AX4092 - DISASTER MANAGEMENT

UNIT II - REPERCUSSIONS OF DISASTERS AND HAZARDS

Economic Damage, Loss of Human and Animal Life, Destruction of Ecosystem. Natural
Disasters: Earthquakes, Volcanisms, Cyclones, Tsunamis, Floods, Droughts And Famines,
Landslides And Avalanches, Man-made disaster: Nuclear Reactor Meltdown, Industrial
Accidents, Oil Slicks And Spills, Outbreaks of Disease And Epidemics, War And Conflicts.

INTRODUCTION:

Every year, millions of people are affected by both human-caused and natural
disasters. Disasters may be explosions, earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornados, or fires. In a
disaster, you face the danger of death or physical injury. Hazards can have social, economic
and environmental impacts on society. These include loss of life, injuries, and damage to
infrastructure, businesses, and ecosystems.

Effects of disaster

 Food insecurity.
 Emotional aftershocks.
 Health Risks.
 Displacement of large groups of people.
 Financial distress.
 Insecurity about the future after each disaster.

ECONOMIC DAMAGE:

The economic damage caused by disasters varies. Capital assets and infrastructure such as
housing, schools, factories and equipment, roads, dams and bridges are lost. Human capital is
depleted due to the loss of life, the loss of skilled workers and the destruction of education
infrastructure that disrupts schooling.

The economic impacts are caused by direct and indirect results of the hazards.
Examples of economic impacts from direct results are the loss of property and infrastructure
caused by an earthquake. Economic impacts from indirect results are negative consequences
of gross domestic product growth, trade and opportunities.

The economic impacts of tectonic hazards are heavily influenced by the time,
geographic location and land area exposed to the hazard. Because of this, earthquakes tend to
have a significantly larger economic impact in comparison to volcanoes, as volcanoes tend to
be located close together in a smaller area of land, and fewer people live in these areas. Other
important components which influence the economic impact of hazards are the level of
development of the affected area and country, level of insured and non-insured losses, the
population affected and urbanisation.

EFFECTS ON ANIMAL LIFE:

Animals living in the wild are particularly vulnerable in natural disasters.

Earthquakes, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and forest fires can have devastating
consequences. Many animals die, drowned or buried alive by dirt, ash, lava, or snow; crushed
to death in collapsed or burnt burrows; smashed against trees and rocks, or pelted by
hailstones. Others sustain major injuries, including cuts and abrasions to the eyes, wings and
gills; respiratory and digestive disorders, eroded teeth; malnutrition; and poisoning from
contaminated food and water. Strong volcanic eruptions and fires can temporarily change
regional weather, cooling or heating the air, changing winds, or causing rain. Volcanoes,
storms, and floods can kill marine animals directly, or cause long-term problems by
depositing debris and affecting the temperature and salinity of water. All of this contributes to
health problems for marine animals, while changing the circulation of water, which further
affects nutrient availability and water temperature.

EFFECTS ON HUMAN LIFE:

Disasters not only affect the health of human life but it can cause serious damage to
property as well. Disasters may be man-made or natural can cause loss of life, agriculture
damage, damage to property like houses, communication lines, roads, etc.
Natural disasters like drought, floods, landslides, earthquakes, wildfires, and tsunami
have caused many to displace from their homes. In India, the rural population migrating to
nearby cities after the severe drought is a common sight. Their livelihood is taken away and
they have to make do with whatever work available in cities. This creates a burden on the
resources of the cities also. Further, most of the displaced population get stagnated in the
cities permanently.
The problems faced by the displaced population include:
i) Poor shelters and sanitation facilities ii) Unsafe water iii) Poor quality food which leads
to malnutrition iv) Loss of property and fear of future v) Experiencing trauma and
depression vi) Women and children needing better protection vii) Loss of important
documents to ascertain the identity needed to receive aid.
The effects of disaster on human life are listed as below:

1. Destruction of infrastructure: In case of any disaster the destruction of infrastructure is

also an effect of high concern. Infrastructure i.e building, dams, roads,flyovers etc. are
damaged because of disasters like cyclone, tsunami, floods, earthquakes etc.

2. Effect on humans: In the event of any disaster many people lost their lives, children,
family. This is a major grief to the person who is suffering.

3. Increase in the status of poverty: Due to the destruction, works providing employment is
also paused and hence ultimately it will result in the increase of unemployment either
naturally or deliberately.

4. Effect on the development of an economy: As stated above, it will ultimately effect the
development of any economy.

5. Increase in the bad health status of the people of the particular region: Due to the
contamination of water and food resources, it will result in the bad health status of the people
of that particular area which is affected by the calamity.

