unlike where can be omitted.
Example: I'd like to know the reason (why) he decided not to come.
February is the month (when) many of my colleagues take skiing holidays.
BUT! She always had wanted to go to a place where she could speak her native tongue.
When, where and why are not omitted in non-defining relative clauses.
Example: I come from the Seattle area, where many successful companies such as Microsoft and Boeing
are located, and I often go home during the summer.
He likes shopping between one and three, when most people are at home, because of the relative calm.
NOTES:
When speaking, we often omit the relative pronoun.
Whom is formal and most often used when writing.
Relative clauses and prepositions
In formal English prepositions can come before the relative pronoun. However, it much more common to
place prepositions at the end of the relative clause, especially in informal spoken English.
Example: John Robbins, whom I spoke to by telephone, instructed me to buy 200 shares of WAKO. Formal
The Ritz, which was stayed at in New York, was extremely expensive.
Defining Relative Clauses
Formal Informal
Person whom Ø
Object which Ø
Example: The banker to whom I gave my check was quite friendly. - formal
The woman I talked to was very pleasant indeed. - informal
The book which I received for my birthday was excellent. - formal
The car he drove was really fast. - informal
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Formal Informal
Person whom who
Object which which
Example: The bank manager, to whom he addressed his complaints, was very unhelpful. - formal.
The local branch manager, who I talked to about my problems, was very helpful. – informal
6. Subordinate Clauses - Concessive, Time, Place and Reason Clauses
Four types of subordinate clauses are discussed in this feature: concessive, time, place and reason. A
subordinate clause is a clause that supports ideas stated in the main clause. Subordinate clauses are also
dependent on main clauses and would be otherwise incomprehensible without them.
 27
For example:
Because I was leaving.
Concessive Clauses
Concessive clauses are used to concede a given point in an argument. The principle concessive conjunctions
introducing a concessive clause are: Though, although, even though, while, and even if. They can be placed
at the beginning, internally or at the end of the sentence. When placed at the beginning or internally, they
serve to concede a certain part of an argument before proceeding to question the validity of the point in a
given discussion.
For example:
Even though there are many advantages to working the night shift, people who do so generally feel that the
disadvantages greatly outweigh any financial advantages that might be gained.
By placing the concessive clause at the end of the sentence, the speaker is admitting a weakness or problem
in that particular argument.
For example:
I tried hard to complete the task, though it seemed impossible.
Time Clauses
Time clauses are used to indicate the time that an event in the main clause takes place. The main time
conjunctions are: when, as soon as, before, after, by the time, by. They are placed either at the beginning or
the end of a sentence. When placed at the beginning of the sentence, the speaker is generally stressing the
importance of the time indicated.
For example:
As soon as you arrive, give me a call.
Most often time clauses are placed at the end of a sentence and indicate the time that the action of the main
clause takes place.
For example:
I had difficulties with English grammar when I was a child.
Place Clauses
Place clauses define the location of the object of the main clause. Place conjunctions include where and in
which. They are generally placed following a main clause in order to define the location of the object of the
main clause.
For example:
I will never forget Seattle where I spent so many wonderful summers.
Reason Clauses
Reason clauses define the reason behind a statement or action given in the main clause. Reason conjunctions
include because, as, due to, and the phrase "that the reason why". They can be placed either before or after
the main clause. If placed before the main clause, the reason clause usually gives emphasis to that particular
reason.
For example:
Because of the tardiness of my response, I was not allowed to enter the institution.
Generally the reason clause follows the main clauses and explains it.
For example:
I studied hard because I wanted to pass the test.

IX. Adding Emphasis in English - Special Forms

There are a number of ways to add emphasis to your sentences in English. Use these forms to emphasize
your statements when you are expressing your opinions, disagreeing, making strong suggestions, expressing
annoyance, etc.
Use of the Passive
The passive voice is used when focusing on the person or thing affected by an action. Generally, more
emphasis is given to the beginning of a sentence. By using a passive sentence, we emphasize by showing
what happens to something rather than who or what does something.
Example:
Reports are expected by the end of the week.
In this example, attention is called to what is expected of students (reports).
 28
Inversion
Invert the word order by placing a prepositional phrase or other expression (at no time, suddenly into, little,
seldom, never, etc.) at the beginning of the sentence followed by inverted word order.
Examples:
At no time did I say you couldn't come.
Hardly had I arrived when he started complaining.
Little did I understand what was happening.
Seldom have I felt so alone.
Note that the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject which is followed by the main verb.
Expressing Annoyance
Use the continuous form modified by 'always', 'forever', etc. to express annoyance at another person's action.
This form is considered an exception as it used to express a routine rather than an action occurring at a
particular moment in time.
Examples:
Martha is always getting into trouble.
Peter is forever asking tricky questions.
George was always being reprimanded by his teachers.
Note that this form is generally used with the present or past continuous (he is always doing, they were
always doing).
Cleft Sentences: It
Sentences introduced by 'It is' or 'It was' are often used to emphasize a specific subject or object. The
introductory clause is then followed by a relative pronoun.
Examples:
It was I who received the promotion.
It is the awful weather that drives him crazy.
Cleft Sentences: What
Sentences introduced by a clause beginning with 'What' are also used to emphasize a specific subject or
object. The clause introduced by 'What' is employed as the subject of the sentence as is followed by the verb
'to be'.
Examples:
What we need is a good long shower.
What he thinks isn't necessarily true.
Exceptional Use of 'Do' or 'Did'
You have probably learned that the auxiliary verbs 'do' and 'did' are not used in positive sentences - for
example: He went to the store. NOT He did go to the store. However, in order to emphasize something we
feel strongly these auxiliary verbs can be used as an exception to the rule.
Examples:
No, that's not true. John did speak to Mary.
I do believe that you should think twice about this situation.
Note this form is often used to express something contrary to what another person believes.

