Diversity in Living Organisms

Classification and Evolution

Evolution and Classification

You know that a huge variety of living organisms exists in this world. Have you ever
wondered as to how this great biodiversity came to be on Earth?

A diverse multitude of life forms surrounds us—ranging from microscopic organisms like
bacteria and algae to giants like the blue whale and redwood tree. There are some living beings
that differ from one another only slightly; there are others that differ to a much greater extent. It
is evolution that is responsible for this diversity of plant and animal life that exists on Earth.

It is a well-known fact that life started on Earth with the simplest unicellular form and gradually
developed into more and more complex forms. This happened due to the accumulation of
changes in the body designs of ancient organisms. This slow change in the body design of an
organism over a long period of time is termed as evolution. It helps an organism survive in its
surroundings.

Is it easy to identify all living organisms one by one?

No, it’s not easy. This is the reason why we have a system of classification. Under this system,
organisms are divided into groups based on their differences, and each group contains
organisms with similar characteristics. Classification makes the study of the huge biodiversity
easy.

Are there more reasons for classifying organisms?

Here are the reasons why we need the system of classification.

 To make the study of organisms easy and organized

 To understand the relationship between various organisms
 To have a clear and practical way of organizing and communicating information about
organisms
 To indicate the evolutionary pathways along which present-day organisms may have developed

Know Your Scientist

Charles Darwin (1809−1882) was an English naturalist. He described the idea of evolution in
1859 in his book The Origin of Species. According to his theory about evolution, all species of life
have descended over time from common ancestors.
Classification

Classification refers to the identification, naming and grouping of organisms into a formal
system based on similarities in their internal and external structures or evolutionary history. It
determines the methods of organizing diversity of life on Earth.

Classification helps to separate organisms into broader groups based on bigger differences.
Then, within each of these groups, smaller sub-groups are decided by picking up the next set of
differences.

The common names of these groups and sub-groups are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus and species.

Take, for example, a dog and a lion. The two share many characteristics. For this reason, they are
placed in the same kingdom, phylum, class and order. However, their similarity ends there. That
is why they are further categorized into different families.

Role of Classification in Determining Evolutionary History

Classification allows organisms to be identified and categorized on the basis of their structures
and structural functions. Accordingly, they can be described as primitive or advanced. Primitive
organisms, which have simple and basic characteristics, are classified first; and then come the
advanced organisms. This helps in predicting the line of evolution or evolutionary history of
organisms.

Which characteristic do you consider basic—the one that came into existence earlier or
the one that came later?

The characteristic that came into existence earlier is basic. This is because it is independent of
other characteristics in terms of its effect on the structure and structural function of an
organism.

For example, cell structure is the basic characteristic that decides the cellularity of an organism
which is to be classified.

What is meant by primitive and advanced organisms?

A primitive or a lower organism has a simple body structure and an ancient body design, which
have not changed much over time. An advanced or a higher organism has a complex body
structure and organization. This is an indicator of the fact that complexity in design increases
over evolutionary time.

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1:

Which one of the following two organisms do you consider primitive?

Solution:

A primitive organism has a simple body structure and an ancient body design, which have not
changed much over time. Therefore, Amoeba is a primitive organism as compared to a starfish.
The latter has a more complex organization and is advanced as compared to the former.

Example 2:
What is the relationship between evolution and classification?

Solution:

Evolution started long time back. It led to the creation of a huge variety of life forms on Earth. To
study this huge biodiversity easily, human beings started classifying the living things. Thus, the
result of evolution demands classification.

Considering that complexity in design increases over evolutionary time, organisms with simpler
body designs (lower/primitive organisms) are placed before organisms with complex body
organization (higher/advanced organisms). Thus, classification of life forms is closely related to
their evolution.
Basis of Classification
History of Biological Classification

Let us read about the history of biological classification.

The early contribution towards classification is also seen in writings of many ancient Indian
philosophers and sages. The important ones among them are:

Charaka: (600 B.C)

Charaka was one of the great ancient sages of India. He was a philosopher, astronomer and a
physician. He has mentioned about 340 types of plants and 200 types of animals in his book
named “Charaka Samhita”. This book is considered as the most authoritative and ancient writing
in ayurveda available today. He is known as the father of medicine for his contribution in the
field of ayurveda.

Parashara: (100 B.C)

Parashara, a great ancient sage has given detailed description of plants in his book
“Vrikshaayurveda”. He has classified plants into several ‘ganas’ on the basis of characteristic of
flowers. The description given by the Parashara about the classification of these plants is very
close to the modern classification.

In his another book named “Krishiparashara” he has explained about the benefits of farming.
The farmers can manage and plan various activities of farming by studying this book. For
example, according to him, the winds arising from the north or west can bring rainfall while as
winds from the east and south do not bring any rainfall.
Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: What are the drawbacks of the classification given by Aristotle?

Solution: The criteria used by Aristotle for classification are superficial and do not reflect the
natural relationships. It is a misleading system of classification. In the classification given by
Aristotle, many unrelated organisms are placed in the same group on the basis of their habitats
(dwelling places). For example, corals, whales, octopuses, starfish and sharks are placed in the
same group because they are sea-dwelling organisms. Further, closely related organisms are
placed in different groups simply because of the differences in their habitats. Characteristics
which are more fundamental than habitat need to be made the basis for classifying the various
organisms.

Hard

Example 2: What are the three domains of life classified by Carl Woese?
 Solution: In 1990, Carl Woese modified biological classification by dividing all organisms into
the following three broad domains of life: Eukarya domain, Bacteria domain and Archaea
domain.

 Archaea domain: This includes prokaryotes living in extreme conditions, which are considered
to be the oldest species of organisms on Earth. The kingdom Archaebacteria is under this
domain.
 Bacteria domain: This includes prokaryotes and all bacteria apart from the ones classified as
archaebacteria. The kingdom Eubacteria is under this domain.
 Eukarya domain: It includes the kingdoms Fungi, Plantae, Animalia and Protista.