NATURAL DISASTER:

EARTHQUAKES:

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the

surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that
creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from those that are so weak that
they cannot be felt, to those violent enough to propel objects and people into the air and
wreak destruction across entire cities. The seismic activity of an area is the frequency, type,
and size of earthquakes experienced over a particular time period. The seismicity at a
particular location in the Earth is the average rate of seismic energy release per unit volume.

An earthquake happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another.
The surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below the earth’s
surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above
it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.

Foreshocks are smaller earthquakes that happen in the same place as the larger
earthquake that follows. The largest, main earthquake is called the mainshock. Mainshocks
always have aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that occur afterwards in the same place as
the mainshock. Depending on the size of the mainshock, aftershocks can continue for weeks,
months, and even years after the mainshock.
 The earth has four major layers: the inner core, outer core,
mantle and crust. The crust and the top of the mantle make up a thin skin on the surface of
our planet. The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and some portion of the
Mantle, to slide on the hot molten outer core. This sliding of Earth's mass takes place in
pieces called Tectonic Plates. The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates
and many smaller ones. These plates move in different directions and at different speeds from
those of the neighbouring ones. Sometimes, the plate in the front is slower; then, the plate
behind it comes and collides (and mountains are formed). On the other hand, sometimes two
plates move away from one another (and rifts are created). In another case, two plates move
side-by-side, along the same direction or in opposite directions. These three types of inter-
plate interactions are the convergent, divergent and transform boundaries.

Most earthquakes in the world occur along the boundaries of the tectonic plates as
described above and are called Inter-plate Earthquakes. A number of earthquakes also occur
within the plate itself but away from the plate boundaries; these are called Intra-plate
Earthquakes. Here, a tectonic plate breaks in between. In both types of earthquakes, the slip
generated at the fault during earthquakes is along both vertical and horizontal directions
(called Dip Slip) and lateral directions (called Strike Slip).

Large strain energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic waves in all directions
through the Earth's layers, reflecting and refracting at each interface. These waves are of two types -
body waves and surface waves; the latter are restricted to near the Earth's surface. Body waves consist
of Primary Waves (P-waves) and Secondary Waves (S waves), and surface waves consist of Love
waves and Rayleigh waves. Under P-waves, material particles undergo extensional and compressional
strains along direction of energy transmission, but under S-waves, oscillate at right angles to it. Love
waves cause surface motions similar to that by S-waves.
 Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and
around the Earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves.
Seismic waves are caused by the sudden movement of materials within the Earth,
such as slip along a fault during an earthquake. Volcanic eruptions, explosions, landslides,
avalanches, and even rushing rivers can also cause seismic waves. Seismic waves travel
through and around the Earth and can be recorded with seismometers.

Magnitude
Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the earthquake. Seismograms
(records of earthquake ground vibration) of larger earthquakes have bigger wave amplitude
than those of smaller earthquakes; and for a given earthquake, seismograms at farther
distances have smaller wave amplitude than those at close distances. Richter Scale is obtained
from the seismograms and accounts for the dependence of waveform amplitude on epicentral
distance. This scale is also called Local Magnitude scale.

Intensity
Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an
earthquake, and is assigned as Roman Capital Numerals. There are manv intensity scales.
Two commonly used ones are the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MM!) Scale and the MSK
Scale. Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XII (most severe).
The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking - perception by people and
animals, performance of buildings, and changes to natural surroundings.

MSI Scale
 MSK Scale
Tsunamis

Following certain earthquakes, very long-wavelength water waves in oceans or seas

sweep inshore. More properly called seismic sea waves or tsunamis. A tsunami is a series of
extremely long waves caused by a large and sudden displacement of the ocean, usually the
result of an earthquake below or near the ocean floor. This force creates waves that radiate
outward in all directions away from their source, sometimes crossing entire ocean basins.
Unlike wind-driven waves, which only travel through the topmost layer of the ocean,
tsunamis move through the entire water column, from the ocean floor to the ocean surface.
Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes on converging tectonic plate boundaries.
 The usual immediate cause of a tsunami is sudden displacement in a seabed sufficient
to cause the sudden raising or lowering of a large body of water. This deformation may be the
fault source of an earthquake, or it may be a submarine landslide arising from an earthquake.
The most destructive tsunami ever recorded occurred on December 26, 2004, after an
earthquake displaced the seabed off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. More than 200,000
people were killed by a series of waves that flooded coasts from Indonesia to Sri Lanka and
even washed ashore on the Horn of Africa.

The amplitude (that is, the height of disturbance) at the water surface does
not exceed a few metres in deep water, and the principal wavelength may be on the order of
hundreds of kilometres. When tsunamis approach shallow water, however, the wave
amplitude increases. The waves may occasionally reach a height of 20 to 30 metres above
mean sea level in U- and V-shaped harbours and inlets.

