UNIT-4 (PASSIVE MICROWAVE DEVICES, MICROWAVE AMPLIFIERS

AND OSCILLATORS)
Syllabus: Passive Microwave Devices: Introduction to scattering parameters and their
properties, Terminations, Variable short circuit, Attenuators, Phase shifters, Hybrid Tees (H-
plane, E-plane, Magic Tees), Hybrid ring, Directional Couplers – Bethe hole and Two hole
Couplers, Microwave propagation in Ferrites, Microwave devices employing Faraday rotation
– Isolator, Circulator, Deriving Scattering matrix for Microwave passive devices.
Microwave Amplifiers and Oscillators: Microwave Tubes: Linear Beam Tubes – Two
cavity Klystron amplifier -velocity modulation, bunching process, output power, Reflex
Klystron oscillator, power output and efficiency, Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) – Bunching
process and amplification JNTUA B.Tech. R20 Regulations process (Qualitative treatment
only). Crossed Field Tubes – Magnetron oscillator, pi-mode operation, power output and
efficiency, Hartree Condition.

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVES
Microwaves are the Electromagnetic waves whose wavelength is in the order of
microns. The typical frequency range of microwaves is from 1 GHz to 300 GHz. As
we know that the wavelength and frequecny are inversily proportional to each other,
the wavelength will be very very small when the frequency is in the order of GHz.
James Clerk Maxwell(1831-1879) predicted the exixtence of electromagnetic waves.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz(1857-1937) experimentally confirmed Maxwell’s prediction.
Guglielmo Marconi(1874-1937) transmitted information on an experimental basis at
T
microwave frequencies.
Advantages of Microwaves:
1. Increased Bandwidth
CE
For example,
in 3G, the frequency is 1.6 GHz-2.0 GHz, Bandwidth is 100 MHz
in 4G, the frequency is 2 GHz-8 GHz, Bandwidth is 100 MHz
in 5G, the frequency is 2 GHz-60 GHz, Bandwidth is order of GHz.
2. Improved directivity
SJ

3. Fading effect and reliability

4. Power requirements
5. Transparency property of microwaves.
MICROWAVE SPECTRUM AND BANDS
Electromagnetic spectrum is given by
S.No Band designation Frequency range Wavelength
1 VLF 3-30 KHz 100-10 Km
2 LF 30-300 KHz 10-1 Km
3 MF 300-3000 KHz 1-0.1 Km
4 HF 3-30 MHz 100 -10 m
5 VHF 30-300 MHz 10-1 m
6 UHF 300-3000 MHz 100-10 cm
7 SHF 3-30 GHz 10-1 cm
8 EHF 30-300 GHz 10-1 mm
9 Millimeter > 300 GHz < 1 mm
The typical frequency range of microwaves is 1 GHz to 300 GHz. The Microwave
frequency bands and their frequency range is shown in the following table:
S.No Band designation Frequency range Wavelength
1 L-Band 1-2 GHZ 30-15 cm
2 S-Band 2-4 GHz 15-7.5 cm
 3 C-Band 4-8 GHz 7.5-3.8 cm
4 X-Band 8-12 GHz 3.8-2.5 cm
5 Ku-Band 12-18 GHz 2.5-1.7 cm
6 k-Band 18-27 GHz 1.7-1.1 cm
7 Ka-Band 27-40 GHz 1.1-0.75 cm
8 Millimeter 40-300 GHZ 0.75-0.1 cm
9 Submillimeter > 300 GHZ < 0.1 cm

APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVES
The following is the list of microwave applications:
a) Communication applications:
(i) Telecommunication: Intercontinental Telephone and TV, Space
Communication, Telemetry communication link for railways.
(ii) Radar systems: Detect aircrafts, track/guide supersonic missiles, observe
and track weather patterns, Air Traffic Control(ATC), Burglar alarms, Garage
Door openers, police speed detectors
(iii) Satellite communications
(iv) Terrestrial communications
b) Industrial applications:
i) Microwave Oven
ii) Drying machines-Textile, food and paper industry for drying cloths,
T
potato chips, printed maters.
iii) Food processing industry-Precooling/cooking, pasteurising/sterlity,
roasting of food grains/beans.
CE
iv) Plastic industry
v) Rubber industry
vi) Chemical industry
vii) Mining/public works, braking rock, tunnel boring, drying/breaking up
concrete, curing of cements.
SJ

c) Medical applications: Diathermy for localized superficial heating, deep

electromagnetic heating for tratment of cancer, electromagnetic waves
through the human body will be used for monitoring heart beat, lung water
detection.
d) Agriculture applications:
Microwaves will be used to change the taste of vegetables by reducing the
acidity.

INTRODUCTION TO SCATTERING PARAMETERS AND THEIR

PROPERTIES
Significance, Formulation and Properties of s-matrix:
The ordinary parameters such as Z-parameters, Y-parameters, h-parameters, etc
cannot be used at microwave frequencies because of the following reasons:
(i) The equipment is not readily available to measure the voltage and
current at microwave frequencies.
(ii) Obtaining of open and short circuits at microwave frequencies are
difficult.
(iii) The active devices such as tunnel diodes and power transistors will not
have stability at open and short circuits.
Due to the above reasons, new parameters called S-parameters or simply S-matrix
will be used to analyze the microwave components. S-parameters will be expressed in
terms of waves instead of voltages and currents. Consider the simple two port network
shown in the following figure.

a1 a2

b1 Two-port network b2

In above figure a represents the input signals and b represents the reflected or output
signals. The relation between these two parameters can be expressed in terms of s-
parameters as
b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a2
b2 = S21 a1 + S22 a2
In above equation, S11, S12, S21, and S22 represent the reflection coefficients.
In order to form the S-Matrix, consider the following figure. To obtain the
relationship between the scattering matrix and the input/output powers at different
ports, consider a junction of ‘n’ number of transmission lines wherein the ith line ( i
can be any one line from 1 to n) is connected a source as shown in figure.
Let the first line be terminated in an impedance other than the characteristic
impedance (�� ≠ �0 ) and all the remaining lines in an impedance equal to Z0. If ‘ai’
T
be the incident wave at the junction due to source at the ith line, then it divides itself
among n-1 number of lines as a1, a2, a3,…… an as shown in figure. There will be no
CE
reflections from 2nd to nth line and all incident waves absorbed due to impedance
matching. But there is a reflected signal (b1) from first line due to impedance
mismatch and this reflected is going back into the junction. The reflected signal b1 is
related to a1 by
�1 = ���������� ����������� × �1 = ��1 �1
SJ

Where Si1 is the reflection coefficient of first line.