Basis of Classification

Guidelines for deciding the characteristics to be used in classification

 While making groups, we need to decide which characteristics are responsible for the more
fundamental differences among organisms.
 The characteristics that account for the broadest divisions among living organisms should be
independent of any other characteristics in their effects on the forms and structural functions of
the organisms. Within the broadest groups, smaller subgroups are decided by picking up the
next set of differentiating characteristics. This process of classification within each group can
then continue using new characteristics each time.
 A characteristic used in a subgroup is dependent upon the characteristic that precedes it in the
classification hierarchy.

What is meant by ‘characteristic’?

A characteristic is a particular form or structural function. For example, having five fingers on
each hand is a characteristic.

Principles of Classification

Certain principles of classification that are followed today and which were also the basis
of Whittaker’s five kingdom classification are as follows:

 Nature of cell
 Cellularity
 Mode of nutrition

We will study each of them one by one.

Nature of cell: This is the primary and fundamental characteristic on which the first division of
organisms is made. This is because it gives rise to another feature called cellularity. The nature
of a cell relates to the presence or absence of membrane-bound organelles in it. So, on this basis,
we can classify living organisms into two broad categories—prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

Characteristics Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
They vary in size and are
Cell size They are small in size. generally larger than
those of prokaryotes.

A well-defined nucleus
A nucleus with a nuclear
Nucleus with a nuclear membrane
membrane is absent.
is present.
Membrane-enclosed
Organelles like mitochondria and
Membrane- organelles like
plastids, which have a membrane
enclosed organelles mitochondria and plastids
around them, are absent.
are present.
It is usually present in
It is usually present and is
Cell wall plant cells and is
composed of peptidoglycan
composed of cellulose.

It is present inside the

Genetic material It is present as nucleoid.
nucleus.

Protozoans, Fungi, plants

Examples Bacteria and blue-green algae
and animals
Cellularity: It is the state or condition that defines the number of constituent cells of whole
organisms. On this basis, organisms are classified as unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: What is division of labour?

Solution: A multicellular organism is made up of more than one cell. These cells use the
principle of division of labour to carry out the different life processes of the organism. In
multicellular organisms, division of labour refers to how different cells/ tissues/ organs/ organ
systems are in charge of taking care of specific life processes. For example, the respiratory
system helps the body in obtaining oxygen from the air and supplying it to the rest of the body.
Unicellular organisms do not show division of labour.

Mode of nutrition: This is also a basis for differentiating between different organisms. The
ability to manufacture their own food makes the body designs of plants different from those of
animals.
Solved Examples

Medium

Example 2: Why do you think the characteristics of body designs are not used for making
broad groups?
Solution:The characteristics of body designs used for classifying plants are very different from
those used for classifying animals. This is because their basic body designs differ depending on
their need to make their own food (plants) or to acquire it (animals). Therefore, design features
(such as having a skeleton) are used while making subgroups rather than broad groups.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: What is taxonomy?

Solution: The science of classification of organisms is called taxonomy.

Medium

Example 2: Define all taxonomic ranks.

Solution: The different taxonomic ranks are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and
species.

Kingdom is the topmost unit of classification, followed by phylum, class, order, family, genus and
species. A number of phyla having common characters are placed in the same kingdom.

For example, the phyla Arthropoda, Platyhelminthes and Mollusca belong to the kingdom
Animalia.

Phylum is the taxonomic division of living organisms which contains one or more classes. In the
hierarchy of classification, phylum comes after kingdom and before class. A number of classes
having common characters are placed in the same phylum. For example, the classes Crustacea,
Insecta and Arachnida belong to the phylum Arthropoda. Phylum is called ‘division’ in case of
plants.

Class is the taxonomic division of living organisms which contains one or more orders. In the
hierarchy of classification, class comes after phylum and before order. A number of orders
having common characters are placed in the same class. For example, the orders Diptera (e.g.,
flies), Hymenoptera (e.g., ants) and Orthoptera (e.g., grasshoppers) belong to the class Insecta.

Order is the taxonomic rank after class and before family. A number of families having common
characters are placed in the same order. For example, the families Culicidae (mosquitoes) and
Muscidae (houseflies) belong to the order Diptera.

Family is the taxonomic rank after order and before genus. A number of genera having common
characters are placed in the same family. For example, the genus Aedes and the
genus Anopheles are part of the family Culicidae.
Genus is the taxonomic rank lower than family and higher than species. It is used in the
classification of living organisms and fossils.

Species is the fundamental unit of taxonomic classification. A species is defined as a group of

organisms that have some common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding. For
example, Aedes aegypti is a mosquito species belonging to the genus Aedes.

Example 3:

What is binomial nomenclature? Mention its importance also.

Solution:

Binomial nomenclature refers to the naming of species. In this system, the name of a species is
made up of two words—the genus name and the species name. For example, the scientific name
of Rose is Rosa canina, wherein ‘Rosa’ is the genus name and ‘canina’ is the species name.

Importance of binomial nomenclature:

It helps avoid confusions that can be created when one attempts to use common names to refer
to a particular species. There can be many common names for a particular species, but the
binomial nomenclature for that species remains the same.

Did You Know?

How do we decide the names of organisms?

There are different codes of nomenclature, i.e., sets of rules and recommendations which deal
with the naming of organisms. Two examples of such codes of nomenclature are
the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) for plants and the International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for animals.

In binomial nomenclature the first word is always capitalized, but the second is not. Also, both
words should be italicized.

Hierarchy refers to the organization or classification of things in order of rank or importance.

Let us understand this concept with the help of a couple of examples.

Suppose you have a glass jar that contains many buttons of varying colours and sizes. How
will you sort these buttons?
The buttons can be sorted by considering their characteristics from the least specific to the most
specific. Initially, the buttons can be grouped by looking at their colours. Next, the buttons of the
same colour can be stacked according to their relative sizes. Finally, if we want to group the
exactly same buttons, then we can consider the number of holes present in the buttons of the
same size and colour. In this way we can sort the buttons.

Here are some details regarding the location of a boy named Arif.