Seiches are rhythmic motions of water in nearly landlocked bays or lakes that are
sometimes induced by earthquakes and tsunamis. Oscillations of this sort may last for hours
or even for a day or two.

Tsunami effects on humans

Large tsunamis are significant threats to human health, property, infrastructure,
resources, and economies. Effects can be long-lasting, and felt far beyond the coastline.
Tsunamis typically cause the most severe damage and casualties near their source, where
there is little time for warning. But large tsunamis can also reach distant shorelines, causing
widespread damage.
Tsunami forecasting
Scientists cannot predict when and where the next tsunami will strike. But the tsunami
warning centers know which earthquakes are likely to generate tsunamis and can issue
messages when one is possible. They monitor networks of deep-ocean and coastal sea-level
observation systems designed to detect tsunamis and use information from these networks to
forecast coastal impacts and guide local decisions about evacuation.

Most tsunami damage and destruction is caused by flooding, wave impacts, erosion,
strong currents, and floating debris (e.g., trees, structures, vehicles, and other things that can
act like battering rams).

VOLCANISM:

Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of a planet. A volcano is
the vent through which magma and gases are discharged. Magma that reaches the surface is
called “lava.” Volcanos are named for Vulcan — the Roman god of fire!
 Volcanism can both increase and decrease temperature. Volcanism can cause long term
increases in average temperatures by releasing greenhouse gases, but at a very slow rate over
millions of years. By comparison, human activities that release greenhouse gases have
increased Earth’s average temperature just over the last few decades. Volcanic events can
also cause short term cooling by increasing the amount of airborne
particles that reflect sunlight in the atmosphere.

Causes of Volcanism
 There is a huge temperature difference between the inner layers and the outer layers
of the earth due to the differential amount of radioactivity.
 This temperature difference gives rise to convectional currents in the mantle.
  The convection currents in the mantle create convergent and divergent boundaries
(weak zones).
 At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-molten and sometimes gaseous material
appears on earth at the first available opportunity.
 The earthquakes here may expose fault zones through which magma may escape
(fissure type volcano).
 At the convergent boundary, the subduction of denser plate creates magma at high
pressure which will escape to the surface in the form of violent eruptions.

Destructive Effects of Volcanism

 Showers of cinders and bombs can cause damage to life. E.g. the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in 79 AD.
 Tsunamis can be generated in large water bodies due to violent eruptions. E.g. 1883
Krakatoa eruption.
 The collapse of the volcanic landforms in seas and oceans cause tsunamis. E.g. 2018
Sunda Strait tsunami.
 The ash from a larger eruption dispersing over a large area can lower temperatures at
a regional or global scale. This could trigger famines on a large scale. E.g. 1815
eruption of Mount Tambora.
 In Hawaiian type eruption, a single flow spreads widely over open slopes or down the
valleys as lava rivers engulfing entire cities.
 Lahars (a violent type of mudflow or debris flow) can bury entire cities in a matter of
minutes causing a high number of causalities. E.g. 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz
volcano.
 The sudden collapse of lava domes can cause violent volcanic flows that destroy
everything on their path. E.g. the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée.
 Powerful winds drive the gas plume higher into the atmosphere and carry it to a
greater distance disrupting air travel (this happened in 2010 when a stratovolcano in
Iceland erupted and disrupted air travel over entire Europe for weeks).
 A supervolcanic super-eruption can cause a small-scale extinction event. E.g. The
Toba eruption (Indonesia) triggered a dramatic global winter 74,000 years ago.

Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction

 The volcanic gases that pose the greatest potential hazard to people, animals,
agriculture, and property are sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
fluoride.
 Locally, sulphur dioxide gas can lead to acid rain and air pollution downwind from a
volcano.
 Globally, large explosive eruptions that inject a tremendous volume of sulphur
aerosols into the stratosphere can lead to lower surface temperatures and promote
depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer.
Effects of Volcanism:
 Affecting the reflectivity of the atmosphere by releasing airborne particles, which can
result in short-term cooling of the atmosphere.
 Airborne particles that affect air quality.

 Releasing greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and water vapor, although not
enough to account for current warming trends.

 Affecting mountain building and formation of new land (distribution of continents and
oceans).

 The displacement of human populations that live near volcanoes due to the release of
lava, ash, and airborne particles.

