BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

UNIT-IV DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

PN junction diode: structure, operation & V-I characteristics

Q. With a neat diagram explain the working of a PN junction diode in forward bias
And reverse bias and show the effects of temperature on its VI characteristics
(OR)
Q. Outline the charge carrier diffusion phenomenon across a PN junction. Explain
the effect of forward and reverse biasing on the depletion region.

A PN junction is formed from a piece of semiconductor (Ge or Si) by diffusing p-type material
(Acceptor impurity Atoms) to one half side and N type material to (Donar Impurity Atoms) other
half side. The plane dividing the two zones is known as 'Junction'.

The P-region of the semiconductor contains a large number of holes and N region, contains a
large number of electrons. A PN junction just immediately formed is shown in Fig .

When PN junction is formed, there is a tendency for the electrons in the N-region to diffuse into
the p-region, and holes from P-region to N-region. This process is called diffusion. While crossing
the junction, the electrons and holes recombines with each other, leaving the immobile ions in
the neighbourhood of the junction neutralized as shown in Fig.

These immobile + ve and –ve ions, set up a potential across the junction. This potential is called
potential barrier or junction barrier. Due to the potential barrier no further diffusion of electrons
and holes takes place across the junction. Potential barrier is defined as a potential difference
built up across the PN junction which restricts further movement of charge carriers across the
junction. The potential barrier for a silicon PN junction is about 0.7 volt, whereas for Germanium
PN junction is approximately 0.3 volt.

Symbol of Diode:

The symbol of PN junction diode is shown in Fig. The P-type and N-type regions are referred to
as Anode and Cathode respectively. The arrowhead shows the conventional direction of current
flow when the diode is forward biased.
Working of PN Junction Diode:

Forward Bias:
When the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the P-region and negative
terminal to the N-region, the PN junction is said to be forward biased as shown in Fig.

When the junction is forward biased, the holes in the p-region are repelled by the positive
terminal of the battery and are forced to move towards the junction. similarly, the electrons in
the N-region are repelled by the negative terminal of the battery and are forced to move towards
the-junction.

This reduces the width of the depletion layer and barrier potential. If the applied voltage is
greater than the potential barrier Vr, then the majority carriers namely holes in P-region and
electrons in N-region, cross the barrier. During crossing some of the charges get neutralized the
remaining charges after crossing, reach the other side and constitute current in the forward
direction. The PN junction offers very low resistance under forward biased condition.

Since the barrier potential is very small (nearly 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium
junction), a small forward voltage is enough to completely eliminate the barrier. once the
potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, a large current start flowing through the
PN junction.

Reverse Bias:

When the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the N-region and negative
terminal to the p-region, the PN junction is said to be reverse biased. When the junction is
reverse biased, the holes in the P-region are attracted by the negative terminal of the battery.
Similarly, the electrons in the N-region are attracted by the positive terminal of the external
battery. This increases the width of the depletion layer and barrier potential (Vs).
 The increased barrier potential makes it very difficult for the majority carriers to diffuse across
the junction. Thus, there is no current due to majority carriers in a reverse biased PN junction.
In other words, the PN junction offers very high resistance under reverse biased condition.

In a reverse biased PN junction, a small amount of current (in µA) flows through the junction
because of minority carriers. ( i.e., electrons in the P-region and holes in the N region).The
reverse current is small because the number of majority carrier in both regions is small.

V-l characteristics of PN-Junction Diode:

A graph between the voltage applied across the PN junction and the current flowing through the
junction is called the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode. Fig. shows the V-I characteristics
of PN junction diode.

Forward Characteristics:

Fig. (a) shows the circuit arrangement for drawing the forward V-I characteristics of PN junction
diode. To apply a forward bias, the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to Anode (A) and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to Cathode (K). Now, when supply voltage is
increased the circuit current increases very slowly and the curve is nonlinear (region-OA).

The slow rise in current in this region is because the external applied voltage is used to overcome
the barrier potential (0.7 V for Si; 0.3V for Ge ) of the PN junction' However once the potential
barrier is eliminated and the external supply voltage is increased further, the current flowing
through the PN junction diode increases rapidly (region AB). This region of the curve is almost
linear. The applied voltage should not be increased beyond a certain safe limit, otherwise the
diode will burnout.

