Thinking and Problem Solving

Going beyond memory, how do we think? How do we solve problems? How do we create ideas?
If storage and retrieval were the only processes we used to handle information, human beings
would be little more than glorified cameras and VCRs. Yet we are capable of doing things with
information that make the most complex computers seem simple by comparison. These processes
thinking and problem solving are most impressive when they show originality or creativity.
Problem Solving
One of the main functions of directed thinking is to solve problems to bridge the gap mentally
between a present situation and a desired goal. The gap may be between hunger and food, a column
of figures and a total, a lack of money and bills to pay, or cancer and a cure. In all these examples,
getting from the problem to the solution requires some directed thinking.
Strategies
Problem solving depends on the use of strategies, or specific methods for approaching problems.
One strategy is to break down a complex problem into a number of smaller, more easily solved
sub-goals. Sub-goals are intermediate steps toward a solution. For example, it is the end of the
semester and your life is falling apart. You do not even have time to tie your shoelaces. You solve
the problem by breaking it down into small pieces: studying for a science exam, finishing that
overdue paper, canceling your dinner date, scheduling regular study breaks to maintain what is left
of your sanity, and so forth. For some problems, you may work backward from the goal you have
set. Mystery writers often use this method: They decide how to end the story (“who did it”) and
then devise a plot leading to this conclusion. Another problem may require you to examine various
ways of reaching a desired goal. Suppose a woman needs to be in Chicago by 11 A.M. on July 7
for a business conference. She checks train departures and arrivals, airline schedules, and car-
rental companies. The only train to Chicago that morning arrives at 5 A.M. (too early), and the
first plane arrives at 11:30 A.M. (too late). So she decides to rent a car and drive.
To determine which strategy to use, most of us analyze the problem to see if it resembles a situation
we have experienced in the past. A strategy that worked in the past is likely to work again. We
tend to do things the way we have done them before, and often, we shy away from new situations
that call for new strategies. The more unusual the problem, the more difficult it is to devise a
strategy for dealing with it.
Algorithms
An algorithm is a fixed set of procedures that, if followed correctly, will lead to a solution.
Mathematical and scientific formulas are algorithms. For example, to find the product of 345 and
23, we multiply the numbers according to the rules of multiplication to get a correct answer of
7,935. To play chess or checkers, we follow algorithms, or a fixed set of rules.
Heuristics While algorithms can be useful in finding solutions, they are a time-consuming method.
People often use shortcuts to solve problems, and these shortcuts are called heuristics. Heuristics
are experimental strategies, or rules of thumb, which simplify a problem, allowing one to solve
problems quickly and easily (see Figure 3). For example, when watching the Wheel of Fortune
game show, you might use what you already know about prefixes, suffixes, and roots of words to
fill in the missing letters of a word or phrase. If a friend comes to you with a problem, your advice
might include what has worked for you in the past. Although heuristics allow us to make quick
decisions, they can result in bad decisions because we make the decisions using shortcuts and
sometimes ignore pertinent information.
Figure 3
Obstacles to Problem Solving
There are times when certain useful strategies become cemented into the problem-solving process.
When a particular strategy becomes a habit, it is called a mental set you are set to treat problems
in a certain way. For example, a chess player may always attempt to control the four center squares
of the chessboard. Whenever her opponent attacks, she responds by looking for ways to regain
control of those four squares. She has a set for this strategy. If this set helps her win, fine.
Sometimes, however, a set interferes with problem solving, and then it is called rigidity. You
probably know the old riddle “What is black, white, and read all over? A newspaper.” When you
say the riddle, the word read sounds like red, which is why some people cannot guess the answer.
Read is heard as part of the black and white set it is interpreted as being a color. If you asked,
“What is black and white and read by people every day?” the correct answer would be obvious
and boring.
One form of set that can interfere with problem solving is functional fixedness the inability to
imagine new uses for familiar objects. In experiments on functional fixedness, people are asked to
solve a problem that requires them to use a familiar object in an unfamiliar way (Duncker, 1945).
Because they are set to use the object in the usual way, people tend to pay attention only to the
features of the object that relate to its everyday use. They respond in a rigid way.
Another type of rigidity occurs when a person makes a wrong assumption about a problem. In
example, the problem is to arrange the six matches into four equilateral triangles. Most people
have trouble solving this puzzle because they falsely assume that they must stay within a two
dimensional figure. People trying to solve the kind of problem described a third kind of rigidity.
Most people look for direct methods of solving problems and do not see solutions that require
several intermediate steps. Rigidity can be overcome if the person the person realizes that his or
her strategy is not working and looks for other ways to approach the problem. The more familiar
the situation, the more difficult this will be. Rigidity is less likely to occur with unusual problems.