1st line

ZL ‡ Z 0
b1

a1
ith line 2nd line
ai a2
B 2= 0 ZL = Z 0
bi
an

nth line

B n= 0 ZL = Z 0

Hence the contribution to the outward traveling wave in the ith line is given by
�� = ��1 ∙ �1 [������� �2 = �3 = …. �� = 0
Now let all the n-1 lines are terminated in an impedance not equal to Z0. Then there
will be reflections from all the n-1 lines into the junction and hence total contribution
to the outward wave in the ith line is given by
 �� = ��1 ∙ �1 + ��2 ∙ �2 + ��3 ∙ �3 + … + ��� ∙ ��
The line ‘i' can be any one from 1 to n, then
�1 = �11 ∙ �1 + �12 ∙ �2 + �13 ∙ �3 + … + �1� ∙ ��
�2 = �21 ∙ �1 + �22 ∙ �2 + �23 ∙ �3 + … + �2� ∙ ��
�3 = �31 ∙ �1 + �32 ∙ �2 + �33 ∙ �3 + … + �3� ∙ ��
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. .
�� = ��1 ∙ �1 + ��2 ∙ �2 + ��3 ∙ �3 + … + ��� ∙ ��
In matrix form,
 b1   S11 S12 S13   S1n   a1 
b   S   
 2   21 S 22 S 23   S 2 n   a2 
b3    S 31 S 32 S 33   S 3n    a3 
      
           
     S nn  a 
bn   S n1 S n 2 S n 3   n 
Outputs = S-Matrix X Inputs

Properties of S-Matrix:
The properties of S-matrix are T
(i) S-Matrix is a square matrix of order n x n
(ii) It is a symmetric matrix. i.e Sij = Sji
(iii) It is a unitary matrix. i.e [S][S]* = [I]
CE
Where [S]* is complex conjugate of [S] and [I] is a Identity matrix of
same order of [S].
(iv) The sum of the products of each term of any row or column multiplied
by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row
or column is zero. i.e.
SJ

��� �∗�� = 0 ��� � ≠ �

�=1
(v) If any of the terminal or reference plane (say kth port) are moved away
the junction by an electric distance βklk, each of the coefficients Sij
involving k will be multiplied by the factor e-jβklk.
TERMINATIONS (MATCHED LOADS)
Matched loads or matched terminations are used for impedance matching purpose.
That is when the matched loads are connected in the waveguide, there will be no
reflections. There are different types of matched loads are there such as using of
graphite sand in the waveguide as the termination, using of resistive rod at the end of
the waveguide, etc. These two matched loads are shown in the following figures.

Energy Energy

Graphited Sand Resistive rod

Waveguide Waveguide
Fig: Matched load with graphited sand Fig: Matched load with resistive rod
 VARIABLE SHORT CIRCUIT
Waveguide short-circuit terminations provide standard reflection at desired, precisely
measurable position. The basic idea behind it is to provide short-circuit by changing
the reactance of the termination. The simplest form of adjustable waveguide short-
circuit is shown in the following figure.

It consists of a sliding block of a good conductor (such as copper) which makes as

snug fit in the waveguide. The position of the block is varied by means of a
micrometer drive.
ATTENUATORS
Resistive card attenuator:
Attenuator will be used to reduce the signal strength. The basic principle involved in
attenuators is absorbing the signal by using the absorbing materials such as carbon
film or aquadog. The structure of resistive card attenuator is shown in the following
figure.
Resistive card

T Microwave
power
CE

Waveguide
Fig: Fixed Resistive card attenuator
SJ

A resistive card coated with carbon film or aquadog is inserted into the waveguide.
The card is inserted at the center of broader wall of the waveguide. When the signal is
incident on the card, the signal strength will be absorbed. The variable resistive card
attenuator is shown in the following figure.
Resistive card
Locking Screw

Slot

Dial Adjusting Knob

Fig: Variable Resistive card attenuator

The operation of variable resistive card attenuator can be explained as follows:
When the adjusting knob is rotated in anticlock wise direction, then the resistive card
will be outoff the waveguide. At this position, the attenuation will be minimum. When
the knob is go on rotating in clock wise direction, the resistive card will be go on
inserting into the waveguide and hence the attenuation is go on increases. Once the
knob is fully clock wise direction then the attenuation is maximum.

Rotary vane attenuators

The rotary vane attenuator will be used in all the practical applications. The rotary
vane attenuator is a precession attenuator. The values measured by the rotary vane
attenuator are accurate. The structure of rotary vane attenuator is shown in the
following figure.
vanes
res istive
Fixed

Rectangular
waveguide
Circular
T θ
waveguide
E
Rotary Vane
CE
Rectangular
waveguide
Fig: Rotary Vane Attenuator

It consists of two rectangular waveguide sections and one rotatable circular

waveguide section. When the signal is applied at the port-1, it will pass through the
SJ

first fixed resistive vane without any attenuation. When this signal is passed through
the rotary vane, its E sinθ component will be attenuated and E cosθ component will be
passed to the input of the second fixed resistive card. Again E cosθ sinθ component
will be attenuated by the second fixed resistive card and E cos2θ component will be
available as the output at the second port. Therefore the attenuation equal to 20 log
cos2θ = 40 log cosθ.
PHASE SHIFTERS
Dielectric phase shifter:
2 v
 
 , f
1 1
v 
  0  r  0 r
A phase shifter is a microwave component which will introduce a certain amount of
phase shift to the input signal. The basic principle involved in phase shifter is,
changing the dielectric medium inside the guide by inserting some dielectric slab.
When the slab is inserted into the waveguide the medium of wave propagation is
varied and hence the phase constant of the signal changes. Due to the change of phase
constant, the phase of the signal will change. The structure of dielectric phase shifter
is shown in the following figure.
 Dielectric slab
Locking Screw

Slot

Dial Adjusting Knob

Fig: Dielectric phase shifter

The operation of dielectric phase shifter can be explained as follows:

When the adjusting knob is rotated in anticlock wise direction, then the dielectric slab
will be outoff the waveguide. At this position, the phase shift will be minimum. When
the knob is go on rotating in clock wise direction, the dielectric slab will be go on
inserting into the waveguide and hence the phase shift is go on increases. Once the
knob is fully clock wise direction then the phase shift is maximum.
Rotary vane phase shifters: T
The rotary vane phase shifter is shown in the following figure. It consists of three
dielectric vanes (two are the fixed vanes and one is the rotary vane). It also consists of
CE
two rectangular waveguide sections and one rotatable circular waveguide section.
When the signal is applied to the port one of the device, it will not attenuated by the
first fixed dielectric vane because the direction of E is perpendicular with respect to
the vane. This signal will be appeared as the input at the rotary vane. Now the signal
will be attenuated by the rotary vane because of the rotation. Finally some of the input
signal will be available as the output at the second port.
SJ

es
lect r ic van
Fixe d die

Rectangular
waveguide
Circular
θ
waveguide
E
Rotary Vane

Rectangular
waveguide
Fig: Rotary Vane phase shifter
 HYBRID TEES
H-Plane Tee:
H-plane Tee is three port waveguide junction. The structure of H-plane Tee is shown
in the following figure. H-plane Tee is also called as shunt Tee because; the axis of
the side arm is in shunt or in perpendicular with the electric field in the main
waveguide. The main properties of H-plane Tee are given by
(i) When the input is applied at the port-3, it divides between the ports 1 & 2 with
equal amplitudes and same phase.
(ii) When the two collinear ports are supplied with inputs of equal amplitudes and
same phase, the sum of these two inputs available as the output at the port-
3.
(iii)When the two collinear ports are supplied with inputs of equal amplitudes and
opposite phase, the difference of these two input amplitudes (i.e. zero)
available as the output at the port-3.
(iv)In H-plane Tee H-arm is also called as the sum arm.
Collinear ports

Port-2

Port-1
E
T Side arm
(H-arm)
CE
Port-3

Fig: H-Plane Tee

SJ

Its S-Matrix will be derived as follows:

The general S-matrix for three port device can be written as
�11 �12 �13
� = �21 �22 �23 −− 1
�31 �32 �33
From the plane symmetry
�23 = �13 - (2)
When the port-3 is perfectly matched to the junction then
�33 = 0 - (3)
Form the symmetry property of s-matrix we can write
�12 = �21 , �13 = �31 , �23 = �32 - (4)
Substitute equations 2, 3, 4 in equation1
�11 �12 �13
� = �12 �22 �13 - (5)
�13 �13 0
Form the unitary property of s-matrix we can write
�11 �12 �13 �∗11 �∗12 �∗13 1 0 0
�12 �22 �13 �∗12 �∗22 �∗13 = 0 1 0
�13 �13 0 �∗13 �∗13 0 0 0 1
 R1C1  �11 2 + �12 2 + �13 2 = 1 - (6)
R2C2  �12 2 + �22 2 + �13 2 = 1 - (7)
R1C1  �13 2 + �13 2 = 1 - (8)
From the zero property we can write
R3C1  �13 . �∗11 + �13 . �∗12 = 0 - (9)
From Equation 8, we can have
2
2 S13  1
2 1
S13 
2
1
S13  - (10)
2
By Comparing equations 6 and 7, we can write
S11  S 22 - (11)
From equation 9, we can have

S13 S11*  S12*  0
To satisfy the above relation, we can have
S11*  S12*  0
T S11   S12 - (12)
Substitute equations 10 and 12 in equation 6
2
2 2  1 
S11  S11    1
CE
 2
2 1
2 S11   1
2
2 1
2 S11 
2
SJ

2 1
S11 
4
1
S11  - (13)
2
Substitute equation 13 in equation 11
1
S 22  S11  - (14)
2
Substitute equation 13 in equation 12
1
S12   S11   - (15)
2
Substitute equations 10, 14 and 15 in equation 5
1 1 1
−
2 2 2
1 1 1
� = −
2 2 2
1 1
0
2 2
  1 1 1 
 2 2 2   a1 
 b1  
b     1 1 1   
 a2
 2  2 2 2  
b3   1 1   a3 
 0 
 2 2 
1 1 1
b1  a1  a2  a3 - (16)
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2   a1  a2  a3 - (17)
2 2 2
1 1
b3  a1  a2 - (18)
2 2
Case-1: Input applied at port-3( a1  0, a2  0, a3  0 )
1 1 1 1
b1  (0)  (0)  a3  a3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
b2   (0)  (0)  a3  a3
2 2 2 2
1 1
T b3  ( 0)  ( 0)  0
2 2
Case-2: Input applied at port-1 and port-2 with equal amplitude and same
phase ( a1  a2  a, a3  0 )
CE
1 1 1
b1  a  a  ( 0)  0
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2   a  a  ( 0)  0
2 2 2
SJ

1 1 2a
b3  a a
2 2 2
Case-3: Input applied at port-1 and port-2 with equal amplitude and
opposite phase ( a1  a, a2   a, a3  0 )
1 1 1
b1  a  a  ( 0)  a
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2   a  a  ( 0)   a
2 2 2
1 1
b3  a a0
2 2
E-Plane Tee:
E-plane Tee is three port waveguide junction. The structure of E-plane Tee is shown
in the following figure. E-plane Tee is also called as series Tee because the axis of the
side arm is in parallel or in series with the electric field in the main waveguide. The
main properties of E-plane Tee are given by
(i) When the input is applied at the port-3, it divides between the ports 1
& 2 with equal amplitudes and opposite phase.
 (ii) When the two collinear ports are supplied with inputs of equal
amplitudes and same phase, the difference of these two inputs (i.e. zero)
available as the output at the port-3.
(iii) When the two collinear ports are supplied with inputs of equal
amplitudes and opposite phase, the sum of these two inputs available
as the output at the port-3.
(iv) In E-plane Tee E-arm is also called as the subtractive arm.
Port-3

Side arm
(E-arm)
Port-2

E
Port-1

Collinear ports

Fig: E-Plane Tee

T
CE
SJ

The structure of E-Plane Tee is shown in the figure above. Its S-Matrix will be
derived as follows:
The general S-matrix for three port device can be written as