State: New Delhi; country: India; house number: 106; sector number: 39; planet: Earth;
block: A; area: Kashmiri Gate

Can you develop a hierarchy of the points of his location in comparison to the hierarchy of
the taxonomic categories?

The comparable hierarchy is given as follows:

Kingdom − Planet (Earth)

Phylum/Division − Country (India)

Class − State (New Delhi)

Order − Area (Kashmiri Gate)

Family − Sector (39)

Genus − Block (A)

Species − House number (106)

Mnemonics for hierarchy of classification

KINGDOM → PHYLUM → CLASS → ORDER → FAMILY → GENUS → SPECIES

Kings Play Chess On Flat Glass Surfaces

OR

Kids Prefer Candy Over Fresh Green Spinach

Five Kingdoms of Classification

Introduction to the Five Kingdom Classification
We have learned about the history of biological classification previously. We have learned how
Aristotle classified living organisms on the basis of superficial similarities such as habitat.
Consequently, many unrelated organisms got grouped together and many organisms with
similarities got divided. This system of classification did not prove useful in studying about the
diverse life forms on Earth. Later, many other scientists came up with their own systems of
classification. Among these, the one that is popularly followed today is the five kingdom
classification by Robert Whittaker.

We have already studied about some of the basic characteristics used by Whittaker to classify
living organisms. These are nature of cell, cellularity and mode of nutrition. In this lesson, we
will study how Whittaker used these characteristics to make broad divisions called kingdoms.

Introduction to the Five Kingdom Classification

But before that, let us test how smart you are!

Among the given organisms, choose two that are closely related to the dolphin.

On the basis of Aristotle’s method of classifying organisms according to their habitats, the
dolphin should be closely related to the tuna fish, the shark and the whale. However, this method
of classification is not correct. If you consider evolutionary history, then you will realize that the
dolphin is closely related to the hippopotamus and the whale, and not to the tuna fish and the
shark. To understand why this is so, read on about Whittaker’s five kingdom classification.

Five Kingdom Classification

In 1969, Robert Whittaker classified all organisms present on Earth into five major groups called
kingdoms. This is known as the five kingdom classification.

Here is a branch diagram that shows how Whittaker used the fundamental characteristics of
nature of cell, cellularity and mode of nutrition for classifying different life forms into the five
kingdoms.

It is clear from the above diagram that the first organisms to evolve were the prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes evolved next and, after a period of time, some of the unicellular eukaryotes evolved
into multicellular organisms. This agrees with the fact that classification of life forms is closely
related to their evolution. Further categorization of multicellular eukaryotes is then made on the
bases of the presence or absence of cell wall and the mode of nutrition.

Kingdom Monera

You do wash your hands before eating anything, don’t you? Why do you think this is
important?
 Washing our hands before eating is important because most of the time our hands carry germs.
Germs are basically the different types of bacteria, fungi, protozoans, viruses, etc. Most of them
cannot be seen with the naked eye.

Bacteria and other organisms such as the blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are grouped
in kingdom Monera. The organisms of this kingdom are called prokaryotes.

General features of monerans

 There is an absence of a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound cell organelles in

monerans, i.e., they show a prokaryotic organisation.
 All monerans are unicellular organisms; they do not have any multicellular body design.
 The cell wall may be present (as in bacteria and blue-green algae) or absent (as in Mycoplasma).
 The mode of nutrition could be autotrophic (as in blue-green algae and some bacteria)
or heterotrophic (as in most bacteria and Mycoplasma).
 Examples of monerans: bacteria, blue-green algae, Mycoplasma

Kingdom Monera
 Know More

Bacteria have different shapes, such as

General features of protists

 All protists are single-celled eukaryotes.

 They have a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound cell organelles.
 Protists form a link between plants, animals and fungi.
 They can be autotrophic (e.g., diatoms) or heterotrophic (e.g., protozoans).
 Some protists have cilia or flagella which help in locomotion.
 Examples of protists: Amoeba, Paramecium, slime moulds, Euglena

Whiz Kid

Interesting Fact

Kingdom Protista was initially known as ‘Protoctista’ which means ‘first established beings’. The
term ‘Protista’ was coined later by Ernst Haeckel in 1866.

Know More

What are cilia and flagella?

Cilia are hair-like projections while flagella are lash-like appendages. Both cilia and flagella help
in locomotion in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Basically, cilia and flagella have the same
structure. However, cilia occur in greater number (as in Paramecium) than flagella. In fact, some
organisms may have only a single flagellum (e.g., Euglena).
Classification of Protists

On the basis of mode of nutrition and movement, protists are classified as:

 Plant-like protists
 Animal-like protists
 Fungus-like protists
 Plant-like protists

 They are the major producers of energy.

 They contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis. Thus, they have autotrophic mode of
nutrition.

Classification of Protists

Animal-like protists

 They exhibit pseudopodia, cilia or flagella.

 They are found in water, soil and other habitats.
 They can be free-living or parasitic.
 They have heterotrophic or saprophytic mode of nutrition.

Fungus-like protists

 They include slime moulds.

 They are heterotrophs or decomposers.
 Kingdom Fungi

General features of fungi

 They are multicellular eukaryotic organisms. Some exceptions of unicellular fungi are yeasts.
 They are heterotrophic organisms and obtain nutrition from decaying organic matter; so, they
are called saprophytes.
 The body of a fungus consists of mycelium, which is made up of multicellular filamentous
hyphae.
 The cell wall is made up of a tough complex sugar called chitin.
 Examples of some commonly known fungi: Penicillium, Aspergillus, Puccinia, Ustilago

Importance of fungi

 They are used for producing antibiotics.

 Yeasts are used in the manufacture of bread and beer.
 Some fungi decompose organic matter and enhance the fertility of soil.
 Fungi such as mushroom are also consumed as food.

Know More

Some fungi live in a mutually beneficial relationship with cyanobacteria or green algae to form
lichens. This kind of relationship is called symbiosis.

Lichens grow very slowly. A colony of lichens in the Arctic takes around 1000 years to grow two
inches!
Kingdoms Plantae and Animalia

General features of plants

 They are multicellular eukaryotic organisms.