X. Reported Speech
The Basics: Reported Speech:
Reported Speech (also referred to as 'indirect speech') refers to a sentence reporting what someone has said.
It is almost always used in spoken English.
 If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause is in a past form. This form is
usually one step back into the past from the original.
For example:
 He said the test was difficult.
 She said she watched TV every day.
 If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting verb (i.e. says) the tense is
retained.
For example:
 He says the test is difficult.
 29
 She has said that she watches TV every day.
Study Reported Speech in Depth:
The reported speech calls for changes in tenses, pronouns and time expressions. This reported speech guide
provides all the information required. Reported speech generally uses the verbs 'say' and 'tell'. However,
there are also a number of other reporting verbs that are much more descriptive (admit, reveal, suggest, etc.)
When changing verbs in reported speech, it's important to know your tenses well. This verb tense chart will
help you review.
Test Your Knowledge of Reported Speech:
Once you've studied the rules - or if you already know the rules - test your knowledge:
Exercise 1: Put the following paragraph in the reported speech into conversational form using direct
speech.
Peter introduced me to Jack who said he was pleased to meet me. I replied that it was my pleasure, and that I
hoped Jack was enjoying his stay in Seattle. He said he thought Seattle was a beautiful city, but that it rained
too much. He said that he had been staying at the Bayview Hotel for three weeks, and that it hadn't stopped
raining since he had arrived. Of course, he said, this wouldn't have surprised him if it hadn't been July! Peter
replied that he should have brought warmer clothes. He then continued by saying that he was going to fly to
Hawaii the following week, and he that he couldn't wait to enjoy some sunny weather. Both Jack and I
commented that Peter was a lucky person indeed.
Exercise 2: Ask you partner the following questions making sure to take good notes. After you have
finished the questions, find a new partner and report what you have learnt about your first partner
using reported speech.
 What is your favourite sport and how long have you been playing/doing it?
 What are your plans for your next vacation?
 How long have you known your best friend? Can you give me a description of him/her?
 What kind of music do you like? Have you always listened to that kind of music?
 What did you use to do when you were younger that you don't do anymore?
 Do you have any predictions about the future?
 Can you tell me what you do on a typical Saturday afternoon?
 What were you doing yesterday at this time?
 Which two promises will you make concerning learning English?

XI. Causative Verbs

Jack had his house painted.
This sentence is similar in meaning to: Someone painted Jack's house. OR Jack's house was painted by
someone. Causative verbs express the idea of someone causing something to take place. Causative verbs can
be similar in meaning to passive verbs.
Examples:
My hair was cut. (Passive)
I had my hair cut. (Causative)
Both 'make' and 'have' can be used as causative verbs.
Make
'Make' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person requires another person to do something.
Construction Chart
Subject + Make + Person + Base Form of Verb
Examples:
Peter made her do her homework.
The teacher made the students stay after class.
Have
'Have' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person wants something to be done for them. This
causative verb is often used when speaking about various services. There are two forms of the causative
verb 'have'.
Construction Chart: Use 1
Subject + Have + Person + Base Form of Verb
Examples:
 30
They had John arrive early.
She had her children cook dinner for her.
Construction Chart: Use 2 Subject + Have + Object + Past Participle
Examples:
I had my hair cut last Saturday.
She had the car washed at the weekend.
Note: This form is similar in meaning to the passive.

XII. Phrasal Verbs

Question: What are Phrasal Verbs?
Answer: There are four types of phrasal verbs. Phrasal verbs can be separable or inseparable and they can
take an object or not. Here is a guide to the basics of phrasal verbs.
Phrasal Verbs which Take Objects
Phrasal verbs which take objects can be separable or inseparable:
Separable phrasal verbs can remain together when using an object that is a noun or noun phrase.
 I picked Tom up. OR I picked up Tom.
 They put their friends up. OR They put up their friends.
Separable phrasal verbs MUST be separated when a pronoun is used:
 We picked him up at the station. NOT We picked up him at the station.
 They put them up. NOT They put up them.
Inseparable phrasal verbs always remain together. It makes no difference if a noun or pronoun is used.
 We set off for the beach. / We set off for it.
 They are looking after the children. / They are looking after them.
Phrasal Verbs which Don't Take Objects
Some phrasal verbs do not take objects. These phrasal verbs are ALWAYS inseparable.
 They thieves got away.
 The bus broke down on the way to work.
 She got up early.
TIP!
If you are not sure whether a phrasal verb is separable or inseparable, ALWAYS use a noun or nouns phrase
and DO NOT separate. In this manner, you will always be correct!
Separable Phrasal Verbs: bring up, take off
 They brought up their children to respect others.
 She took off her jacket before she began the lesson.
Inseparable Phrasal Verbs: look for, set off
 She was looking for her books when he arrived.
 They set off for a wonderful holiday in Hawaii.
Three-word Phrasal Verbs
Some verbs are followed by two prepositions (or adverbs). These phrasal verbs are ALWAYS inseparable.
 I'm looking forward to meeting John. OR I'm looking forward to meeting him.
 They didn't get on with their mother. OR They didn't get on with her.

XIII. Article Usage

When do I use 'a', 'an' and 'the'
Question: When do I use 'a', 'an' and 'the'
Answer: Here are the rules for when to use "A, An or The":
 a = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with consonants
She has a dog.
I work in a factory.
 an = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with vowels
(a,e,i,o,u)
Can I have an apple?
She is an English teacher.
 31
 the = definite article (a specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know)
The car over there is fast.
The teacher is very good, isn't he?
 The first time you speak of something use "a or an", the next time you repeat that object use "the".
I live in a house. The house is quite old and has four bedrooms.
I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was very good.
 DO NOT use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains except
when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States".
He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier.
They live in northern British Columbia.
 Use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas
My country borders on the Pacific Ocean
 DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about things in general
I like Russian tea.
She likes reading books.
 DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport
He has breakfast at home.
I go to university.
He comes to work by taxi.
Article Usage Quiz 1
Use a, an, the or nothing
Example: My friend is ____ fireman. Let's ask him for ____ help.
Answer: My friend is a fireman. Let's ask him for help.
Articles Quiz
 There was ____ sound in ____ living room.
 Tom said he was _____ employee at _____ fast food restaurant. _____ restaurant is at _____
shopping mall.
 Jack Anderson was caught holding _____ match at _____ time of _____ fire.
 She replied in _____ surprise that _____ question was much too difficult.
 I'm afraid I can't remember _____ exact date of _____ show. But I do know that I bought them in
_____ shop on Broadway.
 She's staying at _____ hotel in _____ small town in Colorado. _____ town is near _____ Denver.
 _____ children went to _____ film yesterday afternoon. They enjoyed it _____ lot.
 I'm afraid _____ answer is 'no'. Come back when you can make _____ new proposal.
 _____ fruit is usually sold by _____ pound. However, _____ exotic fruit is sometimes sold by _____
piece.
 He got _____ job in _____ best company in town.
Answers
 There was a sound in the living room.
 Tom said he was an employee at a fast food restaurant. The restaurant is at a shopping mall.
 Jack Anderson was caught holding a match at the time of the fire.
 She replied in surprise that the question was much too difficult.
 I'm afraid I can't remember the exact date of the show. But I do know that I bought them in a shop on
Broadway.
 She's staying at a hotel in a small town in Colorado. The town is near Denver.
 The children went to a film yesterday afternoon. They enjoyed it a lot.
 I'm afraid the answer is 'no'. Come back when you can make a new proposal.
 Fruit is usually sold by the pound. However, exotic fruit is sometimes sold by the piece.
He got a job in the best company in town.
Article Usage Quiz 2
Use a, an, the or nothing.
Example: My friend is ____ fireman. Let's ask him for ____ help.
Answer: My friend is a fireman. Let's ask him for help.
Articles Quiz
 32
 _____ Pacific Ocean is _____ largest body of water on _____ Earth.
 You can find _____ books you'll need for class at _____ Amazon.com.
 She's thinking about attending _____ English course during _____ summer. She might go to _____
school in _____ England.
 Meridith remembered to turn off _____ lights before she left _____ apartment.
 They refused to listen to _____ Tim because they thought he was _____ overbearing person.
 I enjoy listening to _____ number of programs on _____ radio.
 He telephoned _____ agent that was listed in _____ telephone directory.
 John felt _____ painting was much too expensive and decided to look for _____ different one.
 One of _____ students has committed _____ crime. No one will leave the classroom until _____
guilty student admits his or her _____ guilt.
 Our friends bought _____ new van that they took on their holiday to _____ Yosemite National Park.
Answers
 The Pacific Ocean is the largest body of water on Earth.
 You can find the books you'll need for class at Amazon.com.
 She thinking about attending an English course during the summer. She might go to a school in
England.
 Meridith remembered to turn off the lights before she left the apartment.
 They refused to listen to Tim because they thought he was an overbearing person.
 I enjoy listening to a number of programs on the radio.
 He telephoned an agent that was listed in the telephone directory.
 John felt the painting was much too expensive and decided to look for a different one.
 One of the students has committed a crime. No one will leave the classroom until the guilty student
admits his or her guilt.
 Our friends bought a new van that they took on their holiday to Yosemite National Park.