The forward voltage at which the current through the PN junction starts increasing rapidly is
called by knee voltage. It is denoted by the letter VB.

Reverse Characteristics:

Fig (b) shows the circuit arrangement for drawing the reverse V-I characteristics of PN
junction diode. To apply a reverse bias, the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to
cathode (K) and - ve terminal of the battery is connected to anode (A).
Under this condition the potential buried at the junction is increased. Therefore, the junction
resistance becomes very high and practically no. current flows through the circuit. However, in
actual practice, a very small current (of the order of µA) flows in the circuit. This current is called
reverse current and is due to minority carriers. It is also called as reverse saturation current (I).
The reverse current increases slightly with the increase in reverse bias supply voltage.

If the reverse voltage is increased continuously at one state (marked by point C on the reverse
characteristics) breakdown of junction occurs and the resistance of the barrier regions falls
suddenly. Consequently, the reverse current increases rapidly (as shown by the curve CD in the
current) to a large value. This may destroy the junction permanently. The reverse voltage at which
the PN junction breaks is called as break down voltage.
DIODE AS A SWITCH
Diode is a two terminal PN junction that can be used in various applications. One of such
applications is an electrical switch. The PN junction, when forward biased acts as close
circuited and when reverse biased acts as open circuited. Hence the change of forward and
reverse biased states makes the diode work as a switch, the forward being ON and
the reverse being OFF state

Working of Diode as a Switch

Whenever a specified voltage is exceeded, the diode resistance gets increased, making the
diode reverse biased and it acts as an open switch. Whenever the voltage applied is below
the reference voltage, the diode resistance gets decreased, making the diode forward biased,
and it acts as a closed switch.
The following circuit explains the diode acting as a switch
A switching diode has a PN junction in which P-region is lightly doped and N-region is
heavily doped. The above circuit symbolizes that the diode gets ON when positive voltage
forward biases the diode and it gets OFF when negative voltage reverse biases the diode

1. A diode is two terminal PN junctions, the PN junction when Forward Biased acts as
closed-circuited and when Reversed Biased acts as an open-circuited. Hence
change in state from Forward Biased to Reverse Biased makes the diode work as a
switch, the Forward being ON and the Reverse being OFF.
2. Whenever a specified voltage is exceeded, the diode resistance gets increased,
making the diode reverse biased and it acts as an open switch.
3. Whenever the voltage applied is below the reference voltage, the diode resistance
gets decreased, making the diode forward biased, and it acts as a closed switch.
4. Hence, Diode can act as a switch.
DIODE AS A SWITCH
The change of forward and reverse biasing of the diode makes the diode a switch. The diode
is a two-terminal semiconductor device that has a PN junction. When the PN junction is in
forward biased state it acts as a close circuit. When the junction is in a reverse bias state,
the diode acts as open-circuited. Thus, when the state of the PN junction changes from
reversed biases to forward bias or vice versa the diode acts as a switch. The PN junction
diode acts as an electrical switch.
Advantages of Electrical Switches over Mechanical Switches
The followings are the advantages of electrical switches over mechanical switches
 The mechanical switches have movable contacts. As a result, these need more
maintenance. Whereas in the case of electrical switches there are no moving parts
and these do not require maintenance.
 The contacts of mechanical switches are made of metals and exposed to the
environment. Therefore, metals are apt to oxidize. On the other hand, the electrical
switches do not have the problem of contact oxidization
 The mechanical switches undergo more stress and strain in comparison to electrical
switches.
 The wear of the contacts of mechanical switches affects the working and thus they
are not reliable.
 The power loss across the contact of the mechanical switches is more than the
electrical switches.
 The switching time of the mechanical switches is more as compared to electrical
switches.
Hence an electrical switch has better features than a Mechanical switch
WORKING OF DIODE AS A SWITCH
The principle of working of a diode as a switch is nothing but the forward and reverse
biasing of the diode. When a forward voltage is more than the cut-in voltage of the PN
junction diode, the current flows through the junction. Thus, the diode junction becomes
a short circuit. The diode comes in the reverse bias when the voltage at the diode’s anode
is more negative than the voltage at the cathode. In this condition, the diode junction is an
open circuit.
For understanding the above phenomenon, let us understand it with the help of the below
diagram.
A diode has a PN junction. In a diode, P-region has lightly doped holes as the majority
carriers. and N- region has highly doped electrons as the majority carriers. When the switch
is at the ON position, the anode of diode D gets a positive supply and the cathode of diode
D gets a negative supply. In this condition, the diode gets forward biasing and it starts
conducting.
Now, when the switch position changes from ON to OFF state, the anode of the diode gets
the negative voltage at the anode. Under this condition, the current that was flowing in the
forward bias state drops to zero, and the diode becomes an open circuit. Here, note that
the diode forward current does not drop to zero instantly, but it takes some time. This time
is called the reverse recovery time. Now, the diode draws negligible leakage current in the
reverse bias.