 The cell wall is made up of cellulose.
 Most plant cells contain chlorophyll pigments. Hence, they are autotrophic.
 They are non-motile.

General features of animals

 They are multicellular eukaryotes.

 The cell wall is absent.
 Animal cells do not contain chloroplast. Hence, they have heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

Introduction to Plant Kingdom

Classification of Plants

After going through the branch diagram on previous slide, can you point out the bases on
which plants are classified?

Plants are classified in terms of the following characteristics.

 Differentiation of plant body into roots, stem and leaves

 Vascular tissues
 Production of seeds
 Covering of seeds
 Number of cotyledons in a seed

Let us now study each division of the plant kingdom in detail.

Division Thallophyta

The word ‘Thallophyta’ comprises the words ‘thallus’ meaning ‘undifferentiated body’ and
‘phyton’ meaning ‘plant’.

General features of thallophytes

 The plant body of a thallophyte is not differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
 Thallophytes are mostly aquatic. They can be green or non-green.
 They do not bear flowers and seeds. They reproduce by means of asexually produced spores.
 Thallophytes are essentially algae.
 Algae are economically important. Several algae are used as sources of food.
 Algin, extracted from brown algae, is used in making dairy products.
 Seaweeds are commercially used for making cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, etc.
 Examples of algae: Based on the pigment they contain, algae are further classified as green algae,
brown algae, red algae, etc.

Know More

Division of algae

Let us read about the different classes of algae listed in this table.

Classes Common names Major pigments Cell wall Habitat

Fresh
Chlorophyceae Green algae Chlorophyll a and b Cellulose water, brackish water,
salt water
Fresh water (rarely),
Chlorophyll a and c, Cellulose and
Phaeophyceae Brown algae brackish water, salt
fucoxanthin algin
water
 Fresh water
Chlorophyll a and d, Cellulose and
Rhodophyceae Red algae (sometimes), brackish
phycoerythrin pectin
water, salt water
Division Bryophyta

The word ‘Bryophyta’ comprises the words ‘bryon’ meaning ‘moss’ and ‘phyton’ meaning ‘plant’.

General features of bryophytes

 They are the first plants to live on land, but require moist conditions to survive. For this reason
they are called ‘the amphibians of plant kingdom’.
 They are non-vascular, i.e., they do not have specialized vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) for
the conduction of water and food.
 They lack true roots, stem and leaves. But, they show more body differentiation than
thallophytes.
 They have rhizoids instead of true roots.
 They do not bear flowers and seeds.They reproduce both sexually as well as asexually.
 Bryophytes exhibits 'alternation of generations' in which gametophytic phase (haploid)
alternates with sporophytic phase (diploid).
 Liverworts and mosses have been found to be good indicators of environmental conditions.
Some aquatic mosses can be used as indicators of calcium content in water.
 Some mosses prevent soil erosion. Certain mosses also provide fuel.
 Examples of bryophytes: Riccia, Marchantia, Funaria

Did You Know?

Sphagnum or peat moss can soak up to twenty-five times its weight of water. This is why it is
used as a soil conditioner.
Know More

Classes of bryophytes
 General features of liverworts

 They are non-vascular, spore-producing land plants.The thallus is dorsiventrally flattened.

 Filamentous structures called rhizoids anchor most liverworts to their substrata.
 Liverworts are of two types: thallose liverworts and leafy liverworts.
 A thallose liverwort has a dorsiventrally lobed thallus.
 Leafy liverworts look very similar to mosses, but their leaves are arranged in rows. Seta and
capsule are the structures that help in the production of spores.
 Examples of liverworts: Riccia, Plagiochila, Marchantia

General features of mosses

 A moss has an erect thallus that is differentiated into root-, stem- and leaf-like structures. Its
leaves are spirally arranged.
 Mosses are often epiphytes.
 Moist and shady areas are their more common habitats. Some of them are found on rocks and in
arid locations.
 Seta and capsule are the structures that arise from the main plant body and help in the
production of spores. They develop from the zygote.
 Examples of mosses: Funaria, Pogonatum

Division Pteridophyta

The word ‘Pteridophyta’ comprises the words ‘pteris’ meaning ‘fern’ and ‘phyton’ meaning
‘plant’.

General features of pteridophytes

 The plant body of a pteridophyte is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
 Pteridophytes are found in cool, damp and shady places.
 They have specialized tissues for the conduction of water and food.
 They have inconspicuous or less-differentiated reproductive organs. For this reason they are
categorised as Cryptogamae or cryptogams.
 They produce naked embryo called spores.
 Pteridophytes are economically important. They are used for medicinal purposes.
 They act as soil binders. They are also frequently grown as ornamental plants.
 Examples of pteridophytes: Dryopteris, Salvinia, Equisetum

Know More

Evolutionarily, pteridophytes are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues, i.e.,
xylem and phloem.
Cryptogamae and Phanerogamae
 Do you know what plants can be categorised as Cryptogamae or cryptogams?

The word ‘Cryptogamae’ comprises the words ‘kryptos’ meaning ‘hidden’ and ‘gamos’ implying
‘reproduction’. This category includes all plants having hidden or inconspicuous reproductive
parts. Cryptogams are flowerless and seedless plants that reproduce through spores (also called
naked embryos). Thallophytes, bryophytes and pteridophytes are all cryptogams, i.e., spore-
producing plants.

Let us now look at another category of plants called Phanerogamae or phanerogams.

The word ‘Phanerogamae’ comprises the words ‘phaneros’ meaning ‘visible’ and ‘gamos’
implying ‘reproduction’. This category consists of plants with well-differentiated and visible
reproductive tissues that ultimately make seeds. The seed of a phanerogam consists of the
embryo along with stored food which helps in the initial growth of the embryo during
germination. Gymnosperms and angiosperms (plants belonging to the division Spermatophyta)
are phanerogams, i.e., seed-producing plants.

Class Gymnospermae

The word ‘Gymnospermae’ comprises the words ‘gymno’ meaning ‘naked’ and ‘sperma’ meaning
‘seed’.