XIV. Adjective Placement

When using more than one adjective to describe a noun place the adjectives in the following order before
the noun.
NOTE: We usually use no more than three adjectives preceding a noun.
1. Opinion
Example: an interesting book, a boring lecture
2. Dimension
Example: a big apple, a thin wallet
3. Age
Example: a new car, a modern building, an ancient ruin
4. Shape
Example: a square box, an oval mask, a round ball
5. Colour
Example: a pink hat, a blue book, a black coat
6. Origin
Example: some Italian shoes, a Canadian town, an American car
7. Material
Example: a wooden box, a woollen sweater, a plastic toy

XV. What are Adverbs?

The Five Types of Adverbs
Adverbs of Manner: Adverbs of manner provide information on how someone does something.
For example: Jack drives very carefully.
Adverbs of Time: Adverbs of time provide information on when something happens.
For example: We'll let you know our decision next week.
Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency provide information on how often something happens.
For example: They usually get to work at eight o'clock.
 33
Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree provide information concerning how much of something is done.
For example: They like playing golf a lot.
Adverbs of Comment: Adverbs of comment provide a comment, or opinion about a situation.
For example: Fortunately, there were enough seats left for the concert.
Adverb Formation
Adverbs are usually formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective.
For example: quiet - quietly, careful - carefully, careless - carelessly
Adjectives ending in '-le' change to '-ly'.
For example: possible - possibly, probable - probably, incredible - incredibly
Adjectives ending in '-y' change to '-ily'.
For example: lucky - luckily, happy - happily, angry - angrily
Adjectives ending in '-ic' change to '-ically'.
For example: basic - basically, ironic - ironically, scientific - scientifically Some adjectives are irregular.
The most common irregular adverbs are: good - well, hard - hard, fast -fast
Adverb Sentence Placement
Adverbs of Manner: Adverbs of manner are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the
sentence).
For example: Their teacher speaks quickly.
Adverbs of Time: Adverbs of time are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the
sentence).
For example: She visited her friends last year.
Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb (not the auxiliary verb).
For example: He often goes to bed late. Do you sometimes get up early?
Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the
sentence).
For example: She'll attend the meeting as well.
Adverbs of Comment: Adverbs of comment are placed at the beginning of a sentence.
For example: Luckily, I was able to come to the presentation.
Important Exceptions to Adverb Placement
Some adverbs are placed at the beginning of a sentence to provide more emphasis.
For example: Now you tell me you can't come!
Adverbs of frequency are placed after the verb 'to be' when used as the main verb of the sentence.
For example: Jack is often late for work.
Some adverbs of frequency (sometimes, usually, normally) are also placed at the beginning of the sentence
for emphasis.
For example: Sometimes I visit my friends in London.
Where Would You Put These Adverbs?
Use the following adverbs to fill in the gaps in the sentences. Each adverb is used once. always often never
certainly eventually fluently yet hard carefully just occasionally completely unfortunately definitely ever
also quickly
Have you _____ wanted to learn a new language? My friend Tom has _____ wanted to learn Russian.
_____, he never had the time until last year. He had _____ finished his studies at university and decided that
he should _____ begin. He _____ wanted to do something _____ different. He knew he wouldn't be able to
speak _____. However, he thought that if he worked _____, he would _____ be able to at least converse in
Russian. He worked very _____ and only _____ missed a class. He _____ rented films in Russian to watch,
and was surprised at how _____ he began to understand the basic meaning of the conversations. _____, he
could even listen to pop songs in Russian and understand the texts. He hasn't been to Russia _____, but he
will _____ go soon.
Answers
Have you ever wanted to learn a new language? My friend Tom has always wanted to learn Russian.
Unfortunately, he never had the time until last year. He had just finished his studies at university and
decided that he should probably begin. He also wanted to do something completely different. He knew he
wouldn't be able to speak fluently. However, he thought that if he worked carefully / hard, he would
definitely / certainly be able to at least converse in Russian. He worked very hard / carefully and only
 34
occasionally missed a class. He often rented films in Russian to watch, and was surprised at how quickly
he began to understand the basic meaning of the conversations. Eventually, he could even listen to pop
songs in Russian and understand the texts. He hasn't been to Russia yet, but he will certainly / definitely go
soon.

XVI. Grammar Exceptions

Here is the most important English rule: Almost every rule is about 90% valid!
What?!
Yes, I'm afraid it's true. It is certainly one of the most frustrating things about learning English. All that hard
work to learn the correct grammar and then you read or hear something like this:

Peter does want to come this summer. It's just that he can't get off work.