Positive Effects of Volcanism

 Volcanism creates new fertile landforms like islands, plateaus, volcanic mountains
etc. E.g. Deccan traps.
 The volcanic ash and dust are very fertile for farms and orchards.
 Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon weathering and decomposition.
 Mineral resources, particularly metallic ores are brought to the surface by volcanoes.
Sometimes copper and other ores fill the gas-bubble cavities.
 The famed Kimberlite rock of South Africa, the source of diamonds, is the pipe of an
ancient volcano.
 In the vicinity of active volcanoes, waters in depth are heated from contact with hot
magma giving rise to springs and geysers.
  The heat from the earth’s interior in areas of volcanic activity is used to
generate geothermal electricity.

Geyser Hot water spring

Steam or water at high pressure, along its Steam or water at high pressure smoothly
path, gets accumulated in small reservoirs, flows to the top through the vent and
fissures and fractures. Once the pressure condense at the surface giving rise to a
exceeds the threshold limit, the steam spring.
bursts out to the surface disrupting the
water at the mouth. Hence the name
geyser.
Some springs are very colourful because of
Silicate deposits at mouth give them their
the presence of cyanobacteria of different
distinct colours.
colours.
Generally, geysers are located near active
volcanic areas. Iceland is famous for its Found all across the world
geysers.

FLOOD:

Floods are the most frequent type of natural disaster and occur when an overflow of
water submerges land that is usually dry. Floods are often caused by heavy rainfall, rapid
snowmelt or a storm surge from a tropical cyclone or tsunami in coastal areas.

Flood is a term used to denote an enormous amount of water. When there is an outflow of
water in a place, it is said to be flooded. The situation caused when the water becomes
uncontrollable is said to be flooded. The flood may take different forms such as in the form of
heavy rainfall when there is a breaking of the dam. Furthermore, the melting of snow also leads
to flooding. Floods lead to an overfull and huge spread of water but are not considered safe for
the purpose of drinking. Thus floods bring with them a number of diseases such as typhoid,
cholera and many others. Here, we shall discuss the various causes of floods.

Floods can cause widespread devastation, resulting in loss of life and damages to
personal property and critical public health infrastructure. Between 1998-2017, floods
affected more than 2 billion people worldwide. People who live in floodplains or non-
resistant buildings, or lack warning systems and awareness of flooding hazard, are most
vulnerable to floods.

There are 3 common types of floods:

  Flash floods are caused by rapid and excessive rainfall that raises water heights
quickly, and rivers, streams, channels or roads may be overtaken.
 River floods are caused when consistent rain or snow melt forces a river to exceed
capacity.

 Coastal floods are caused by storm surges associated with tropical cyclones and
tsunami.

Between 80-90% of all documented disasters from natural hazards during the past 10
years have resulted from floods, droughts, tropical cyclones, heat waves and severe storms.
Floods are also increasing in frequency and intensity, and the frequency and intensity of
extreme precipitation is expected to continue to increase due to climate change.

Causes of Floods

Flood is usually a result of natural causes. It may also be caused by man-made factors. It
causes huge damage to life and property. There are many different causes leading to flooding.
Some prominent among them include:

Massive Rainfall

Drainage systems and the effective infrastructure design aid during heavy rains. They help
the drainage of excess water into reservoirs in an easy way. But in cases of heavy rainfall, the
systems stop working. Thus flood is caused.

Overflowing of the Rivers

The people living along the river always have a risk of life from the overflowing of the Rivers.
To prevent such a situation, a string of dams are built. However, if these dams are not managed
properly, they may cause flooding and huge damage.

Collapsed Dams

In the event of huge rainfall, the dams built begin to collapse. Thus, causing the flood situation
to become even critical for the people living around.
Snowmelt

At the time of the high melting of snow due to heavy precipitation and other factors, the
situation of flooding arises. Adopting sustainable measures for heavy precipitation can help in
dealing with the flooding situation.

Deforestation

The cutting of trees in a reckless manner i.e. deforestation is also a major cause of man-made
flooding. Trees prevent soil erosion and also the loss of crops. The vegetation is also enriched as
a result of more and more trees. This also blocks the massive flow of rain, thus preventing
flooding.

Climate change

The climatic changes caused due to human practices also add to the risk of flooding. Human
beings cut trees in a large number, thus affecting the process of photosynthesis. Thus increased
level of carbon-di-oxide in the atmosphere cause changes in climate posing threats of natural
disasters like floods etc.

Emission of Greenhouse Gases

The burning of fossil fuels, the industrial influences, the pollution all is depleting the level of the
ozone layer and increasing the level of greenhouse gases, becoming a major cause of man-made
flooding.

Other Factors

The broken supply lines cause the outflow of water but lead to less damage. Also, there
is water flow from the washing machines. Furthermore, overflow from dishwashers worsens the
situation. Also, the lack of proper sewage systems adds to the destruction of this natural disaster.
Thus, a flood can be caused both due to natural causes as well as it can be a human-made flood.