General features of gymnosperms

 They are seed-bearing, non-flowering plants. They are more primitive than angiosperms.
 They produce naked seeds, i.e., the seeds are not enclosed inside fruits.
 Instead of flowers, they have male and female cones.
 They are perennial, evergreen plants that grow as woody trees or bushy shrubs.
 A gymnosperm has a tap-root system.
 It has vascular bundles, but the xylem lacks vessels and the phloem lacks companion cells.
 Gymnosperms are economically important.
 The trees are used for timber.
 The resin obtained from the trees is used in varnishes, medicines, ointments, etc.
 They are also used as ornamental plants.
 Examples of gymnosperms: Pinus, cedar, fir, juniper, Cycas

Know More

The tallest tree in the world is a gymnosperm named Sequoia sempervirens (coast redwood),
which belongs to the genus Sequoia .

Four Major Plant Divisions within Gymnosperms

Class Angiospermae

The word ‘Angiospermae’ comprises the words ‘angio’ meaning ‘covered’ and ‘sperma’ meaning
‘seed’.

General features of angiosperms

 They are flowering plants in which seeds are enclosed inside fruits.
 They include around 250000 species of plants.
 They are the most recent and highly evolved group of plants.
 They bear flowers that consist of four whorls—calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
 The seeds develop inside the ovary, which develops into a fruit.
 Angiosperms are economically important.
 Most angiosperms provide a significant amount of livestock feed.
 They are the sources of paper, wood, fibre, medicines and perfumes.
 Many angiosperms are used for decorative purposes.

Class Angiospermae

General features of angiosperms

 The embryos in the seeds have structures called cotyledons or seed leaves. These cotyledons
emerge and become green when the seeds germinate.
 On the basis of cotyledons, angiosperms are divided into two groups as shown in the figure.

 Examples of angiosperms: all flowering plants like rose, mango, wheat, maize etc.

Know More

Interesting Facts

 In dicot trees such as mango and guava, the trunk and the old branches increase in girth each
year by forming a new layer that replaces the old bark and causes it to peel off.
 Monocot trees such as palm and coconut do not increase in girth because no new wood is
formed in them.

Finding Cotyledons
 Activity Time

 Place a few bean, sunflower, wheat and corn seeds in water for one night. This will make them
tender, making it easier for the seed coat to come off. The seeds can then be split easily.
 Remove the seed coat from each soaked seed. Then, try to split the seed into two equal parts
using a toothpick.
 Which seeds can be broken into two equal parts?
 Bean and sunflower seeds can be broken into two equal parts as they have two cotyledons. Such
seeds are called dicots.
 Wheat and corn seeds cannot be broken into two equal parts as they have only one cotyledon.
Such seeds are called monocots.

Solved Examples

Medium

Example: What are the differences between monocots and dicots?

Solution:

Monocots Dicots

The embryo in a monocot seed has one The embryo in a dicot seed has two cotyledons.
cotyledon.
The sepals or petals are in multiples of three. The sepals or petals are in multiples of four or
five.
The stem vascular bundles are scattered. The stem vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
The leaves have parallel venation. The leaves have reticulate venation.
They have fibrous or adventitious roots. They have a tap-root system.

Kingdom Animalia – Invertebrata

Kingdom Animalia

Can you divide these animals into different groups along with the reasons for each
division?
 The animals can be grouped as follows:

1. Fish and seahorse: They are exclusively water-inhabiting animals. They breathe through gills.
2. Chimpanzee and monkey: They have mammary glands and produce young ones.
3. Pigeon and sparrow: They are warm-blooded animals. They lay eggs and have feathers on their
bodies.
4. Lizard and snake: They are cold-blooded animals. They lay eggs and have scales on their
bodies. They breathe through lungs.

What do we learn from the above activity?

We learn that characteristics can be compared to discover the similarities between various
organisms, and then these organisms can be classified into groups based on the similarities.

Classification of the Animal Kingdom

 The two broad divisions—non-chordates and chordates—are made on the basis of the presence
or absence of the notochord. These groups are then further divided into sub-groups on the basis
of other features of body organization.

Let us study in detail about the various characteristics used for classifying the organisms in the
animal kingdom.

Bases of Animal Classification

Certain fundamental features that are common to various organisms in the animal kingdom are
used as the bases for classifying them. These are as follows:

 Level of organization
 Symmetry
 Diploblastic and triploblastic organization
 Coelom
 Segmentation
 Notochord

Levels of organization

Though all members of kingdom Animalia are multicellular, all of them do not exhibit the same
pattern of organisation of cells. The different levels of organization are as follows:

 Cellular level of organization (Example: Porifera)

 Tissue level of organization (Example: Coelenterata)
 Organ level of organization (Example: Platyhelminthes)
 Organ system level of organization (Examples: Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca,
Echinodermata and chordates)

Bases of Animal Classification

Levels of organization

 Cellular level of organization: It is a loose aggregation of cells in which the cells are
functionally different from one another.
 Tissue level of organization: In this, different cells performing similar functions are arranged
into tissues.
 Organ level of organization: Here, different tissues are organized into organs and each organ is
specialized for a particular function.
 Organ system level of organization: At this level, organs associate to form functional systems
and each system is concerned with a specific physiological function.
 Two types of circulatory systems are found in the organ system level of organisation.

 Open type: Blood vessels are absent in this circulatory system. Blood is pumped out of the heart
and the cells and tissues are directly bathed in it.
 Closed type: In this circulatory system, blood is circulated through vessels of varying diameters
(arteries, veins and capillaries).