As an excellent student the first thought that comes into your mind is; wait a minute, that first sentence is a
positive sentence. Does want can't be correct. It should be; Peter wants to come this summer. Of course,
according to what you have learned you are correct. However, in certain instances you can use both the
auxiliary and principal verb together to form a positive sentence. We allow this exception to add extra
emphasis. In other words:

Peter really wants to come this summer.

You all have plenty of great class, grammar, exercise, and work books that provide all the information
necessary concerning the rules of English. I would therefore like to focus on the exceptions to those rules in
my grammar features.
This feature will concern the various uses of and exceptions to the simple present.

You all know that we usually use the simple present to express:
1. Habitual actions
2. Opinions and preferences
3. Truths and facts

You also know that the standard construction is the following:

1. Positive: Tom goes to the beach on Saturdays
2. Negative: Mary doesn't like to eat fish on Fridays.
3. Interrogative: Do they work in New York?

Here are some simple present exceptions/extra possibilities

Exception 1
In order to add stress to a positive sentence we can use the auxiliary verb "to do". We often use this
exception when we are contradicting what someone else has said.
Example:

A: I don't think Peter wants to come with us this summer. He told me that he wouldn't be able to come, but I
think he just doesn't want to come with us.
B: No, that's not true. Peter does want to come. It's just that he has too much work and can't get away from
the office.
Exception 2
The simple present can also be used for the future!! We use the simple present to express future, scheduled,
events with verbs that express beginning and end, or departure and arrival.
Example:
A: When does the train for Paris leave?
B: It leaves at 7 tomorrow morning.
Exception 3
We use the simple present in time clauses when talking about future events. The when is expressed with the
 35
simple present. The result is expressed with a future form, usually the future with will. Time clauses are
introduced by time signifiers such as when, as soon as, before, after etc. The construction is the same as the
first conditional except that we use a time signifier such as "as soon as" instead of "if".
Example:
A: When are you going to come and see the new house?
B: We will come as soon as we finish the Smith project.
Exception 4
We often use the simple present when we write time lines or biographical outlines - even if all the events
take place in the past!
Example:
1911 - Pete Wilson is born in Seattle, Washington.
1918 - Pete begins to play the saxophone
1927 - Pete is discovered by Fat Man Wallace
1928 - Fat Man Wallace arranges Pete's first concert with Big Fanny and the Boys in New York
1936 - Pete goes to Paris
Etc.
Exception 5
In the question form we usually use the auxiliary verb "to do". However, if the question word/words
(usually who, which or what) express the subject and not the object of the sentence, the question is asked
using positive sentence structure with a question mark. By the way, this is true of other tenses as well!
Example:
Regular: Who do you work with? (some people prefer "Whom do you work with?")
Exception: Who works with you?
Regular: Which toothpaste do you use?
Exception: Which brands of toothpaste use fluoride?
Time Words
Time words cause a great deal of confusion to English learners. Here are some exceptions concerning time
words.
Exception 6
Adverbs of frequency such as regularly, usually, normally, always, often, sometimes, never etc. are
generally put before the main verb. However, they can also be put at the beginning or end of a sentence.
Example:
Regular: John usually arrives home at 5 o'clock.
Also possible: Usually John arrives home at 5 o'clock OR John arrives home at 5 o'clock usually.

Note: some teachers do not consider the other possibilities correct! However, if you listen carefully to native
speakers, you will also hear these forms used.
Exception 7
The verb "to be" also causes special problems. If the adverb of frequency is placed in the middle of the
sentence (as is usually the case) it must follow the verb "to be".
Example:
Regular: Fred often eats in a bar and grill.
To be: Fred is often late to work.
Exception 8
This is one of the strangest uses of adverbs of frequency. Negative adverbs of frequency used in the initial
position of a sentence must be followed by question word order! These adverbs include rarely, never, and
seldom.
Example:
Regular: Patricia rarely finishes work before 7 p.m...
Initial placement: Seldom does John play volleyball.

The above exceptions are certainly not the only exceptions! However, they are some of the most common
exceptions. I hope this discussion has helped you.
 36
XVII. Impersonal Subjects: Gerund and It + Infinitive
Compare these two sentences:
Studying English is sometimes boring. and It is sometimes boring to study English.
Both of the sentences are used to make general statements about an activity - studying English. Here is an
overview of the two forms:
Gerund + object + 'to be' conjugated + (adverb of frequency) + adjective
Examples:
Playing tennis is excellent exercise.
Reading English newspapers is often difficult.
It + 'to be' conjugated + (adverb of frequency) + adjective + infinitive
Examples:
It is sometimes exciting to walk in the pouring rain.
It was strange to say that Russian is easier than English.
Two Exceptions
The phrases 'It is worth' and 'It is no use' take the gerund NOT the infinitive form.
It is worth / It is no use + gerund + object
Examples:
It is worth driving to the lake to have a look around.
It is no use studying for this exam.
Quiz
Change the sentences from the original to the other similar structure. Example:
It is sometimes easy to forget your cell phone number.
ANSWER:
Forgetting your cell phone number is sometimes easy.
1. Playing chess requires great concentration.
2. It is not easy to learn Chinese.
3. It is difficult to understand the motives of many politicians.
4. Interviewing applicants is often stressful and unrewarding.
5. Speaking English is always useful when travelling abroad.
6. It is never simple to move abroad.
7. Thinking about danger is often illogical.
8. It has been difficult to accept his death.
9. Flying to Africa will be great fun.
10. Working hard for so many years has been tiring for them
Impersonal Subjects: Gerund and It + Infinitive
Impersonal Subjects Quiz Answers
Original Sentences
1. Playing chess requires great concentration.
2. It is not easy to learn Chinese.
3. It is difficult to understand the motives of many politicians.
4. Interviewing applicants is often stressful and unrewarding.
5. Speaking English is always useful when travelling abroad.
6. It is never simple to move abroad.
7. Thinking about danger is often illogical.
8. It has been difficult to accept his death.
9. Flying to Africa will be great fun.
10. Working hard for so many years has been tiring for them.
Sentence Changes
1. It requires great concentration to play chess.
2. Learning Chinese is not easy.
3. Understanding the motives of many politicians is difficult.
4. It is often stressful and unrewarding to interview applicants.
5. It is always useful to speak English when travelling abroad.
6. Moving abroad is never simple.
 37
7. It is often illogical to think about danger.
8. Accepting his death has been difficult.
9. It will be great fun to fly to Africa.
10. It has been tiring for them to work hard for so many years.