Flood causes a huge loss of life and property. Waterborne diseases spread as a result of Floods
causing health problems. Moreover, the destruction of roadways and infrastructure facilities, the
disturbance of ecosystems, improper sewage systems all demand serious efforts of adopting
sustainable measures.
Taking steps such as afforestation, decreased the emission of harmful gases into the atmosphere
could help. Also, enrichment of vegetation, fewer deeds causing pollution and treatment of
sewage could be useful ways to combat the situation.

Risk of flooding can be reduced by:

1. The building of dams, detention basins

2. Educational and awareness programs related to floods.

3. Building regulations for new developments.
DROUGHT AND FAMINE:
The difference between drought and famine has the potential to be very confusing.
Both result in an insufficient supply of food and water along with the wide and rapid spread
of disease. Potentially both disasters could lead to the economic and social collapse of the
community. However, the truth about both disasters is quite simple.

In the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, drought is defined as a period of dryness,

especially when prolonged. Likewise, famine is defined as an extreme scarcity of food. While
famine can sometimes be the outcome of a drought, it is considered to be more of a manmade
disaster, therefore more preventable, and results from the lack of availability of food and
water. In both cases, if aid is not immediately offered to the affected people, starvation,
rampant disease, economic and social collapse and death will take its toll.

Here are eight quick facts that define these disasters in order to keep them straight.

Drought
 The most common form of drought is a lack of water vapor in the atmosphere, which
causes precipitation. A lack of moisture in the air causes wildfires that can damage
communities and food supplies, ruin forests, or harm people and animals.
 Of all the water on earth, only .003 percent is available fresh water that is not
polluted, trapped in soil, or too far underground. During a drought, shared sources of
water such as rivers, reservoirs, and groundwater for wells are in jeopardy of running
dry.
 Since the 1970s, the percentage of Earth’s surface affected by drought has doubled.
Global warming is largely blamed.
 Meteorologists predict drought based on precipitation patterns, stream flow, and
moisture of soil over long periods of time.

 Drought may be defined in three ways. That is to say, there are three kinds of drought.
Meteorological drought is a reduction in rainfall below a certain level that is
scientifically considered to be a drought. This kind of drought may occur in the course
of a season, month, or even day. If it rains less than a specific amount, over the
specified amount of time, you have meteorological drought.

 Hydrological drought may be caused by meteorological drought, but it need not

necessarily be so. This kind of drought occurs when a body of water, such as a stream
or lake, falls below a certain amount. For example, in a dry year, meteorological
drought may lead to hydrological drought in a stream, when the stream runs much
lower than it usually does. Likewise, hydrological drought may exist when the source
of a stream is blocked or severed.
  Agricultural drought occurs when there is a significant reduction in crop yield, such
that it may fall to a certain level considered to be a drought. This kind of drought may
be caused by meteorological and/or hydrological drought, but may just as easily stem
from insufficient access to fertilizer or some other necessary ingredient to produce
yield.

Famine
 Famines rarely happen because of a single event and often are the result of many

years of struggling to grow food in a harsh environment.

 Famine doesn’t usually cause the deaths of whole communities. Instead, it’s often old
people and the youth who suffer from disease and malnutrition as they are the most
vulnerable.
 Different factors can trigger famine – the choice of crops planted, ineffective farming
techniques, political systems and civil wars.
 Famine happens when people don’t have the ability to cope during extreme natural
conditions like drought.

 Famine, on the other hand, is caused by a decline in availability of and/or access to

food often caused by one of the three kinds of drought. Where there is insufficient
water to produce a staple crop, for example, or where there is insufficient fertilizer to
produce the standard yield for a crop, drought may lead to and certainly cause famine.
Yet, it is not necessarily the drought that causes such a famine.
LANDSLIDE

Landslides, also known as landslips, are several forms of mass wasting that may
include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep-
seated slope failures, mudflows, and debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of
environments, characterized by either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges
to coastal cliffs or even underwater, in which case they are called submarine
landslides. Gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, but there are other
factors affecting slope stability that produce specific conditions that make a slope prone to
failure. In many cases, the landslide is triggered by a specific event (such as a heavy rainfall,
an earthquake, a slope cut to build a road, and many others), although this is not always
identifiable.

Causes:

Landslides occur when the slope (or a portion of it) undergoes some processes that
change its condition from stable to unstable. This is essentially due to a decrease in the shear
strength of the slope material, an increase in the shear stress borne by the material, or a
combination of the two. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of
factors, acting together or alone.