Bases of Animal Classification

Symmetry

Symmetry is defined as balance between distribution of duplicate body parts and shapes. On the
basis of body symmetry, animals can be categorised as: Asymmetrical, bilaterally symmetrical or
radially symmetrical

Asymmetrical Bilaterally symmetrical Radially symmetrical

organisms organisms organisms

These organisms do These organisms show bilateral These organisms show radial
not show any body body symmetry. In their case, body symmetry. In their case, the
symmetry. Any the body can be divided into body can be halved when cut
plane passing two equal parts by only one anywhere along the central axis.
through the centre plane. The two parts are In this type of body plan, there is
does not divide approximately identical and a regular arrangement of body
them into two equal mirror images of each other. parts in the body around the
parts. central axis. So, we can divide
body into halves in many ways.
Examples : Sponges Example : Platyhelminthes & Examples : Coelenterates and
chordates echinoderms
Bases of Animal Classification

Diploblastic and triploblastic organization

The animals in which cells are arranged in two embryonic layers—an external ectoderm and an
internal endoderm—are called diploblastic animals. In these animals, an undifferentiated mass
of tissue called mesoglea fills the space between the ectoderm and the endoderm. Coelenterates
are diploblastic animals.

The animals in which the developing embryo has three germinal layers, viz. the ectoderm, the
mesoderm and the endoderm, are called triploblastic animals. Platyhelminthes and all
chordates are triploblastic animals.

Bases of Animal Classification

Coelom
The presence or absence of a cavity called coelom is very important in the classification of
animals. Coelom is the space or cavity between the body wall and the gut wall where the internal
organs are suspended. Although body cavity can also include any space inside the body (such as
the space inside internal organs), it is the coelom which is used for the purpose of classification.
Coelom is the space enclosed by the mesodermal cell. Thus, only triploblastic animals can have a
coelom. However, not all triploblastic animals actually show this characteristic. Hence, there can
be two conditions with respect to coelom.

Know More

True coelom can be categorized further as schizocoelom and enterocoelom on the basis of
developmental differences.

Schizocoelom
Schizocoelom arises from mesodermal split. This body cavity is formed from blocks of
mesoderm around the gut which enlarge and hollow out. Animals belonging to the phyla
Annelida, Mollusca and Arthropoda display this type of true coelom.

Enterocoelom

Enterocoelom arises from outpocketing of the embryonic gut (endoderm). This body cavity is
formed by outpocketings of the primitive gut which break off and form the coelom. Animals
belonging to the phyla Echinodermata and Chordata display this type of true coelom.
Bases of Animal Classification

Segmentation

Certain animals have a body that is externally and internally divided into segments, with a serial
repetition of at least some organs. Such segmentation is called metameric segmentation and this
phenomenon is known as metamerism. For example, the body of an earthworm shows
metameric segmentation.

Notochord

Notochord is a rod-like structure consisting of vacuolated cells. It originates from the mesoderm.
It is formed on the dorsal side in some animals. It separates the nervous system from the gut
and also acts as a support.

Based on the presence or absence of the notochord, animals are categorized as chordates and
non-chordates.

Bases of Animal Classification

 Non-chordates: These organisms do not have a notochord. Animals belonging to the phyla
Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca and
Echinodermata are all non-chordates.

Chordates: These organisms have a notochord. Amphioxus, Herdmania and all vertebrates (of
the classes Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia) are chordates.

The given figure shows the embryo of a chordate along with the location of the notochord.

Non-Chordates

Let us now study about the characteristic features of the first eight phyla of kingdom Animalia,
i.e., Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca and
Echinodermata.

Phylum Porifera

The word ‘Porifera’ means ‘organisms with holes’. These organisms are commonly called
sponges.

General features of poriferans

 They are mostly marine organisms except Spongilla.

 They are non-motile and found attached to rocks.
 They show cellular level of organization and minimal differentiation.
 Majority of sponges are asymmetrical.
 Their bodies are porous. The holes or pores are called ostia. These pores lead to the canal system
which allows the circulation of water throughout the body. The pores enable food and oxygen to
enter the body.
 These animals have a hard outside layer or skeleton.
 Examples of poriferans: Sycon, Spongilla, Euspongia, Euplectella

Did You Know?

 There are approximately 5000 different species of sponges.

 A sponge can contain around 16000 other animals inside itself.
 One of the first anti-cancer drugs was isolated from a sponge. In 1959, the anti-cancer drug
called cytosine arabinoside was extracted from a sea sponge named Cryptotethya
crypta. Recently, sponges have received much attention from pharmaceutical companies as the
many chemicals produced by these organisms help fight infections, inflammations, diabetes and
gastrointestinal ailments.

[[//mn:know]]

Non-Chordates

Phylum Coelenterata

The word ‘Coelenterata’ means ‘hollow gut’. This phylum is also known as Cnidaria.

General features of coelenterates

 They are exclusively marine animals.

 They have a tissue level of organization, and lack organs and organ systems.
 Most of these animals have radial symmetry.
 The body of a coelenterate consists of two cell layers—the ectoderm (the outer layer) and the
endoderm (the inner layer). Hence, it is the first diploblastic animal.
 Since a coelenterate is diploblastic, the body cavity called coelom is absent. (The coelom is found
between the gut wall and the body wall of triploblastic animals.) Its body has a sac-like body
cavity with a single opening to the outside for ingestion and egestion.
 Some of the coelenterate species live in colonies (e.g., corals), while others have a solitary life
span (e.g., Hydra).
 Non-Chordates

 Examples of coelenterates: Hydra, Obelia, Aurelia (jellyfish), Metridium (sea anemone)

Did You Know?

 There are more than 2000 coral reefs in the world.

 The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef. It is composed of around 3000 individual
corals extending to around 2600 km.

Non-Chordates

Phylum Platyhelminthes

Another name for platyhelminthes is ‘flatworms’. This is because their bodies are dorsoventrally
flattened, and so they have a leaf-like or ribbon-like appearance.

General features of platyhelminthes

 They are mostly parasitic (e.g., tapeworms, liver flukes). However, some may be free-living
(e.g., Planaria).
 They show an organ level of organization.
 They show bilateral symmetry.
 The body of a platyhelminth consists of not only the ectoderm and the endoderm but also the
mesoderm (the layer of cells found between the outer and inner layers). Therefore, it is the first
triploblastic animal.
 True body cavity or coelom is absent.
 Examples of platyhelminthes: Planaria, Fasciola (liver fluke), Taenia solium (tapeworm).

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: Do you know what causes liver rot disease?