XVIII. Focus on the Verb - 'Use'

Used to Do
'Used to do something' expresses something that we often did in the past, but don't do anymore. It is often
used in the positive form to speak about repeated actions - something that was a habit, or a way of life - in
the past. Generally, we use the form to contrast past habits with present situations.
Examples:
I used to go jogging three times a week when I lived in Italy. Now, I'm too busy and can only jog once a
week.
Janice used to live in New York, but moved to Seattle last year.
I used to enjoy having an espresso in the bar every morning when I lived in Italy. (I don't live in Italy any
more!)
Be careful: Use the infinitive form in questions or negative sentences:
Did you use to take the bus to work when you lived there? They didn't use to ask so many questions!
Would Do
'Would do' something refers to past actions and habits as well. Remember that 'would' is also used in a
conditional sense, (for example, I would love to go to the party if I were invited.) It's a good idea to not use
'would' in questions and negative sentences, as its meaning can easily be misunderstood in a conditional
sense.
Examples:
We'd spend a lot of money on projects that didn't help the company. = It used to be normal to spend money
on these projects, but now it isn't.
They would ask a lot of crazy questions that didn't seem to make any sense. = In the past, they asked
questions that didn't relate to the situation.
Difference Between 'Used to' and 'Would'
'Used to' can refer to permanent situations as well as habitual actions.
Example:
I used to be able to get up at nine o'clock every morning. = It was possible for me to do this in my past
situation.
'Would' only refers to actions, but not situations.
Example:
He'd get up early every morning.
Not:
He'd be able to get a good job in New York.
Other Uses of 'Use To'
'Used to' goes together with a number of verbs to express how a person feels about a current status or habit.
Become Used To / Get Used To
Use these forms to express that a person is in the process of making something 'normal'. They are often used
with the present continuous form.
Examples:
He's becoming used to living in San Francisco
Mary's slowly getting used to her new job.
We're not getting used to the weather here in Seattle. We want to go home!
Note:
When used with the present perfect, these two forms can imply that something that was difficult in the past
has become normal.
Examples:
They've become used to working overtime.
She's got used to living alone.
To Be Used To
 38
This form indicates that a situation has become normal for a person.
Examples:
Sally is used to spending hours in front of the computer every day.
I'm used to eating out for lunch.
To Become Accustomed To / To Get Accustomed To
These two forms mean the same as 'become / get used to'. However, these forms are more formal.
Examples:
Jack has become accustomed to changing jobs once every few years.
The children are getting accustomed to their new school.
To Be Accustomed To
'Be accustomed to' means the same as 'be used to'.
Examples:
He's accustomed to commuting to work every day.
My boss is accustomed to employees not liking his decisions

XIX. Personal Pronouns, Possessive Adjectives and Reflexive Forms Quiz

Fill in the blanks with personal pronouns (I, he, she, etc.), possessive adjectives (my, your, his, etc.),
possessive pronouns (hers, ours, his, etc.), or reflexive forms (myself, herself, etc.).
_____ am a singer and this is about a person like _____. Jennifer Lang is one of _____ favourite singers.
_____ is a jazz singer and often performs in clubs like _____, but _____ voice is very different from _____.
I consider _____ a singer of standard jazz songs. Jennifer, on the other hand, considers _____ a singer of
original material only. One thing is certain: _____ both consider _____ lovers of great music! _____ both
went to the Julliard School of Music in New York. _____ teacher, Jeannie Sax, continues to teach other
students at the school. She gives _____ three lessons a week - just like _____ did when _____ went to
school. Another similarity of ______ is that ____ are both from Wisconsin. Jennifer grew up in Green Bay
while _____ grew up in Plainfield, a much smaller city than _____. Jennifer is married and _____ husband,
Andy, works as an investment banker in New York. _____ office is on 5th Avenue where _____ arrives
every morning at seven thirty. _____ have very different professions, but _____ feel _____ marriage is
successful for this very reason. _____ am not jealous of _____ success, but _____ AM jealous of _____
wonderful marriage. Maybe someday _____ will meet a man just like _____.
Personal Pronouns, Possessive Adjectives and Reflexive Forms Quiz: Answers
I am a singer and this is about a person like me. Jennifer Lang is one of my favourite singers. She is a jazz
singer and often performs in clubs as I do, but her voice is very different from mine. I consider myself a
singer of standard jazz songs. Jennifer, on the other hand, considers herself a singer of original material
only. One thing is certain: we both consider ourselves lovers of great music! We both went to the Julliard
School of Music in New York. Our teacher, Jeannie Sax, continues to teach other students at the school.
She gives them three lessons a week - just like she did when we went to school. Another similarity of ours
is that we are both from Wisconsin. Jennifer grew up in Green Bay while I grew up in Plainfield, a much
smaller city than hers. Jennifer is married and her husband, Andy, works as an investment banker in New
York. His office is on 5th Avenue where he arrives every morning at seven thirty. They have very different
professions, but they feel their marriage is successful for this very reason. I am not jealous of her/their
success, but I AM jealous of her/their wonderful marriage. Maybe someday I will meet a man just like
hers/him.
Personal Pronouns, Possessive Adjectives and Reflexive Forms Quiz
Fill in the blanks with personal pronouns (I, he, she, etc.), possessive adjectives (my, your, his, etc.),
possessive pronouns (hers, ours, his, etc.), or reflexive forms (myself, herself, etc.).
Matthew, a friend of ____, told ____ about the difficult time ____ had been having with ____ twenty-year-
old daughter, Jane. ____ lived in ____ own apartment in a nearby town, and, ____ stated, seemed very
unhappy. ____ insisted that ____ could deal with ____ ____ and didn't want any interference from ____
parents. When ____ had last seen ____, she ____ sad and unhappy. ____ told ____ to worry about ____
own problems. Both Tom and ____ wife Cynthia were worried, but decided ____ should keep ____ concern
to ____.
Long story short, this story reminded ____ of an experience of ____. ____ had a good friend who was going
through some difficult times. ____ told ____ that he could take care of ____. ____ respected ____ wishes
 39
and eventually ____ felt much better. However, one day while ____ were talking, ____ mentioned that ____
hadn't helped ____ much with ____ problems. ____ said, "But ____ asked ____ to leave ____ alone. ____
said ____ were ____ problems and that ____ could take care of ____ by ____!" to which ____ replied:
"Never listen to what a depressed persons says!"
____ turned to Matthew and said, "____ daughter needs ____. Don't let ____ take care of ____ ____.
Insist!" ____ think ____ gave ____ a good piece of advice.
Personal Pronouns, Possessive Adjectives and Reflexive Forms Quiz: Answers
Matthew, a friend of mine, told me about the difficult time he had been having with his twenty-year-old
daughter, Jane. She lived in her own apartment in a nearby town, and, he stated, seemed very unhappy. She
insisted that she could deal with it herself and didn't want any interference from her parents. When they
had last seen her, she looked sad and unhappy. She told them to worry about their own problems. Both
Tom and his wife Cynthia were worried, but decided they should keep their concern to themselves.
Long story short, this story reminded me of an experience of mine. I had a good friend who was going
through some difficult times. He told me that he could take care of himself. I respected his wishes and
eventually he felt much better. However, one day while we were talking, he mentioned that I hadn't helped
him much with his problems. I said, "But you asked me to leave you alone. You said they were your
problems and that you could take care of them by yourself!" to which he replied: "Never listen to what a
depressed persons says!"
I turned to Matthew and said, "Your daughter needs you. Don't let her take care of it herself. Insist!" I
think I gave him a good piece of advice.