Natural causes of landslides include:

 saturation by rain water infiltration, snow melting, or glaciers melting.
 rising of groundwater or increase of pore water pressure (e.g. due to aquifer recharge
in rainy seasons, or by rain water infiltration);
 increase of hydrostatic pressure in cracks and fractures;
 loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure (e.g.
after a wildfire – a fire in forests lasting for 3–4 days);
 erosion of the top of a slope by rivers or sea waves;
 physical and chemical weathering (e.g. by repeated freezing and thawing, heating and
cooling, salt leaking in the groundwater or mineral dissolution);
 ground shaking caused by earthquakes, which can destabilize the slope directly (e.g.,
by inducing soil liquefaction) or weaken the material and cause cracks that will
eventually produce a landslide;
 volcanic eruptions;

Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as:

 deforestation, cultivation and construction;
 vibrations from machinery or traffic;
 blasting and mining;
 earthwork (e.g. by altering the shape of a slope, or imposing new loads);
 in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that
binds colluvium to bedrock;
 agricultural or forestry activities (logging), and urbanization, which change the
amount of water infiltrating the soil.
 temporal variation in land use and land cover (LULC): it includes the human
abandonment of farming areas, e.g. due to the economic and social transformations which
occurred in Europe after the Second World War. Land degradation and extreme rainfall
can increase the frequency of erosion and landslide phenomena.
Landslides can be grouped by:
 scale
 where they occur

 cause – either a one-off event or long-term movement

 dominant type of movement – i.e. fall, topple, slide, spread, flow or creep

Individual landslides are often formed by more than one type of movement, so
classifying distinct groups of landslides has proved challenging.
Different types of features are grouped below according to where they occur and
whether they mainly involve bedrock or regolith (rock and soil debris).
All landslides are potential hazards, but most occur in remote mountain areas away
from people. Debris flows in particular are a regular hazard that disrupts transport routes in
the Highlands during severe weather conditions.

Landslides in bedrock
Rock falls
Single and small rock falls from cliffs build up to form aprons of scree or talus,
sometimes developing over long time periods. Some scree slopes are relict, where the scree
apron almost buries the crags that once released rock falls that formed them.

A trait of actively forming rock fall screes is the sorting of rock debris, with the
largest stones at the base of the scree and the smallest at the top. Reworking of the scree
slopes by other processes – e.g. snow avalanching, debris flows and gully erosion by water –
disrupts this sorting.

Rock slope failures

This group of landslides varies greatly in features. Many rock slope failures in
Scotland are so large (involving whole mountainsides) that most people don’t even notice
them.

Rotational landslides
Rotational landslides occur where more resistant rocks founder over underlying
weaker rocks. Multiple failures may produce spectacular whole mountainside collapse, as at
Trotternish in Skye and at Hallaig in Raasay. At Hallaig, the landslide complex continues
under water, down to the seabed.

Debris flows
Debris flows are Scotland’s most common type of landslide hazard. They range in
character from sloppy wet mudflows to slurries of rock debris similar in texture to wet
concrete.

Debris flows begin on steep slopes of more than 20 degrees. But they can continue to
travel over much gentler ground that slopes at only 10 degrees. How far a debris flow can
travel depends on how much debris it carries compared to the volume of water.

Creep
Creep is the slow downslope movement of material under gravity. It generally occurs
over large areas.

Three types of creep occur:

 seasonal movement or creep within the soil – due to seasonal changes in soil moisture
and temperature, e.g. frost heave processes
 continuous creep – where the soil and rock debris isn’t strong enough to resist gravity
 progressive creep – where the soil and rock debris suddenly reaches a critical state
such that it will fail due to other factors

Solifluction
Solifluction is a mixture of creep and flow, which forms distinctive sheets, terraces
and lobes of debris and boulders. Solifluction sheets and lobes are found on steeper slopes
where the process has moved loosened boulders and soil downslope.
Translational slides
Such slumps and slides occur in very wet weather, when the near-surface soil and
rock debris gets saturated with water, and slides and flows downslope. They can develop into
more dangerous debris flows on steep ground, where the landslide may travel a long distance,
churning up the debris into a slurry.

AVALANCHE:

An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a slope, such as a hill or

mountain.Avalanches can be set off spontaneously, by such factors as increased precipitation
or snowpack weakening, or by external means such as humans, animals, and earthquakes.
Primarily composed of flowing snow and air, large avalanches have the capability to capture
and move ice, rocks, and trees.

Avalanches occur in two general forms, or combinations thereof: [2] slab

avalanches made of tightly packed snow, triggered by a collapse of an underlying weak
snow layer, and loose snow avalanches made of looser snow. After being set off, avalanches
usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass and volume as they capture more snow. If an
avalanche moves fast enough, some of the snow may mix with the air, forming a powder
snow avalanche.