Solution: Liver fluke found in the liver and bile ducts of sheep and goats causes the complete
breakdown of liver cells. This is known as liver rot disease. It is a serious disease in animals and
can be fatal.

Example 2: Why are fully developed organs not found in platyhelminthes?

Solution: A platyhelminth has three layers of cells from which differentiated tissues can be
made, which is why it is called triploblastic. This allows the outer and inner body linings to be
made along with some organs. Thus, there is some degree of tissue formation. However, there is
no true internal body cavity or coelom in which well-developed organs can be accommodated.
Hence, platyhelminthes do not have fully developed organs.

Non-Chordates

Phylum Nematoda

Another name for nematodes is ‘roundworms’.

General features of nematodes

 They are parasitic animals which cause diseases such as elephantiasis (filarial worms) and
usually live in the intestine.
 A nematode has a cylindrical body with tapering ends.
 Nematodes have an organ system level of organization, but no real organs are formed due to the
absence of a true coelom.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 A false body cavity or pseudocoelom is present.
 Examples of nematodes:Ascaris, Wuchereria (filarial worm), Ancylostoma (hookworm)

Non-Chordates

Phylum Annelida

Annelids are commonly called segmented worms.

General features of annelids

 They occur in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. They may be free-living or parasitic.
 They have an organ system level of organization.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical.
 An annelid possesses true organs inside its body structure.
 They are triploblastic animals. They are the first animals to possess a true body cavity or coelom
(schizocoelom).
 They have metameric segmentation with extensive organ differentiation. The segments of the
body are lined up one after the other from head to tail. Some of them have appendages called
parapodia that help in locomotion.
 Examples of annelids: Pheretima (earthworm), Hirudinaria (leech), Nereis
 Did You Know?

 Earthworms do not have eyes, but they have light receptors to sense light. These receptors help
them differentiate between light and darkness.
 Earthworms are only found in humid conditions because they respire through their skin. They
have a covering of mucus which allows dissolved oxygen to move into blood.

Non-Chordates

Phylum Arthropoda

The word ‘Arthropoda’ means ‘animals with jointed legs’. It is the largest phylum of the animal
kingdom and includes more than 900000 species.

General features of arthropods

 They are found everywhere on Earth.

 An arthropod has a segmented body like that of an annelid. The body is divided into three
regions—the head, the thorax and the abdomen.
 The body is covered by an exoskeleton made of chitin.
 Arthropods have an organ system level of organization.
 They show bilateral symmetry. They are triploblastic animals. Schizocoelom is present.
 They have certain advanced features.
 A distinct head is present. There are jointed legs for moving around.
 An open circulatory system is present, i.e., blood does not flow in well-defined blood vessels.
Thus, their coelomic cavity is filled with blood.
 Examples of arthropods: crab, Palaemon (prawn), insect, spider, scorpion, centipede, millipede,
cockroach, housefly, mosquito

Non-Chordates

Phylum Mollusca

It is the second largest phylum after arthropods. Its members are commonly called soft-bodied
animals.

General features of molluscs

 Though mostly present in seas, they may be found in freshwater or on land as well.
 The body of a mollusc is unsegmented like those of an annelid and an arthropod.
 They have an organ system level of organization.
 They show bilateral symmetry.
 A mollusc has an open circulatory system and possesses kidney-like organs for excretion.
 Molluscs are triploblastic animals.
 The coelomic cavity (schizocoelom) is reduced to a cavity called haemocoel, through which the
hemolymph (function similarly as blood of vertebrates) circulates.
 The body is divided into an anterior head, a ventral muscular foot and a dorsal visceral mass.
 The soft body is covered by a hard shell.
 A mollusc has a distinct foot for moving around.
 Examples of molluscs: Octopus, Pila (freshwater snail), Unio (freshwater mussel),
Sepia (cuttlefish), Loligo (squid)

Non-Chordates

Phylum Echinodermata

The word ‘Echinodermata’ is derived from two Greek words: ‘echinos’ which means ‘hedgehog’
and ‘derma’ which means ‘skin’. They are commonly called spiny-skinned animals.

General features of echinoderms

 They are exclusively free-living marine animals.

 They may be globular or cylindrical in shape.
 They have an organ system level of organization.
 They are triploblastic animals.
 They are coelomates and possess an enterocoelom.
 In the larval stage, they have bilateral symmetry and as adults, they have radial symmetry.
 The body of an echinoderm has a spiny outer covering made up of calcium carbonate.
 Echinoderms use a powerful water-driven tube system for moving around.
 Examples of echinoderms:Asterias (starfish), Echinus (sea urchin), Holothuria (sea
cucumber), Ophiura (serpent star), Antedon (feather star)
 Summary of Classification

Kingdom Animalia – Vertebrata

Phylum Chordata

We know that kingdom Animalia is divided into chordates and non-chordates based on the presence or
absence of the notochord

General features of chordates

 They have a notochord.

 They have a dorsal nerve cord.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 They possess a true coelom (enterocoelom).
 They have paired gill pouches.

Phylum Chordata is sub-divided into the sub-phyla Protochordata and Vertebrata based on the
developmental features of the notochord.

Sub-phylum Protochordata

This group includes animals that have a notochord. This feature may not be present at all stages
of their life cycle. Further, the notochord may not run the entire length of a protochordate’s
body. The word ‘proto’ means ‘primitive’. This indicates that protochordates are the ancestors of
the modern-day chordates.

General features of protochordates

 They are exclusively marine animals. They often live in burrows.
 They show an organ system level of organization and are triploblastic.
 The body cavity is enterocoelom.
 The body of a protochordate is not segmented and is bilaterally symmetrical.
 A notochord is present in some or all stages.
 Examples of protochordates: Amphioxus, Herdmania, Balanoglossus

Interesting Facts

 In Herdmania, the notochord appears only in the tail of the larva and disappears in the adult.
 In Amphioxus, the notochord extends until the anterior end of the body and is present
throughout its life.

Sub-Phylum Vertebrata

The members of sub-phylum Vertebrata are advanced chordates.

General features of vertebrates

 A notochord is present only in the embryonic stage.