A phenomenon of ringing happens when the diode undergoes from forward biased to a
reverse-biased state
 ZENER DIODE
Explain the construction & working principle of Zener diode.
Explain the Break down mechanisms in semiconductor devices
(OR) Explain the Concept of Zener Breakdown and its VI characteristics.

ZENER DIODE:
The Zener Diode is a PN junction semiconductor device.
It is fabricated with precise breakdown voltages, by controlling the doping level
during manufacturing. Practically, Zener Diodes are operated in reverse biased
mode.

Fig. Zener Diode

CHARACTERISITCS OF ZENER DIODE:

FORWARD CHARACTERISITCS:

In forward biased condition, the normal rectifier diode and the Zener diode operate in similar fashion.
(Refer: PN diode forward characteristics)

Zener reverse characteristics

REVERSE CHARACTERISITCS:

Zener diode is designed to operate in the reverse biased condition.

In reverse biased condition, the diode carries reverse saturation current till the
reverse voltage applied is less than the reverse breakdown voltage.
When the reverse voltage exceeds reverse breakdown voltage, the current through it
changes drastically but the voltage across it remains almost constant.
Such a breakdown region is a normal operating region for a Zener diode.
The normal operating regions for both diode and Zener are shown in below Fig.
 Fig. The normal operating region for a rectifier diode and Zener diode

When the applied reverse voltage is increased then, the current through it is very small
(few µA) and it is called Reverse Leakage Current (Io)
At certain reverse voltage, the current will increase rapidly. The breakdown occurs and
the current at this point (knee or Zener knee) is called Zener knee current (IZK or
IZmin).
Zener knee current is the minimum Zener current which is must to carry out the
operate in Reverse Breakdown Region.
The reverse voltage at which the breakdown occurs is called Zener Breakdown Voltage
or Zener Voltage (VZ).
The VZ is set by controlling the doping level during manufacturing process.
Below the knee, the reverse breakdown voltage increases slightly as Zener current
(IZ) increases but, remains almost CONSTANT.
The current at which the nominal Zener breakdown voltage is specified is called Zener
Test Current (IZT).
As the current increases, the power dissipation (PZ = VZ IZ) will be increased and if this
power dissipation is increased beyond a certain current value, the Zener diode may get
damaged. So, there is a maximum current that a Zener diode can carry safely is called
Zener Maximum Current (IZM or IZmax).
In practical circuits, a current limiting resistor is used in series with Zener diode
in order to limit the current between IZmin to IZmax.
The complete VI characteristics of Zener Diode is shown in Fig
 Fig. VI characteristics of Zener Diode
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF ZENER DIODE:
When the breakdown occurs then IZ may increase from IZmin to IZmax but voltage across
Zener remains almost constant. The internal impedance decreases as current increases
in Zener region. But this impedance is very small and hence ideally Zener diode is
indicated by a battery of voltage VZ. This VZ remains almost constant in the Zener region
which is shown in Fig.

Fig. Ideal equivalent circuit of Zener diode

In practical circuit, the Zener internal resistance is to be considered (even though it is

very small) and called as Zener Dynamic Resistance ZZ. Due to this resistance the
Zener region is not exactly vertical, i.e., for the small change in the Zener current ∆IZ
produces a small change in Zener voltage ∆V Z. The ratio of VZ to IZ is called Zener
resistance ZZ.