Many individuals are trained, through formal education, to think of only one way to do things.
Rigidity can be overcome by thinking about or being taught to think about and analyzing situations
from many perspectives.
Flexibility
The ability to overcome rigidity is flexibility. Psychologists have devised a number of ingenious
tests to measure flexibility. In one test, psychologists ask people how many uses they can imagine
for a single object, such as a brick or a paper clip. The more uses a person can devise, the more
flexible he or she is said to be. Whether such tests actually measure creativity is debatable.
Nevertheless, it is obvious that inflexible, rigid thinking leads to unoriginal solutions or no
solutions at all.
Recombination
When the elements of a problem are familiar but the required solution is not, it may be achieved
by recombination, a new mental arrangement of the elements. In football and basketball, for
example, there are no new moves only recombination’s of old ones. Such recombination seems to
be a vital part of creativity. Many creative people say that no truly great poem, no original
invention, has ever been produced by someone who has not spent years studying his or her subject.
The creative person is able to take the information that he or she and others have compiled and put
it together in a totally new way. The brilliant philosopher and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton,
who discovered the laws of motion, once said, “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the
shoulders of giants.” In other words, he was able to recombine the discoveries of the great scientists
who had preceded him to uncover new and more far-reaching truths.
Insight
The sudden emergence of a solution by recombination of elements is called insight. Insight usually
occurs when problems have proved resistant to all problem-solving efforts and strategies. The
scientist or artist reaches a point of high frustration and temporarily abandons the task. Yet the
recombination process seems to continue on an unconscious level. When the person is absorbed in
some other activity, the answer seems to appear out of nowhere. This sudden insight has
appropriately been called the “aha” experience. Certain animals appear to experience this same
cycle of frustration, temporary diversion (during which time the problem incubates), and then
sudden insight. For example, Wolfgang Köhler (1976) placed a chimpanzee in a cage where a
cluster of bananas was hung out of its reach. Also in the cage were several wooden boxes. At first
the chimpanzee tried various unsuccessful ways of getting at the fruit. Finally it sat down,
apparently giving up, and simply stared straight ahead for a while. Then suddenly it jumped up,
piled three boxes on top of one another, climbed to the top of the pile, and grabbed the bananas.
Neuroscience and Creativity
Neuroscience and creativity are intricately connected: how the brain generates novel and valuable
ideas. The study of creativity through the lens of neuroscience involves understanding the brain
regions, neural networks, and cognitive processes that underlie creative thinking.
Creativity
The ability to use information in such a way that the result is somehow new, original, and
meaningful is creativity. All problem solving requires some creativity. Certain ways of solving
problems, however, are simply more brilliant or beautiful or efficient than others. Psychologists
do not know exactly why some people are able to think more creatively than others, although they
have identified some of the characteristics of creative thinking, including flexibility and the ability
to recombine elements to achieve insight.
Key Brain Regions Involved in Creativity
Prefrontal Cortex:
The prefrontal cortex, especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), is crucial for
executive functions such as planning, decision-making, and problem-solving, which are essential
for creativity. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) is associated with emotional
regulation and motivation, impacting the ability to generate creative ideas.
Executive Control Network (ECN):
The ECN involves the prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex and is responsible for focused
attention and task management. This network helps in refining and implementing creative ideas
by maintaining focus and controlling impulses.
Brain Hemispheres:
While the left hemisphere is traditionally linked to logical and analytical tasks, and the right
hemisphere to creative and holistic thinking, creativity involves the interplay of both hemispheres.
The corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres, facilitates communication and
integration of different cognitive processes.
Neurotransmitters:
Dopamine plays a significant role in creativity, influencing motivation, reward, and novelty-
seeking behaviors. Serotonin and norepinephrine also contribute to mood regulation and cognitive
flexibility, impacting creative thinking.
Neuroplasticity:
Creativity is associated with high levels of neuroplasticity, the brain's ability to reorganize itself
by forming new neural connections. Engaging in creative activities can enhance neuroplasticity,
leading to improved cognitive function and creativity over time.
Implications and Applications
Understanding the neuroscience of creativity has broad implications for education, work, and
mental health. By fostering environments that encourage divergent thinking, providing
opportunities for interdisciplinary learning, and promoting activities that enhance neuroplasticity,
we can cultivate creativity in individuals and organizations. Additionally, recognizing the neural
and psychological underpinnings of creativity can lead to better strategies for overcoming creative
blocks and enhancing innovative potential across various domains.