�11 �12 �13

� = �21 �22 �23 −− 1
�31 �32 �33
From the plane symmetry
S 23   S13 - (2)
When the port-3 is perfectly matched to the junction then
�33 = 0 - (3)
Form the symmetry property of s-matrix we can write
�12 = �21 , �13 = �31 , �23 = �32 - (4)
Substitute equations 2, 3, 4 in equation1
 S11 S12 S13 
S    S12 S 22  S13 
 - (5)
 S13  S13 0 
Form the unitary property of s-matrix we can write
 S11 S12 S13   S11* S12* S13*  1 0 0
S  * * *   
 12 S 22  S13   S12 S 22  S13  = 0 1 0
 S13  S13 0   S13*  S13* 0  0 0 1
R1C1  �11 2 + �12 2 + �13 2 = 1 - (6)
R2C2  �12 2 + �22 2 + �13 2 = 1 - (7)
R1C1  �13 2 + �13 2 = 1 - (8)
From the zero property we can write
R3C1  S13 S11*  S13 S12*  0 - (9)
From Equation 8, we can have
2
2 S13  1
1
T 2
S13 
1
2
CE
S13  - (10)
2
By Comparing equations 6 and 7, we can write
S11  S 22 - (11)
From equation 9, we can have
 
SJ

S13 S11*  S12*  0

To satisfy the above relation, we can have
S11*  S12*  0
S11  S12 - (12)
Substitute equations 10 and 12 in equation 6
2
2 2  1 
S11  S11    1
 2
2 1
2 S11   1
2
2 1
2 S11 
2
2 1
S11 
4
1
S11  - (13)
2
Substitute equation 13 in equation 11
1
S 22  S11  - (14)
2
Substitute equation 13 in equation 12
1
S12  S11  - (15)
2
Substitute equations 10, 14 and 15 in equation 5
 1 1 1 
 2 2 2 

S    1 1

1 
 2 2 2
 1 1 
  0 
 2 2 
 1 1 1 
 2 2 2   a1 
 b1  
b    1 1

1   
 a2
   2
2
2 2  
b3   1 1   a3 
  0 
 2 2 
1 1 1
b1  a1  a2  a3 - (16)
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2  a1  a2  a3 - (17)
T b3 
2
1
2
a1 
1
a2
2
- (18)
CE
2 2
Case-1: Input applied at port-3( a1  0, a2  0, a3  0 )
1 1 1 1
b1  (0)  (0)  a3  a3
2 2 2 2
SJ

1 1 1 1
b2  (0)  (0)  a3   a3
2 2 2 2
1 1
b3  ( 0)  ( 0)  0
2 2
Case-2: Input applied at port-1 and port-2 with equal amplitude and same
phase ( a1  a2  a, a3  0 )
1 1 1
b1  a  a  ( 0)  a
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2  a  a  ( 0)  a
2 2 2
1 1
b3  a a0
2 2
Case-3: Input applied at port-1 and port-2 with equal amplitude and
opposite phase ( a1  a, a2   a, a3  0 )
1 1 1
b1  a  a  ( 0)  0
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2  a  a  ( 0)  0
2 2 2
 1 1 2a
b3  a a
2 2 2

Magic Tee:
Magic Tee is four port waveguide junction. The structure of magic Tee is shown in
the following figure.
Port-3

Side arm
(E-arm)
Port-2

Side arm
E
(H-arm)
Port-1

Port-4
Fig: Magic-Tee
T
The magic Tee name arises because; when the input applied at any one of the
collinear ports it will not available at the other collinear port even though they are the
CE
collinear. The magic is a combination of both E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee. The main
properties of H-plane Tee are given by
(i) When the input is applied at the port-3, it divides between the ports 1 & 2 with
equal amplitudes and opposite phase.
(ii) When the input is applied at the port-4, it divides between the ports 1 & 2 with
SJ

equal amplitudes and same phase.

(iii)When the two collinear ports are supplied with inputs of equal amplitudes and
same phase, the sum of these two inputs available as the output at the port-
4 and zero output at port-3.
(iv)When the two collinear ports are supplied with inputs of equal amplitudes and
opposite phase, the sum of these two input amplitudes available as the
output at the port-3 and zero output at port-4.
The structure of Magic-Tee is shown in the figure above. Let port-4 is the E-arm and
port-3 is the H-arm. From the properties of s-matrix and by utilizing the plane
symmetry of magic tee we can derive the s-matrix. S-matrix of magic tee is derived as
follows:
The general s-matrix of four port device is given by
�11 �12 �13 �14
� �22 �23 �24
[�] = 21
�31 �32 �33 �34
�41 �42 �43 �44
From the plane symmetry
�23 = �13
�24 = −�14
Ports 3&4 are isolated and hence �34 = �43 = 0
From symmetry property of s-matrix we can write as
 �12 = �21 , �13 = �31 , �23 = �32 , �34 = �43 , �24 = �42 , �41 = �14
When the ports 3 and 4 are perfectly matched to the junction, then
S 33  S 44  0
By applying all the above properties, we can write the s-matrix as
 S11 S12 S13 S14 
S S S  S14 
S    12 22 13 - (1)
 S13 S13 0 0 
 
 S14  S14 0 0 
From the unitary property of s-matrix we can write as
 S11 S12 S13 S14   S11* S12* S13* S14*  1 0 0 0
S  * *  
 12 S 22 S13  S14   S12
* *
S 22 S13  S14  0 1 0 0

 S13 S13 0 0   S13* S13* 0 0  0 0 1 0 
    
 S14  S14 0 0   S14*  S14* 0 0  0 0 0 1
�11 2 + �12 2 + �13 2 + �14 2 = 1 -(2)
�12 2 + �22 2 + �13 2 + �14 2 = 1 - (3)
�13 2 + �13 2 = 1 - (4)
�14 2 + �14 2 = 1 - (5)
Also from zero property of s-matrix we can write
T �14 . �∗11 − �14 �∗12 = 0 - (6)
From the equation 4, we can have
CE
2
2 S13  1
1
S13  - (7)
2
From the equation 5, we can have
2
2 S14  1
SJ