Hence, the practical Zener diode equivalent circuit should be indicated with a battery of
VZ along with series resistance ZZ as shown in Fig.
 1
ℎ ]
BREAKDOWN MECHANISM IN ZENER DIODE:

Two distinct breakdown mechanism:

Zener Breakdown
Avalanche Breakdown
For devices with breakdown voltage less than 5V - Zener Breakdown
For devices with breakdown voltage between 5V and 8V - Zener Breakdown and
Avalanche Breakdown For devices with breakdown voltage above 8V -
Avalanche Breakdown
ZENER BREAKDOWN:
Zener breakdown occurs at Reverse biased condition because of heavy doping;
Practically, Zener breakdown is observed in the Zener diodes with breakdown voltage
less than 6V.
In Zener breakdown, the value of the breakdown voltage decreases as PN junction
temperature increases, i.e. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
For applied reverse biased voltage of less than 6V causes a high
magnitude electric field (3 X 105 V/cm) across the depletion region,
at the PN junction.
This electric field applies a large force on the valence electron of the
atom, tending it to separate them from their respective nuclei.
Electron-hole pairs are generated in large numbers and there will be
a sudden increase in current. (To limit this current, a current
limiting resistor is used in order to protect the Zener diode from being
destroyed because of excessive heating at the junction)

AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN:
Avalanche Breakdown occurs at Reverse biased condition due to ionization of electron
and hole pairs Practically, Avalanche breakdown is observed in the Zener diodes
with breakdown voltage greater than 6V.
In avalanche breakdown, the value of the breakdown voltage increases as PN junction
temperature increases, i.e. Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
For applied reverse biased voltage of greater than 6V causes
increased acceleration of minority charge particles. Thus, collision
between accelerated charge particles with high velocity and kinetic
energy with adjacent atom is involved in breaking the covalent
bonds of the crystal structure. This process is called Carrier
Multiplication.
At this stage, junction is said to be in breakdown and current starts
increasing rapidly. To limit this current below IZmax, a current
limiting resistor is necessary.

Fig. Breakdown Mechanism in Zener Diode

 ZENER AS REGULATOR
(a) Explain the working of a Zener diode as a regulator?

The Zener Diode is used to regulate the Load Voltage. Here, the Zener is used in
reverse biased condition.

Fig. Zener Diode as a shunt regulator

{Under reverse biased condition, the current through the zener diode
is very small of the order of few µA, up to certain limit. When
enough reverse bias voltage is applied, electrical breakdown occurs
and large current flows through the zener diode. The voltage at which
the breakdown occurs is called
Zener Voltage (VZ). Fig. VI characteristics of Zener Diode
Under this condition, whatever may be the current, the voltage across the Zener is constant and equal to
V Z}

Since, voltage across the Zener Diode is CONSTANT & equal to VZ, it is connected across the load.
The Load Voltage (Vo) is equal to Zener Voltage (VZ).
i.e. The Zener Diode acts as an ideal voltage source which maintains a constant load voltage,
independent of the current.

REGULATION WITH VARYING INPUT VOLTAGE (Line Regulation)

Zener Regulator under varying input voltage condition
is shown in Fig.

Fig. Varying input condition

As long is IZ between IZmin and IZmax , the VZ i.e. output voltage Vo is constant.
Thus, the changes in the input voltage is get compensated and output is maintained
constant.
The maximum power dissipation for the Zener diode is fixed, 𝑷𝑫 = 𝑽𝒁 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙
REGULATION WITH VARYING LOAD (Load Regulation)
Zener Regulator under varying load condition (R L is variable) and constant input
voltage (Vin is constant) is shown in Fig.

Fig. Varying load condition

Vo = VZ is constant and Vin is Constant, then for constant R, the current (I) is
constant
.
I=
− (constant); I= +

As long is Iz between IZmin and IZmax, the VZ i.e. output voltage Vo is constant. Thus,
the changes in the load is get compensated and output is maintained constant.