XX. Expressing Quantity

Much / Many
'Much' and 'Many' are used in negative sentences and questions. 'Much' is used with uncountable nouns such
as 'rice':
Examples
How much money have you got?
There isn't much rice left.
'Many' is used for countable nouns such as 'apples':
Examples
How many people came to the party?
There aren't many apples on the table.
A Lot Of / Lots Of
'A lot of' and 'lots of' can be used with both count and uncountable nouns. 'A lot of' and 'lots of' are used in
positive sentences:
Examples
There is a lot of water in that jar.
He's got lots of friends in London.
(A) Little / (A) Few
'A little' and 'a few' indicate a quantity or number. Use 'a little' with uncountable nouns:
Examples
There is a little wine in that bottle. There is a little sugar in my coffee.
Use 'a few' with countable nouns.
Examples
He has a few friends in New York.
We bought a few sandwiches on our way to the park.
'Little' and 'few' indicate a limited quantity. Use 'little' with uncountable nouns:
Examples
I have little money to spend.
She found little time for work.
Examples
Use 'few' with countable nouns:
Examples
He has few students in his class. Jack finds few reasons to stay.
 40
Countable and Uncountable
Uncountable
Use the singular form of the verb with uncountable nouns. Use both 'some' and any' with uncountable nouns
when speaking about specific objects.
Examples
Do you have any butter?
There is some juice in the bottle.
If you are speaking in general, do not use a modifier.
Examples
Do you drink coca cola?
He doesn't eat meat.
Countable
Use the plural form of the verb with countable nouns. Use both 'some' and 'any' with countable nouns when
speaking about specific objects.
Examples
There are some magazines on the table.
Has he got any friends?
If you are speaking in general, use the plural form of the noun.
Examples
They love books by Hemingway.
She doesn't eat apples.
Expressions for Use with Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Use the following expressions with uncountable nouns.
most
much, lots of, a lot of
some
a little, little
Examples
There is lots of interest in the project.
She's got some money left in the bank.
There's little time to finish.
Use the following expressions with countable nouns.
many, lots of, a lot of
several
some
not many, only a few, few
Examples
There are a lot of pictures on the wall.
We have several friends in Chicago.
She bought some envelopes this afternoon.
There are only a few people in the restaurant.
What are countable nouns?
Countable nouns are individual objects, people, places, etc. which can be counted.
books, Italians, pictures, stations, men, etc.
A countable noun can be both singular - a friend, a house, etc. - or plural - a few apples, lots of trees, etc.
Use the singular form of the verb with a singular countable noun:
There is a book on the table.
That student is excellent!
Use the plural form of the verb with a countable noun in the plural:
There are some students in the classroom.
Those houses are very big, aren't they?
What are uncountable nouns?
Uncountable nouns are materials, concepts, information, etc. which are not individual objects and can not be
counted.
 41
information, water, understanding, wood, cheese, etc.
Uncountable nouns are always singular. Use the singular form of the verb with uncountable nouns:
There is some water in that pitcher.
That is the equipment we use for the project.
Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns.
Use a/an with countable nouns preceded by an adjective(s):
Tom is a very intelligent young man.
I have a beautiful grey cat.
Do not use a/an with uncountable nouns preceded by an adjective(s):
That is very useful information.
There is some cold beer in the fridge.
Some uncountable nouns in English are countable in other languages. This can be confusing! Here is a list
of some of the most common, easy to confuse uncountable nouns.
Accommodation, advice, baggage, bread, equipment, furniture, garbage, information, knowledge,
luggage, money, news, pasta, progress, research, travel, work