1
S14  - (8)
2
By comparing equations 2 and 3, we can have
S11  S 22 - (9)
From equation 6,

S14 S11*  S12*  0 
S11  S12  0
S11  S12 -(10)
Substitute equations 7, 8 and 10 in equation 2
2 2
2 2  1   1 
S11  S11      1
 2  2
2 1 1
2 S11    1
2 2
2
2 S11  1  1
2
2 S11  0
S11  0 -(11)
 From equations 9, 10 and 11,
S11  S12  S 22  0 - (12)
Substitute equations 7, 8 and 12 in equation 1
1 1
0 0
2 2
1 1
0 0 −
2 2
[�] =
1 1
0 0
2 2
1 1
− 0 0
2 2
 1 1 
 0 0
2 2 
b
 1  1 1   a1 
b   0 0   
 2   2 2   a2 
b3   1 1  
   2 0 0   a3 
b4   2   a4 
 1 1
 0 0 
 2
T 2 
1 1
b1  a3  a4
2 2
CE
1 1
b2  a3  a4
2 2
1 1
b3  a1  a2
2 2
1 1
SJ

b4  a1  a2
2 2
Case-1: When a3  0, a1  a2  a4  0 (Input applied at port 3)
1 1 1
b1  a3  a4  a3
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2  a3  a4  a3
2 2 2
1 1
b3  a1  a2  0
2 2
1 1
b4  a1  a2  0
2 2
Case-2: When a4  0, a1  a2  a3  0 (Input applied at port 4)
1 1 1
b1  a3  a4  a4
2 2 2
1 1 1
b2  a3  a4   a4
2 2 2
1 1
b3  a1  a2  0
2 2
 1 1
b4  a1  a2  0
2 2
Case-3: When a1  a2  a, a3  a4  0 (Input applied at port 1 and port 2 with equal
amplitudes and same phase)
1 1
b1  a3  a4  0
2 2
1 1
b2  a3  a4  0
2 2
1 1 1 1 2a
b3  a1  a2  a a
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
b4  a a0
2 2
Case-4: When a1  a, a2   a, a3  a4  0 (Input applied at port 1 and port 2 with
equal amplitudes and opposite phase)
1 1
b1  a3  a4  0
2 2
1 1
b2  a3  a4  0
T 2 2
1 1 1 1
b3  a1  a2  a a0
2 2 2 2
CE
1 1 1 1 2a
b4  a (a)  a a
2 2 2 2 2
Case-5: When a1  0, a2  a3  a4  0 (Input applied at port 1)
1 1
b1  a3  a4  0
2 2
SJ

1 1
b2  a3  a4  0
2 2
1 1 1
b3  a1  a2  a1
2 2 2
1 1 1
b4  a1  a2  a1
2 2 2
Case-6: When a2  0, a1  a3  a4  0 (Input applied at port 2)
1 1
b1  a3  a4  0
2 2
1 1
b2  a3  a4  0
2 2
1 1 1
b3  a1  a2  a2
2 2 2
1 1 1
b4  a1  a2   a2
2 2 2
Applications of magic-Tee
Magic-T as duplexer: Magic-T can be used as a duplexer as shown in figure below.
 Antenna

Port-3(E-arm)

Transmitter
Port-2
Receiver
Port-1

Port-4(H-arm)

Matched load

Fig: Magic-T as duplexer

T
CE
The transmitter is connected at port-2, receiver is connected at port-1, antenna is
connected at port-3(E-arm) and port-4(H-arm) is terminated with matched load.
During the transmission, the signal generated by the transmitter will act as input at
port of the magic-T and this transmitter power will be splitted and travels towards
port-3 and port-4. The power traveling towards port-3 will be radiated with the
antenna towards the target and power traveling towards port-4 will be absorbed by the
SJ

matched load. Similarly, during the reception, the power received by th antenna will
act as input at the port-3. This power will be splitted and travels towards port-1 and
port-2. The power traveling towards port-1 will be received by the receiver of the
radar system.
Measurement of impedance:

a3/√2
The microwave signal generated by microwave source is devided between port 1 and
2 with equal amplitudes and same phase. When the signal a3/√2 is incident at load Z1,
then some of the signal will be rflected back. This reflected power is ( a3/√2)ρ1.
Similarly there is a reflected signal ( a3/√2)ρ2 from the load Z2. These two reflected
powers will act as inputs at the port 1 and port 2 of magic-T. Difference of these two
signals will appear at the input of null detector. The null detector will show the value
which will be equal to difference of two powers ( a3/√2)ρ1 and ( a3/√2)ρ2. We have to
adjust the known impedance Z2 such that the null detector shows zero valus. Zero
value of the null detector indicates that two powers will be equal. That is
a3 a
1  3  2
2 2
1   2
Z1  Z g Z 2  Z g

Z1  Z g Z 2  Z g
From the above equation the unknown impedance Z2 can be obtained.

Magic-T as a mixer:

T
CE
SJ

From the above figure, the received signal from the antenna and the signal from local
oscillator will act as inputs at port 3 and port 4 respectively. As per the property of
magic-T, some of these two signals will be traveled towards port-1 where the mixer is
connected. The mixer mixup these two signals and produces corresponding IF signal.

HYBRID RING (RAT-RACE)

A hybrid ring consists of an annular line of proper electrical length to sustain standing
waves, to which four arms are connected at proper intervals by means of series
or parallel junctions.Following figure shows a hybrid ring with series junctions.
The hybrid ring has characteristics similar to those of the hybrid tee. When a wave is
fed into port 1, it will not appear at port 3 because the difference of phase shifts for
the waves traveling in the clockwise and counterclockwise directions is 180°. Thus
the waves are canceled at port 3. For the same reason, the waves fed into port 2 will
not emerge at port 4 and so on.
The S matrix for an ideal hybrid ring can be expressed as
T 0 �12 0 �14
� 0 �23 0
[�] = 21
0 �32 0 �34
CE
�41 0 �43 0

DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
A directional coupler is a four port junction made from two waveguides. The basic
principle of directional coupler can be explained with the help of diagram shown in
the following figure.
SJ

Primary Waveguide
Port-1 Port-2
Coupling
Secondary Device Waveguide
Port-3 Port-4

Fig: Directional Coupler

It consists of two waveguides called primary waveguide and secondary waveguide.