1. Define valence electron.

Electrons that are in shells close to nucleus are tightly bounced to the atom and
have low energy. Whereas electrons that are in shells farther from the nucleus have
large energy and less tightly bound to the atom. Electrons with highest energy level
exist in the outermost shell of an atom. These electrons determine the electrical and
chemical characteristic of each particular type of atom. These electrons are known
as valence electrons.

What is meant by energy band?

In a single isolated atom, the electron in any orbit possesses define energy. Due to
an interaction between atoms the electrons in a particular orbit of one atom have
slightly different energy levels from electrons in the same orbit of an adjoining atom.
This is due to the fact that no two electrons see exactly the same pattern of
surrounding charges. Since there are billions of electrons in any orbit, slightly
different energy levels form a cluster or band known as energy band.

Define conduction band & valence band.

The conduction band is defined as the range of energies possessed by
conduction electrons. o Valence band is defined as the range of
energies possessed by valence electros.

What are conductors, Insulators and semiconductors?

A conductor is a material, which easily allows the flow of electric current. The best
conductors are copper, silver, gold and aluminum.
An Insulator is a material that does not conduct electric current. In these materials
valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms.
A semiconductor is a material that has an electrical conductivity that lies
between conductors and insulators. A semiconductor in it’s pure state is neither
a good conductor not a good insulator. The most common semiconductors are
silicon, Germanium, and carbon.
 What are the classifications of semiconductors?
Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. A
pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. A doped
semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor.

What is meant by doping? How the extrinsic

semiconductors are classified?
The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping.
n-type
semiconductor p-
type
semiconductor

How a n-type semiconductor & p-type semiconductor can be obtained?

A n-type semiconductor can be obtained by adding pentavalent impurities to
an intrinsic semiconductor. These are atoms with five valence electrons.
Typical examples for pentavalent atoms are Arsenic. Phosphorous, Bismuth
and Antimony.

A p-type semiconductor can be obtained by adding trivalent impurities to an

intrinsic semiconductor. These are atoms with three valence electrons.
Typical examples for trivalent atoms are boron(B), indium (In) and gallium
(Ga).

Define Fermi level.

Fermi level is the energy at which the probability of occupation by an electron is
exactly 0.5.

What is the energy band gap of silicon and Germanium at 300°K?

For Germanium: 0.66e and for Silicon: 1.12ev
10. What are the different types of voltage regulators?
Based on how regulating element is connected to the load, voltage regulators are
classified as
Series regulator
Shunt regulator
Switch-mode regulators or switched mode power supply (SMPS)
1. Draw and explain the energy band diagram for the following
(i) conductors (ii) Insulators (iii) semiconductors
Insulators :
The materials in which the condition band and valence bands are separated by a wide
energy gap (≈ 15 eV) as shown in figure.
A wide energy gap means that a large amount of energy is required, to free the electrons,
by moving them from the valence band into the condition band;
Since at room temperature, the valence electrons of an insulator do not have enough
energy to jump in to the condition, therefore insulator do not have an ability to conduct
current. Thus insulators have very high resistively (or extremely low conductivity) at
room temperatures.
However if the temperature is raised, some of the valence electrons may acquire energy
and jump in to the conduction band. It causes the resistively of insulators to
decrease.Therefore an insulator have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.

Conductors :-

The materials in which conduction and valence bands overlap as shown in figure
are called conductors. The overlapping indicates a large number of electrons available
for conduction. Hence the application of a small amount of voltage results a large
amount of current.

Semiconductors :-
The materials, in which the conduction and valence bands are separated by a
small energy gap (1eV) as shown in figure are called semiconductors.
Silicon and germanium are the commonly used semiconductors.
A small energy gap means that a small amount of energy is required to free the electrons
by moving them from the valence band in to the conduction band.
The semiconductors behave4 like insulators at 0K, because no electrons are available
in the conduction band.
If the temperature is further increased, more valence electrons will acquire energy to
jump into the conduction band. Thus, like insulators, semiconductors also have
negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. It means that conductivity of
semiconductors increases with the increases temperature.

 Explain the classification of semi-conductors.