XXI. Sentence Transformations

Sentence Transformation 1
The ability to rewrite sentences so that they have the same meaning as the original is often required for
many English ESL EFL Exams such as Cambridge's First Certificate, CAE and Proficiency. This skill can
also help you prepare for the TOEFL examination (Test of English as a Foreign Language). It is also an
important skill which can help you improve your understanding of similar English expressions and
vocabulary.
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Use no more than 5 words.
You must never take your helmet off while you are riding a motorcycle.
All
Helmets must be worn at all times when riding a motorcycle.
They wanted to apologize for their behaviour: that's why they paid for dinner.
Order
They paid for dinner in order to apologize for their behaviour.
It isn't necessary to bring skis as they are included in the package.
Have
You don’t have to bring skis as they are included in the package.
I thought parking was allowed here.
Under the impression
I was under the impression that parking was allowed here.
Tom said, "I will be playing tennis when you arrive."
He
Tom said he would be playing tennis when I arrived.
When I was a child, we would go to the local park every Saturday afternoon.
Used
When I was a child, we used to go the park every Saturday.
His daughter continued to cry until he could not be seen any longer.
Sight
She continued to cry until he was out of sight.
I'm afraid that car is just too expensive.
Means
That car is beyond my means.
They moved to this suburb in 1997.
Lived
They have lived in this suburb since 1997.
One other thing before I forget - Jack is coming to visit next weekend.
By
By the way, Jack is coming to visit next weekend.
 42
Sentence Transformation 2
Katherine keeps making long distance telephone calls.
Katherine is ____________
Jack ate lunch before we arrived.
By the time ____________
Is there such a thing as happiness?
Does ____________
I haven't eaten Sushi for years.
It's ____________
I didn't know about Susan's divorce.
I didn't know that ____________
His homework won't be finished by the end of the day.
He won't ____________
His education is none of your business.
His education does ____________
He'll be at the meeting soon.
It won't be long ____________
Go to the conference check
in desk immediately on arrival.
As ____________
After finishing the exam, I started to relax a lot.
Since ____________
Answers
Katherine keeps making long distance telephone calls.
Katherine is always making long distance telephone calls.
Jack ate lunch before we arrived.
By the time we arrived, Jack had eaten lunch.
Is there such a thing as happiness?
Does happiness exist?
I haven't eaten Sushi for years.
It's years since I ate Sushi.
I didn't know about Susan's divorce.
I didn't know that Susan had divorced.
His homework won't be finished by the end of the day.
He won't have finished his homework by the end of the day.
His education is none of your business.
His education does not concern you.
He'll be at the meeting soon.
It won't be long before he's at the meeting.
Go to the conference check
in desk immediately on arrival.
As soon as you arrive, go to the conference check
in desk.
After finishing the exam, I started to relax a lot.
Since finishing the exam I have relaxed a lot.
If you would like more practice on sentence transformations, follow these links to other sentence
transformation quizzes on the site.
Sentence Transformation 3
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Use no more than 5 words.
1. I haven't seen Tom for ages.
since
It's been a long time since I last saw Tom.
2. They were still playing tennis after three hours.
been
 43
They had been playing tennis for three hours.
3. He didn't want to join in the celebrations.
take
He didn't want to take part in the celebrations.
4. What a shame he wasn't able to come.
wish
I wish he had been able to come.
5. I took a sweater but it wasn't necessary.
taken
I needn’t have taken a sweater.
6. If you don't know how to spell the word, why don't you check in the dictionary?
up
Why don't you look the word up in the dictionary?
7. Somebody should tell him.
told
He needs to be told by someone.
8. The concert was horrible.
time
The concert was a complete waste of time.
9. He couldn't find me at the exhibition.
find
He wasn't able to find me at the exhibition.
10. She let her son go to New York for the weekend.
allowed
She allowed her son to go to New York.
Sentence Transformation 4
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Use no more than 5 words.
1. I haven't seen her for ages.
time
The last time I saw her was 15 years ago.
2. I didn't understand what he was saying because I hadn't read his book.
would
If I had read his book I would have understood what he was saying.
3. As the class representative I would like to welcome you.
behalf
I'd like to welcome you on behalf of the class.
4. They believe the students were educated in Canada.
believed
The students are believed to have been educated in Canada.
5. He escaped using a disguise.
means
He escaped by means of a disguise.
6. Remind me to call Jack.
forget
Don't let me forget to call Jack.
7. This pasta is a new experience for me.
time
It is the first time I have tried this pasta.
8. She has probably found a new job.
likely
It is likely she has found a new job.
9. I don't agree with prohibiting smoking in bars.
favour
I'm not in favour of prohibiting smoking in bars.
 44
10. It doesn't need to be finished this afternoon.
finish
It isn’t necessary to finish this afternoon.
Sentence Transformation 5
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Use no more than 5 words.
1. Pittsburgh is less exciting than New York.
as
Pittsburgh isn’t as exciting as New York.
2. He couldn't read the cup because it was too high.
low
He cup wasn't low enough for him to reach.
3. She didn't accept his marriage proposal.
down
She turned his marriage proposal down.
4. We were told to wait here by the director.
who
It was the director who told us to wait here.
5. Can you look after the kids this afternoon?
of
Can you take care of the kids this afternoon?
6. "Why don't you take a day off?" asked Jim.
should
Jim suggested I should take a day off.
7. He acts like a poor man even if he has a lot of money.
fact
Even though he acts like a poor man, he in fact has a lot of money.
8. I didn't mean to break that vase.
on
I didn't break that vase on purpose.
9. Jack says Jenny is responsible.
according
It's Jenny's responsibility according to Jack.
10. I was so bored by his lecture I left.
boring
His lecture was so boring that I left.
Sentence Transformation 6
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Use no more than 5 words.
1. I am afraid I'm still having problems with understanding life in New York.
used
I am not used to living in New York.
2. I think we need to get a new car.
in
We need to get a new car in my opinion.
3. I'd prefer it if you didn't smoke in here.
mind
Would you mind not smoking in here?
4. Many people were delayed because of the traffic jam.
number
A number of people were delayed by the traffic jam.
5. It was such an interesting novel I stayed up all night to finish it.
so
The novel was so interesting I stayed up all night to finish it.
6. Although he was able to do the job, he wasn't given the position.
despite
 45
Despite his ability to do the job, he wasn't given the position.
7. You should take the train instead of the bus.
were
If I were you, I'd take the train instead of the bus.
8. Can you describe him to me?
like
What is he like?
9. It isn't necessary to buy a first class ticket.
have
You don’t have to buy a first class ticket.
10. I'm sure he was at home last night.
must
He must have been at home last night.
Sentence Transformation 7: Paired Conjunctions
Paired conjunctions are often used in both spoken and written English to make a point, give an explanation,
or discuss alternatives. Unfortunately, not only are they difficult to use, but their structure is also rather strict!
Match the sentence halves to make a complete sentence.
 Both Peter
 Not only do we want to go
 Either Jack will have to work more hours
 That story was
 Students who do well not only study hard
 In the end he had to choose
 Sometimes it is
 I would love to take
 Not only do we want to go but we also have enough money.
 That story was neither true nor realistic.
 Sometimes it is not only wise to listen to your parents but also interesting.
 Both Peter and I are coming next week.
 In the end he had to choose either his career or his hobby.
 I would love to take both my laptop and my cell phone on holiday.
 Students who do well not only study hard but also use their instincts if they do not know the answer.
 Either Jack will have to work more hours or we will have to hire somebody new.
Combine the following sentences into one sentence using paired conjunctions: both ... and; not only ...
but also; either ... or; neither ... nor
 We could fly. We could go by train.
Either we could fly or we could go by train.
 She will have to study hard. She will have to concentrate to do well on the exam.
Not only will she have to study hard but also she will have to concentrate to do well on the exam.
 Jack is not here. Tom is in another city.
Neither Jack nor Tom is here.
 The speaker will not confirm the story. The speaker will not deny the story.
The speaker will neither confirm nor deny the story.
 Pneumonia is a dangerous disease. Small pox is a dangerous illness.
Both Pneumonia and Small pox are dangerous diseases (illnesses).
 Fred loves travelling. Jane wants to go around the world.
Both Fred and Jane love travelling.
 It might rain tomorrow. It might snow tomorrow.
It might both rain and snow tomorrow.
 Smoking isn't good for your heart. Drinking isn't good for your health.
Neither smoking nor drinking are good for your health.