The directional coupler is a reciprocal device. When the power is applied at the port-1,
it divides between ports-2 & 4. But no power available at the port-3. Similarly when
the power is applied at the port-2, it divides between ports-1 & 3. But, no power
available at the port-4. The important characteristics of directional coupler are
Coupling factor(C) = 10 log (Pi/Pf)
Directivity (D) = 10 log (Pf/Pb)
Where Pi is the input power, Pf is the forward coupled power to the secondary
waveguide and Pb is the back power.
There are different types of directional couplers such as four-hole directional coupler,
two-hole directional coupler, reverse coupling directional coupler(schwinger coupler),
Bethe-hole or single-hole directional coupler.
The general s-matrix for four port device is given by
�11 �12 �13 �14
� �22 �23 �24
[�] = 21
�31 �32 �33 �34
�41 �42 �43 �44
From the symmetry property of s-matrix we can write
�12 = �21 , �13 = �31 , �23 = �32 , �34 = �43 , �24 = �42 , �41 = �14
When all the four ports are perfectly matched to the junction then we can write
�11 = �22 = �33 = �44 = 0
Ports 1 & 3, ports 2 & 4 are isolated ports and hence we can write
�13 = �24 = 0
From the above all properties the s-matrix becomes
0 �12 0 �14
� 0 �23 0
[�] = 12 - (1)
0 �23 0 �34
�14 0 �34 0
From the unitary property of s-matrix we can write
∗ ∗
0 �12 0 �14 0 �12 0 �14 1 0 0 0
�12 0 �23 0 �∗12 0 �∗23 0 0 1 0 0
∗ ∗ =
0 �23 0 �34 0 �23 0 �34 0 0 1 0
�14 0 �34 0 �∗14 0 �∗34 0
T 0 0 0 1
2 2
R1C1  �12 + �14 = 1 - (2)
R2C2  �12 2 + �23 2 = 1 - (3)
CE
2 2
R3C3  �23 + �34 = 1 - (4)
2 2
R4C4  S14  S 34  1 - (5)
From zero property of s-matrix,
R1C3  �12 . �∗23 + �14 . �∗34 = 0 - (6)
SJ

Comparing equations 2 and 3, we can have

S14  S 23 - (7)
Comparing equations 3 and 4, we can have
S12  S 34 - (8)
Let us assume S12 is a real and positive (say P), then
�12 = �34 = � = �∗34
From equation 6, we can have
*
PS 23  S14 P  0
 *
P S 23 
 s14  0 - (9)
Substitute equation 7 in equation 9
 *
P S 23 
 S 23  0
P0
Therefore,
*
S 23  S 23 0
In order to satisfy the above equation, S23 must be imaginary term.
Let,
S 23  jq
Then
 *
S 23   jq
Therefore,
S12  S 34  P - (10)
S 23  S14  jq - (11)
Substitute equations 10 and 11 in equation 1
0 � 0 ��
� 0 �� 0
[�] =
0 �� 0 �
�� 0 � 0
2-Hole type directional coupler
The principle of two-hole directional coupler can be explained with the help of
diagram shown in the following figure.

Primary Waveguide

Port-1 Port-2

Port-3 canceled Added Port-4

Secondary
TFig: Two-hole directional coupler
Waveguide
CE
Two-hole directional coupler contains two holes separated by the spacing given by the
relation
λg
L = 2n + 1
SJ

4
Where n = 0,1,2,3,….is an integer and λg is the guide wavelength. When n = 0, then
the spacing between the two holes is λg/4. The waves traveling towards port-4 will
have the same phase and they will be added up. Whereas the waves traveling toward
port-3 will have the opposite (1800) phase and hence they will be canceled.
Bethe-hole type
A single-hole or Bethe-hole directional coupler is shown in the following figure.

Matched load
Coupling hole
Port-3
Coaxial probe output

Port-1
Port-2

Port-4

Fig: Bethe-hole or single hole directional coupler

It consists of two waveguides called as primary waveguide and secondary waveguide.
The secondary waveguide is connected to the primary waveguide at some angle. Two
waveguides are coupled through the single hole. The directivity of single-hole
directional coupler is high as compared with the two-hole directional coupler because,
coupling takes place through the single hole. The secondary waveguide is rotated such
that maximum electric and magnetic coupling takes place between the two
waveguides. When the signal is applied at the port-1, it available at the port-4 and
port-2.
MICROWAVE PROPAGATION IN FERRITES
Ferrites-composition and characteristics:
Ferrite is an insulator but having magnetic properties. Examples of ferrites are
manganese ferrite, zinc ferrite and associated ferromagnetic oxides such as Yttrium-
Iron-Garnet or YIG in simple form. When electromagnetic waves propagate through
the ferrite, they produce RF magnetic field inside and the direction of this RF field is
at right angle to the direction of wave propagation. If an axial magnetic field from the
permanent magnet is applied to the ferrite, an interaction will takes place within the
ferrite. When only magnetic field is applied to the ferrite, electrons within the ferrite
will align themselves along the lines of magnetic force, just as a magnetized needle
aligns itself with the earth’s magnetic field. The important characteristics of ferrites
are saturation magnetization, Line width and Curie temperature. Saturation
magnetization is defined as the minimum amount of d.c. magnetic field required to
ensure that the axes of the spinning electrons are suitably aligned. Line width is
T
defined as the range of magnetic field strengths over which absorption will takes
place and is defined between the half power points for absorption. Curie temperature
CE
is defined as the temperature at which the ferrite loses its properties.
Faraday rotation:

Original spin axis

SJ

Axis of spin
HRF
Direction
of spin
Hdc
New spin axis

Hdc

Direction
Of spin
Fig: Effect of magnetic fields on spinning electrons.
(a) d.c.magnetic field only (b)d.c. and RF magnetic fields

Faraday rotation can be explained with the help of the above figure. Faraday rotation
is defined as the rotation of plane of polarization of waves due to the interaction
between the d.c magnetic field and RF magnetic field. When only d.c. magnetic field
is applied, the electrons will align along the straight line called as spinning axis. But
due to application of both d.c. magnetic field and RF magnetic field, the interaction
will takes place and hence the plane of the wave will rotate. Therefore the phase of
the waves which will propagate through the ferrite will shift by certain amount.
 MICROWAVE DEVICES EMPLOYING FARADAY ROTATION
Gyrator:
Ferrite
Port-2

900 twist 900

Rectangular
waveguide
E
Port-1 Circular
waveguide

Rectangular
waveguide
Fig: Structure of Gyrator

The structure of gyrator is shown in the figure above. It is a two port device. It
introduces a phase shift of 1800 when the signal travels from port-1 to port-2 and
introduces zero phase shifts when the signal travels from the port-2 to port-1. It’s
T
simple operation can be explained as follows:
The signal traveling from port-1 will undergo a phase shift of 900 by the waveguide
twist in anticlock wise direction and also undergo a phase shift of 900 by the ferrite in
CE
the same direction. Therefore the signal will undergo a total phase shift of 1800 when
it is travels from port-1 to port-2. Similarly the signal traveling from port-2 will
undergo a phase shift of 900 by the ferrite in the anticlock wise direction and also
undergo a phase shift of 900 by the waveguide twist in the clock wise direction.
Therefore the signal will undergo a total phase shift of 00 when it is travels from port-
SJ