 In an adult vertebrate, the notochord is replaced by a vertebral column consisting of ring-like
bones called vertebrae.
 An internal skeleton is present along with the vertebral column. This allows for a completely
different distribution of muscle attachment points to be used for movement.
 Vertebrates have a muscular heart with two, three or four chambers.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 Examples of vertebrates: fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals

Concept Builder
 Invertebrates and Vertebrates

Class Pisces

Class Pisces includes fishes.

General features of fishes

 They are exclusively aquatic animals. They have special adaptive features to live in water, like
a streamlined body and a tail for movement.
 Fins are present but limbs are absent. The skin of a fish is covered with scales. Fishes obtain
oxygen dissolved in water with the help of gills.

.They are cold blooded

animals and are also called ectotherms/pokiliotherms. They have a two-chambered heart.

 They lay eggs.

 Examples of fishes: Scoliodon (dogfish/shark), Tuna, Rohu.
 The skeletons of some fishes (e.g., shark, ray) are made entirely
of cartilage. These fishes are called cartilaginous fishes.

The skeletons of some fishes (e.g., Rohu, Catla) are made of both bone and cartilage. These fishes
are called bony fishes.

Whiz Kid

An octopus is capable of streamlining its body while swimming.

Know More
 Class Amphibia

The word ‘Amphibian’ can be understood by breaking it into two parts: ‘amphi’ which means
‘two’ or ‘both’ and ‘bios’ which means ‘life’. So, amphibians are animals that can live both on land
and in water.

General features of amphibians

 The adults are terrestrial. They were the first vertebrates to occupy land.
 They live in damp places.
 The adults respire through lungs or skin, while the larvae respire through gills.
 They lay eggs in water.
 They are cold blooded animals.
 They have a three-chambered heart.
 The skin of an amphibian has mucus glands. Scales are absent.
 Examples of amphibians:toad, frog, salamander

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: Why are toads, frogs and salamanders called amphibians?

Solution: The word ‘amphibian’ is derived from the Greek words ‘amphi’ which means ‘two’ or
‘both’ and ‘bios’ which means ‘life’. Thus, amphibians are animals that have a dual mode of life,
which is the case with toads, frogs and salamanders.

Their dual modes of life are as follows:

 The larval stage is fish-like since they are aquatic. The larva has a tail, which aids it in swimming.
Also, it has gills for respiration.
 The adult stage is terrestrial. The adult moves with limbs and respires through lungs and skin.

Example 2: What is the difference between a toad and a frog?

 Solution:
Toad Frog
It has a rough, dry and warty skin. It has a smooth and moist skin and this makes it look
‘slimy’.
It has a wider body. It has a narrower body.
It has lower, ball-shaped eyes. It has higher, rounder and bulgier eyes.
It has shorter, less powerful hind legs. It has longer, more powerful hind legs.
It runs or takes small hops rather than It takes long high jumps.
jump.

Class Reptilia

Reptiles are called so because they creep or crawl on land.

General features of reptiles

 The body of a reptile is divisible into the head, the neck and the trunk. The tail is well-developed
in some and reduced in others.
 Limbs are present, but are reduced or absent in case of snakes.
 The skin is covered with scales.
 Reptiles are cold-blooded animals.
 Most of them have a three-chambered heart, except crocodiles which have a four-chambered
heart.
 They respire through lungs only.
 They lay eggs on land.
 Examples of reptiles: lizard, snake, turtle, chameleon

Did You Know?

 The king cobra is the largest venomous snake in the world. It is approximately 12 feet long.
 Most snakes swallow their prey alive. However, a poisonous snake kills its prey with its venom
before swallowing it.

Class Aves
 Class Aves includes all birds.

General features of birds

 Most of them have feathers.

 They possess a beak.
 Forelimbs are modified into wings for flight.
 Hind limbs are modified for walking and clasping.
 Bones are hollow.

.They are warm blooded animals and are also called endotherms/homeotherms.

 The heart is four-chambered.

 Respiration occurs through lungs only.
 They lay eggs.
 Examples of birds: sparrow, parrot, crow, pigeon

Know More

The Heart in Different Vertebrates

Solved Examples

Medium
 Example 1: What is the difference between cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals?

Solution: A cold-blooded animal does not have a definite body temperature. It alters its body
temperature in tune with that of the outside environment. Fishes, amphibians and reptiles are
cold blooded. A warm-blooded animal, on the other hand, has a definite body temperature. This
temperature does not alter according to the outside temperature. Birds and mammals are warm-
blooded.

Class Mammalia

Class Mammalia includes a variety of animals that have milk-producing glands (mammary
glands) to nourish their young ones.

General features of mammals

 They are found in a variety of habitats like deserts, forests, mountains, etc.
 Some of them can fly.
 They have two pairs of limbs for walking, running or flying.
 The skin of a mammal has hair as well as sweat glands. The hair protects it in winters and the
sweat glands keep its body cool in summers. These features are of particular importance as a
mammal is a warm-blooded animal.
 Mammals respire through lungs.
 They have a four-chambered heart.
 They give birth to young ones and, so, are called viviparous. There are some mammals that lay
eggs, e.g., Platypus, Echidna.Such mammals are called oviparous mammals.
 Two sets of teeth—milk teeth and permanent teeth—develop in the lifetime of a mammal. The
teeth are of different types, i.e., heterodont.
 Examples of mammals:human, bat, whale, rat, cat

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: How do bats locate their prey?

Solution: Bats locate and catch their prey by the mechanism called echolocation. While hunting,
a bat produces a constant stream of high-pitched sounds. When these sound waves hit an insect
or another animal, the echoes bounce back to the bat. The echoes guide it to the prey. The time
interval between the sounds and the echoes helps the bat to determine its distance from the
prey.

Example 2: Why are bats not placed under class Aves?

Solution: Bats are not placed under class Aves in spite of their capability to fly. This is because
they possess many characteristics that are specific to the animals belonging to class Mammalia.
These include: the presence of hair and mammary glands, and the condition of being viviparous
(i.e., giving birth to their young ones).