Classification of semi-conductors: -
Semiconductors are classified in to two types
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic semi-conducteurs
n-type semi-conductor
p-type semi-conductor
 Intrinsic semiconductor
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor. An Intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole-electron
pairs all created. When electric field is applied across an semiconductor intrinisic
semiconductor, the current conduction takes place by two process, namely by free
electrons and holes.
Free electrons are produced due to the breeding up of fome co-valent bonds by thermal
energy. At the same time holes are created in the co-valent bond itself. When electric
field is applied across the semi-conducteurs material electrons will move towards the
positive terminal of supply, holes will move towards negative terminal of the supply.
Thus, current conduction inside this intrinisic semiconductor material is due to
movement of holes & electrons.
But the current in the external wire is only because of electrons. Since while
applying electric field, holes are attracted towards negative terminal. There one new
electron is introduced. This electron will combine with the hole, thus cancelling them.
At the same time electrons are moving towards positive terminal, while leaving
from this intrinisic material it leaves a hole. Again, this holes are attracted towards
negative terminal.

Extrinsic semiconductor :

The current conduction capability of intrinisic semiconductor is very low at rom

temperature. So we cannot use it in electric devices.
Hence the current conduction capability must be increased. This can be achieved by
adding impurities to the intrinisic semiconductor. So that it become impurity
semiconductor (or) Extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurity is known
as doping.
The amount & type of impurities have to be closely controlled during the
preparation of extrinsic semiconductor. Generally, for 108 atoms of semiconductor, one
impurity atom is added.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free electrons or
holes in the semiconductor crystal. If the pentavalent impurity is adding to the
semiconductor, a large number of free electrons are produced in the semiconductor.
On the other hand if the trivalent impurity is added it introdued large number of holes.
Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified into
n – type Semiconductor
p – type Semiconductor
n – type Semiconductor:

The number of free electrons in an instrinsic silicon can be increased by adding

a pentavalent atom to it. These are atoms with five valence electrons. Typical example
for pentavalent atoms are Arsenic, Phosphorous, Bismuth and Antimony.
Four of the pentavalent atoms valence electrons form covalent bond with the
valence electrons of Silicon atom, leaving an extra electron. Since valence orbit cannot
hold no more than eight electrons the extra electron becomes a conduction electron.

Since the pentavalent atom donates this extra conduction electron it is often
called as a donor atom. For each pentavalent atom added, one free electron exists in a
silicon crystal. A small amount of pentavalent impurity is enough to get more number
of free electrons is greater than the number of holes this extrinsic semiconductor is
known as an n type semiconductor.
When a pentavalent atom is added a number of conduction band electrons are
produced. Only a few holes exist in the valence band, created by thermal energy.
Therefore in an n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority carriers and holes are
minority carriers.

p-type semiconductor

A p-type semiconductor (p for Positive) is obtained by carrying out a process of

doping by adding a certain type of atoms (acceptors) to the semiconductor in order to
increase the number of free charge carriers (in this case positive holes).
 When the doping material is added, it takes away (accepts) weakly bound outer
electrons from the semiconductor atoms. This type of doping agent is also known as an
acceptor material and the vacancy left behind by the electron is known as a hole.
The purpose of p-type doping is to create an abundance of holes. In the case of
silicon, a trivalent atom (typically from Group 13 of the periodic table, such as boron or
aluminium) is substituted into the crystal lattice. The result is that one electron is
missing from one of the four covalent bonds normal for the silicon lattice. Thus the
dopant atom can accept an electron from a neighbouring atom's covalent bond to
complete the fourth bond. This is why such dopants are called acceptors.
The dopant atom accepts an electron, causing the loss of half of one bond from
the neighboring atom and resulting in the formation of a "hole". Each hole is associated
with a nearby negatively charged dopant ion, and the semiconductor remains electrically
neutral as a whole. However, once each hole has wandered away into the lattice, one
proton in the atom at the hole's location will be "exposed" and no longer cancelled by an
electron.
This atom will have 3 electrons and 1 hole surrounding a particular nucleus with
4 protons. For this reason a hole behaves as a positive charge. When a sufficiently large
number of acceptor atoms are added, the holes greatly outnumber thermal excited
electrons. Thus, holes are the majority carriers, while electrons become minority carriers
in p-type materials