2 to port-1.
Isolator:
The structure of Isolator is shown in the following figure.
Resistive
card

Ferrite
Port-2

Resistive 450 twist 450

card

Rectangular
waveguide
E
Port-1 Circular
waveguide

Rectangular
waveguide
Fig: Structure of Isolator
It’s simple operation can be explained as follows:
The signal traveling from port-1 will undergo a phase shift of 450 by the waveguide
twist in anticlock wise direction and also undergo a phase shift of 450 by the ferrite in
the opposite direction. Therefore the signal will undergo a total phase shift of 00 when
it is travels from port-1 to port-2. During this traveling, the signal will be
perpendicular to both the resistive cards and hence there will be no absorption of
signal by the resistive cards. Similarly the signal traveling from port-2 will undergo a
phase shift of 450 by the ferrite in the clock wise direction and also undergo a phase
shift of 450 by the waveguide twist in the same direction. Therefore the signal will
undergo a total phase shift of 900 when it is travels from port-2 to port-1. Due to this
phase shift, the signal will be parallel to the resistive card in the port-1, and hence the
signal will be absorbed by this resistive card. Therefore no signal will come out from
port-1.
Isolator is a two port device and hence general s-matrix will be written as
� �12
[�] = 11
�21 �22
When the two ports of isolator are perfectly matched, then we can write
�11 = �22 = 0
From the property of isolator we can write
�1 �2
�12 = = 0 , �21 = =1
T �2 �1
Therefore the s-matrix of isolator can be written as
0 0
[�] =
1 0
CE
Circulator:
SJ

Circulator is a 4 port component in which the power flow takes place from port-1 to
port-2, from port-2 to port-3, port-3 to port-4 and port-4 to port-1 as shown in the
figure above.
 Rectangular
Port-3 waveguide
Rectangular
waveguide Ferrite
450

450
450
Port-4
Port-1 Port-2

Circular Waveguide

Fig: Four port ferrite circulator

The structure of four port ferrite circulator is shown in the above figure. It consists of
ferrite material and waveguide twists. The ferrite will rotate the signal in clock wise
direction by the amount of 450. When the signal is applied at port-1, it available only
at port-2 as the output. Similarly when the signal is applied at port-2, it will be
T
available at port-3. When the signal is applied to port-3, it will be available at port-4.
Finally when the signal is applied at port-4, it will be available at port-1.
The general s-matrix for four port device can be written as
CE
�11 �12 �13 �14
� �22 �23 �24
[�] = 21
�31 �32 �33 �34
�41 �42 �43 �44
When all the ports are perfectly matched to the junction, then we can write
SJ

�11 = �22 = �33 = �44 = 0

From the property of circulator we can say
�1 �1 �1
�12 = = 0 , �13 = = 0 , �14 = = 1,
�2 �3 �4
�2 �2 �2
�21 = = 1 , �23 = = 0 , �24 = = 0,
�1 �3 �4
�3 �3 �3
�31 = = 0 , �32 = = 1 , �34 = = 0,
�1 �2 �4
�4 �4 �4
�41 = = 0 , �42 = = 0 , �43 = = 1,
�1 �2 �3

Therefore the s-matrix of four port circulator becomes

0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
[�] =
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
 MICROWAVE TUBES
Microwave tubes-O-type and M-type classifications:

O-Type Tubes(Linear beam tubes)

Cavity Slow wave structure

Resonant
Forward wave Backward wave

Helix TWT BWA, BWO

Klystron

Twystron Coupled cavity

Reflex Klystron TWT
T M-Type tubes(Crossed-field tubes)
CE

Resonant Nonresonant Maser effect

SJ

Standing wave Forward wave Backward wave

Reentrant Reentrant Nonreentrant Reentrant Nonreentrant

Magnetron FWCFA Dematron Amplitron Carcinotron Gyrotrons

TWO CAVITY KLYSTRON AMPLIFIER

Structure:
The structure of two cavity klystron is shown in figure below. The two cavity klystron
amplifier consists of two cavity resonators, Collector, electron gun, anode. The
cavities are used for tuning purpose such that the gain of the amplifier is improved.
The first cavity is known as buncher cavity which assists in bunching of electron
beam. The second cavity is known as catcher cavity which will catch the bunched
electron beam. The purpose of using anode is to avoid the spreading of electron beam
or it helps in providing the linear electron beam. The electron gun is used to emit the
beam of electrons.
 Buncher cavity Catcher cavity

RF input L RF output
Anode

Cathode V0 V(t1) Collector

Electron
gun

Bunched
Electron beam
Vg 0 d L+d L+2d

t0 t 1 t2 t3
V0

(i)
T
The performance characteristics of two cavity klystron are given by
Efficiency = 40%
(ii) Power output = 500 KW average power and 30 MW pulsed power
CE
(iii) Power gain = 30 dB
(iv) Frequency = 250 MHz to 100 GHz
(v) Noise figure = 15 to 20 dB
Velocity modulation process and Applegate diagram:
The process of varying the velocity of the electrons with RF signal is known as
SJ

velocity modulation. The beam of electrons will be emitted from the cathode. A high
d.c. voltage is applied to the cathode of the electron gun such that the electrons will be
accelerated towards the collector. The anode electrodes are provided such that the
electrons will be further accelerated. The –ve d.c. supply is connected to the electron
gun and anode such that the electrons travel with high velocity. The first
cavity(Buncher cavity) having cavity gap or buncher grids. The buncher cavity is
tuned such that it will be operated at the input RF signal frequency. The input signal
to be amplified should be applied to the buncher cavity. The RF signal is existing
across the buncher cavity gap.
Let the velocity of electrons is V0 before entering the buncher cavity gap. The
electrons will have potential energy and kinetic energy. Therefore,
1
��0 = � �0 2 −1
2
Where ‘e’ is the charge of electron, ‘V0’ is the applied d.c.voltage, ‘m’ is the mass of
electron, ‘v0’ is the velocity of electrons.
2��0 = � �0 2
2��0 2 × 1.6 × 10−19
�0 = =
� 9.1 × 10−31
�0 = 0.593 × 106 �0 −2
The above equation give the velocity of electrons due to applied d.c. voltage V0. The
velocity of the electrons which will enter into the buncher cavity gap will be changes
according to the amplitude of the RF signal. Since the electrons contains a.c.
components also, so the current modulation also takes place in the buncher cavity gap.
Let the input signal is Vs = V1 sinωt. To find out the velocity modulation equation
either in terms of t0 or t1 we need to find the average microwave voltage in the
buncher cavity gap which will be calculated as follows:
The cavity gap transit time is given by
�
�= = �1 − �0
�0
The transit angle is given by
��
�� = �� = = � �1 − �0 −3
�0
The average microwave signal at the buncher cavity gap is given by
1 �1 � 1 �1 �1 − cos �� �1
�� = �1 sin �� �� = sin �� �� =
� �0 � �0 � � �0
�1 �1
�� = − cos ��1 — cos ��0 = cos ��0 − cos ��1 −4
�� ��
From equation 3,
��
= ��1 − ��0
�0
T ��1 = ��0 +
��
�0
−5
CE
Substitute equation 5 in equation 4
�1 ��
�� = cos ��0 − cos ��0 + −6
�� �0
�� �� �� ��
Let ��0 +
2�0
= ��0 + = � ���
2 2�0 2
= =�
SJ