XXII. Guide to Basic English Punctuation Rules

 46
"I'm getting married!"
She cried out: "I never want to see you again!"
This guide provides instruction on the basic rules of using a period, comma, colon, semicolon, question
mark and exclamation point. Each type of punctuation is followed by an explanation and example sentences
for reference purposes.
Period
Use a period to end a complete sentence. A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and predicate.
In British English a period is called a 'full stop'.
Examples:
He went to Detroit last week.
They are going to visit.
Comma
There are a number of different uses for commas in English. Commas are used to:
 Separate a list of items. This is one of the most common uses of a comma. Notice that a comma is
included before the conjunction 'and' which comes before the final element of a list.
Examples:
I like reading, listening to music, taking long walks, and visiting with my friends.
They would like books, magazines, DVDs, video cassettes, and other learning materials for their library.
 Separate phrases (clauses). This is especially true after a beginning dependent clause or a long
prepositional phrase.
Examples:
In order to qualify for your certificate, you will need to take the TOEFL exam.
Although he wanted to come, he wasn't able to attend the course.
 Separate two independent clauses that are connected by a conjunction such as 'but'.
Examples:
They wanted to purchase a new car, but their financial situation would not allow it.
I'd really enjoy seeing a film this evening, and I'd like to go out for a drink.
 Introduce a direct quote (as opposed to indirect speech i.e. He said he wanted to come ...).
Examples:
The boy said, "My father is often away during the week on business trips."
His doctor replied, "If you don't stop smoking, you run the risk of a heart attack."
 Separate appositives (a noun, or noun phrase) or non-defining relative clauses.
Examples:
Bill Gates, the richest man in the world, comes from Seattle.
My only sister, who is a fantastic tennis player, is in great shape.
Question Mark
The question mark is used at the end of a question.
Examples:
Where do you live?
How long have they been studying?
Exclamation Point
The exclamation point is used at the end of a sentence to indicate great surprise. It is also used for emphasis
when making a point. Be careful not to use an exclamation point too often.
Examples:
That ride was fantastic!
I can't believe he is going to marry her!
Semicolon
There are two uses for a semicolon:
 To separate two independent clauses. One or both of the clauses are short and the ideas expressed are
usually very similar.
Examples:
He loves studying; He can't get enough of school.
What an incredible situation; it must make you nervous.
 To separate groups of words that are themselves separated by commas.
 47
Examples:
I took a holiday and played golf, which I love; read a lot, which I needed to do; and slept late, which I
hadn't done for quite a while.
They plan to study German, for their travels; chemistry, for their work; and literature, for their own
enjoyment.
Colon
A colon can be used for two purposes:
 To provide additional details and explanation.
Examples:
He had many reasons for joining the club: to get in shape, to make new friends, to lose some weight, and to
get out of the house.
She gave notice for the following reasons: bad pay, horrible hours, poor relations with colleagues, and her
boss.
 To introduce a direct quote (a comma can also be used in this situation).
Examples:
He announced to his friends: "I'm getting married!"
She cried out: "I never want to see you again!"

XXIII. Write an Essay

There are many ways to write an essay. However, the standard essay form follows the same basic patterns as
discussed in this 'how to'.
Difficulty: Average
Time Required: 30 minutes
Here's How:
1. Select the topic of your essay.
2. Choose the central idea, or thesis, of your essay. For example: Information technology has
revolutionized the way we work.
3. Outline your essay into introductory, body and summary paragraphs.
4. The introductory paragraph begins with an interesting sentence. For example: Home workers have
grown from 150,000 to over 12 million in the past 5 years thanks to the wonders of the computer.
5. After this first sentence, add your thesis statement from above.
6. Use one sentence to introduce every body paragraph to follow. For example: The Internet has made
this possible by extending the office into the home.
7. Finish the introductory paragraph with a short summary or goal statement. For example:
Technological innovation has thus made the traditional workplace obsolete.
8. In each of the body paragraphs (usually two or three) the ideas first presented in the introductory
paragraph are developed.
9. Develop your body paragraphs by giving detailed information and examples. For example: When the
Internet was first introduced it was used primarily by scientists, now it is common in every classroom.
10. Body paragraphs should develop the central idea and finish with a summary of that idea. There
should be at least two examples or facts in each body paragraph to support the central idea.
11. The summary paragraph summarizes your essay and is often a reverse of the introductory paragraph.
12. Begin the summary paragraph by quickly restating the principal ideas of your body paragraphs. For
example: The Internet in the home, benefits and ease of use of modern computer systems...
13. The penultimate sentence should restate your basic thesis of the essay. For example: We have now
passed from the industrial revolution to the information revolution.
14. Your final statement can be a future prediction based on what you have shown in the essay. For
example: The next step: The complete disappearance of the workplace.
Tips:
1. Use strong verbs and avoid modals to state your opinion. It is better to write: The workplace has
evolved than The workplace seems to have evolved
2. Do not apologize for what you are saying. An essay is about your opinion.
3. Do not translate from your mother tongue. It will quickly get you into trouble!
 48
XXIV. Write Resume in English
Writing a resume in English can be very different than in your native tongue. The following how to outlines
a standard resume format.
Difficulty: Hard
Time Required: 2 hours
Here's How:
1. First, take notes on your work experience - paid and unpaid, full time and part time. Write down
your responsibilities, job title and company information. Include everything!
2. Take notes on your education. Include degree or certificates, major or course emphasis, school
names and courses relevant to career objectives.
3. Take notes on other accomplishments. Include membership in organizations, military service and
any other special accomplishments.
4. From the notes, choose which skills are transferable (skills that are similar) to the job you are
applying for - these are the most important points for your resume.
5. Begin resume by writing your full name, address, telephone number, fax and email at the top of the
resume.
6. Write an objective. The objective is a short sentence describing what type of work you hope to
obtain.
7. Begin work experience with your most recent job. Include the company specifics and your
responsibilities - focus on the skills you have identified as transferable.
8. Continue to list all of your work experience job by job progressing backwards in time. Remember to
focus on skills that are transferable.
9. Summarize your education, including important facts (degree type, specific courses studied) that are
applicable to the job you are applying for.
10. Include other relevant information such as languages spoken, computer programming knowledge etc.
under the heading: Additional Skills
11. Finish with the phrase: REFERENCES Available upon request
12. Your entire resume should ideally not be any longer than one page. If you have had a number of
years of experience specific to the job you are applying for, two pages are also acceptable.
13. Spacing: ADDRESS (centre of page in bold) OBJECTIVE double space EXPERIENCE double
space EDUCATION double space ADDITIONAL SKILLS double space REFERENCES. Left align
everything except name/address.
Tips:
1. Use dynamic action verbs such as: accomplished, collaborated, encouraged, established, facilitated,
founded, managed, etc.
2. Do NOT use the subject 'I', use tenses in the past. Except for your present job. Example: Conducted
routine inspections of on site equipment.