Types of Avalanches

1. Loose Snow Avalanche

They are common on steep slopes and are seen after a fresh snowfall. Since the snow does
not have time to settle down fully or has been made loose by sunlight, the snow-pack is not
very solid. Such avalanches have a single point of origin, from where they widen as they
travel down the slope.

2. Slab Avalanche

Loose Snow Avalanches in turn could cause a Slab Avalanche, which are characterized by a
the fall of a large block of ice down the slopes. Thin slabs cause fairly small amounts of
damage, while the thick ones are responsible for MANY FATALITIES.

3. Powder Snow Avalanche

A mix of the other forms, Loose Snow and Slab. The bottom half of this avalanche consists
of a slab or a dense concentration of snow, ice and air. Above this is a cloud of powdered
snow, which can snowball into a larger avalanche as it progresses down the slope. The speed
attained by this avalanche can cross 190 miles per hour and they can cross large distances.
4. Wet Snow Avalanche

These are quite dangerous as they travel slowly due to friction, which collects debris from
the path fairly easily. The avalanche comprises of water and snow at the beginning, but
understanding of avalanches has showed us that it can pick up speed with ease.

Avalanche pathway

As an avalanche moves down a slope it follows a certain pathway that is dependent on

the slope's degree of steepness and the volume of snow/ice involved in the mass movement.
The origin of an avalanche is called the Starting Point and typically occurs on a 30–45 degree
slope. The body of the pathway is called the Track of the avalanche and usually occurs on a
20–30 degree slope. When the avalanche loses its momentum and eventually stops it reaches
the Runout Zone. This usually occurs when the slope has reached a steepness that is less than
20 degrees.
MAN-MADE DISASTER
NUCLEAR REACTOR MELTDOWN

A nuclear meltdown (core meltdown, core melt accident, meltdown or partial

core melt) is a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating.
The term nuclear meltdown is not officially defined by the International Atomic Energy
Agency or by the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. It has been defined to mean
the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor, however, and is in common usage a
reference to the core's either complete or partial collapse.

A core meltdown accident occurs when the heat generated by a nuclear reactor exceeds the
heat removed by the cooling systems to the point where at least one nuclear fuel element
exceeds its melting point. This differs from a fuel element failure, which is not caused by
high temperatures. A meltdown may be caused by a loss of coolant, loss of coolant pressure,
or low coolant flow rate or be the result of a criticality excursion in which the reactor is
operated at a power level that exceeds its design limits. Alternatively, an external fire may
endanger the core, leading to a meltdown.
Serious nuclear power plant accidents include the

 Fukushima nuclear disaster (2011),

 Chernobyl disaster (1986), the
 Three Mile Island accident (1979),
 SL-1 accident (1961).

INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL DISASTER:

The industrial disasters result from accidents, failures, mishap or misuse of some kind of
technology. The storage and transportation of various hazardous materials used in industries
may result in industrial hazard accidents. Recently, major disaster threats have emerged in
the chemical and nuclear industries. Chemical industry faces multiple risks involved with
its production, transportation, storage, usage, and disposal off the effluents containing
residual chemicals.

How Do Industrial Accidents Occur?

Industrial disasters can occur because of accidents, incompetence or negligence and may
cause property damage, injury or loss of life. In addition, those hazards may degrade the
environment and disrupt society and the economy. Industrial accidents, also known as
technological disasters, are non-natural calamities and include a variety of occurrences.

Types of Industrial Accidents

The following types of accidents fall under the category of industrial accidents:

Accidental Release – Hazardous chemical substances accidentally released during their

production, handling or transportation endanger anyone near the release site.
Acid Rain – Chemical pollutants like nitrogen compounds and sulfur can cause ecological
and agricultural damage by raising the level of acidity in the soil and water. When the
atmosphere holds an acute concentration of acidic compounds, a washout results in acid rain,
which deposits the compounds in the soil and water.
Atmospheric Pollution – Nuclear explosions, chemicals, burning artificial or natural fuels
and other industrial practices can produce large amounts of radiation, solids and gases that
contaminate the atmosphere and endanger those who live or work in the area.
Chemical Explosion: The forceful explosion of combustible materials usually involves
chemicals and typically causes injuries, loss of life and great destruction of property.
Chemical Pollution – Permanent skin damage and internal bodily disorders can occur after
chemicals suddenly pollute the air or water at or near industrial areas.
Explosion – A disaster classified as an explosion occurs if the explosion is actually the
disaster. An event classified as a resulting disaster occurs if an explosion causes another
disaster.
Mine Explosion – Coal dust or natural gas can react with the air and cause accidental
explosions.
Nuclear Explosion or Radiation – International laws establish the levels of radiation
allowable in civil facilities to maintain safety, and the accidental release of radiation can
cause higher levels that exceed the safety standards.
Pollution – Synthetic products or other debris as well as mishandling environmental or
natural resources can create noxious biological, chemical or industrial wastes that degrade
one or more environmental aspects.
A petrochemical plant accident or a chemical plant accident can be particularly disastrous
because exposure to dangerous chemicals may cause injuries that are not immediately
apparent. Delaying diagnosis and treatment of injuries may make them harder to treat and
increase their severity. People exposed to chemicals or radiation may require prolonged
treatment for their physical injuries as well as psychological support to help them deal with
the emotional trauma they may experience because of an accident.

Causes of Industrial Accidents

Most industrial accidents are caused by unsafe conditions, which is another way of saying,
they should have never happened in the first place. The most common causes of industrial
accidents include:

 Improper training and supervision;

 Careless operation;
 Inadequate personal safety gear;
 Defective or malfunctioning equipment;
 Unsafe storage;
 Poor house-keeping;
 Improper ventilation;
 Dangerous working conditions, such as slippery floors and excessive heat;
 Poor maintenance of equipment;
 Poorly-guarded equipment; and
 Insufficient lighting.
The above scenarios are frequently linked to industrial accidents and disasters. Workers who
abuse drugs or alcohol, or who are fatigued due to being overworked or working the night
shift, also contribute to these accidents.

World's Worst Industrial Disasters

 Bhopal Gas Tragedy – India - 1984
 Chernobyl – Ukraine – 1986
 Halifax Explosion – Canada – 1917
 Centralia Mine Disaster - United States – 1947
 Lac-Mégantic Rail Disaster – Canada – 2013
 Phillips Disaster - United States – 1989
 Aberfan Disaster – Wales – 1966
 Dhaka Garment Factory Collapse – Bangladesh – 2013
 Seveso Disaster – Italy – 1976
 Benxihu Colliery Disaster – China – 1942
 Sandoz Chemical Spill – Switzerland – 1986
 Oppau Explosion – Germany - 1921
OIL SLICKS AND SPILLS

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment,
especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term
is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but
spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude
oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined
petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by
large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.
 Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals,
reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations
and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and
depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water
(affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.
[1]
Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up. Oil spills can have disastrous
consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially.
Oil-spill damage
 The costs of oil spills are considerable in both economic and ecological terms. Oil on
ocean surfaces is harmful to many forms of aquatic life because it prevents sufficient amounts
of sunlight from penetrating the surface, and it also reduces the level of dissolved oxygen.
Crude oil ruins the insulating and waterproofing properties of feathers and fur, and thus oil-
coated birds and marine mammals may die from hypothermia. Moreover, ingested oil can be
toxic to affected animals, and damage to their habitat and reproductive rate may slow the
long-term recovery of animal populations from the short-term damage caused by the spill
itself.

Damage to plant life can be considerable as well; saltwater marshes and mangroves
are two notable shore ecosystems that frequently suffer from oil spills. If beaches and
populated shorelines are fouled, tourism and commerce may be severely affected, as may
power plants and other utilities that either draw on or discharge into seawater at the shore.
One of the industries most affected by oil spills is fishing. Major oil spills are frequently
followed by the immediate suspension of commercial fishing, at the least to prevent damage
to vessels and equipment but also to prevent the catch and sale of fish or shellfish that may be
contaminated.

OUTBREAKS OF DISEASE AND EPIDEMICS

The amount of a particular disease that is usually present in a community is referred

to as the baseline or endemic level of the disease. Occasionally, the amount of disease in a
community rises above the expected level. Epidemic refers to an increase, often sudden, in
the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in that population in that
area. Outbreak carries the same definition of epidemic, but is often used for a more limited
geographic area. Cluster refers to an aggregation of cases grouped in place and time that are
suspected to be greater than the number expected, even though the expected number may not
be known. Pandemic refers to an epidemic that has spread over several countries or
continents, usually affecting a large number of people.

Epidemics occur when an agent and susceptible hosts are present in adequate numbers,
and the agent can be effectively conveyed from a source to the susceptible hosts. More
specifically, an epidemic may result from:
 A recent increase in amount or virulence of the agent,
 The recent introduction of the agent into a setting where it has not been before,
 An enhanced mode of transmission so that more susceptible persons are exposed,
 A change in the susceptibility of the host response to the agent, and/or
  Factors that increase host exposure or involve introduction through new portals of
entry.

Epidemic Patterns
Epidemics can be classified according to their manner of spread through a population:
 Common-source
o Point
o Continuous
o Intermittent
 Propagated
 Mixed
 Other
A common-source outbreak is one in which a group of persons are all exposed to an
infectious agent or a toxin from the same source.