Then equation 6 can be written as

�1
�� = cos � − � − cos � + �
��
But cos � − � − cos � + � = 2 sin � sin �

�1 �1 �� ��
�� = 2 sin � sin � = 2 sin ��0 + sin
�� �� 2 2
2�1 �� �� �1 �� ��
�� = sin sin ��0 + = sin sin ��0 +
�� 2 2 ��/2 2 2
��
sin
�1 �� �� 2 ��
�� = sin sin ��0 + = �1 sin ��0 +
�� /2 2 2 �� /2 2

��
�� = �1 �� sin ��0 + −7
2
Where βi is known as coupling coefficient
��
sin
2
�� = −8
�� /2
From above equation it can be seen that, if transit angle θg decreases, the coupling
between the electron beam and buncher cavity increases. Where as if θg increases, the
coupling between the cavity and electron beam decreases.
At � = �1 , �0 = � �1
2��0 '
� �1 = −9
�
Where �0 ' = �0 +
������� ����� �� ��������� ������ �� ������ ��� = �0 + ��
��
�0 ' = �0 + �1 �� sin ��0 + − 10
2
Substitute equation 10 in equation 9
2� ��
� �1 = �0 + �1 �� sin ��0 +
� 2

2��0 �1 ��
� �1 = 1+ �� sin ��0 +
� �0 2

2��0 �1 �� ��
= 1+ sin ��0 +
T � �0 2
�1 ��
Where �0
is called depth of velocity modulation or modulation index.
CE
2��0 �1 �� �� �1 �� ��
� �1 = 1+ sin ��0 + = �0 1 + sin ��0 +
� �0 2 �0 2
1/2
�1 �� ��
� �1 = �0 1 + sin ��0 +
�0 2
SJ

Apply binomial expansion and neglect higher order terms

�1 �� ��
� �1 = �0 1 + sin ��0 + +… − 11
2�0 2
From equation 3,
��
��0 = ��1 − = ��1 − �� − 12
�0
Substitute equation 12 in equation 11
�1 �� ��
� �1 = �0 1 + sin ��1 − �� +
2�0 2
�1 �� ��
� �1 = �0 1 + sin ��1 − − 13
2�0 2
Equations 11 and 13 are called velocity modulation equations in terms of t0 and t1
respectively.
The Applegate diagram of two cavity klystron amplifier is shown in figure below.
 Output gap voltage

Catcher gap
Distance

Lop ΔL

Buncher gap
Time

Acceleration voltage Input gap voltage

Fig: Applegate diagram of two cavity klystron

Bunching process: T
The bunching process in two cavity klystron can be explained with the help of the
following figure.
z
CE
ΔL Bunching center
SJ
Distance

ter

Vs = V1sin ωt
Fas
e
er

m
ow

Sa
Sl

Buncher ta td t
0 tb tc
grid

π/2ω π/2ω

Fig: Bunching process

Once the electrons leave the buncher cavity, they drift with a velocity v(t1) along the
field free space between the two cavities. The effect of velocity modulation produces
bunching of the electron beam. The signal which existing across the buncher cavity
gap is shown in figure. The electrons that passes the buncher cavity at Vs = 0, travel
through unchanged velocity ‘v0’ and become the bunching center. Those electrons
that passes the buncher cavity during the positive half cycle of the microwave input
voltage (Vs) travel faster than the electrons that passed the gap when Vs = 0. Those
electrons that passes the buncher cavity during the negative half cycle of the
microwave input voltage travel slower than the electrons that passed the gap when Vs
= 0. At distance of ΔL along the beam from the buncher cavity, all the three electrons
form as a bunch as shown in above figure.
The distance from the buncher grid to the location of dense electron bunching for the
electron ‘b’ at ‘tb’ is given by
∆�� = �0 �� − �� −1
Similarly the distance for the electron ‘a’ at ‘ta’ and electron ‘c’ at ‘tc’ are given by
�
∆�� = ���� �� − �� = ���� �� − �� + −2
2�
�
∆�� = ���� �� − �� = ���� �� − �� − −3
2�
The velocity modulation equation is given by
�1 �� ��
� �1 = �0 1 + sin ��1 − −4
2�0 2
�� �
���� occurs when ��1 − =− 2
2
Then equation 4 becomes
�1 �� −� �� �1
� �1 = ���� = �0 1 + sin = �0 1 − −5
2�0 2 2�0
�� �
���� occurs when ��1 − =2
2
Then equation 4 becomes
�1 �� � �� �1
� �1 = ���� = �0 1 + sin = �0 1 + −6
2�0 2 2�0
Substitute equation 5 in equation 2
T
�� �1 � �0�� �1 �
∆�� = �0 1 − �� − �� + = �0 − �� − �� +
2�0 2� 2�0 2�
�0 � �0�� �1 �
CE
∆�� = �0 �� − �� + − �� − �� +
2� 2�0 2�
�0 � �0 ���1 �0 �� �1 �
∆�� = �0 �� − �� + − �� − �� − −7
2� 2�0 2�0 2�
Similarly substitute equation 6 in equation 3
�� �1 �
SJ

∆�� = �0 1 + �� − �� −
2�0 2�
�0 � �0 ���1 �0 �� �1 �
∆�� = �0 �� − �� − + �� − �� − −8
2� 2�0 2�0 2�
To form a bunch all the three electrons at ta, tb and tc should travel the same distance
ΔL. Therefore equate equations 1 and 7
�0 � �0 �� �1 �0 �� �1 �
�0 �� − �� = �0 �� − �� + − �� − �� −
2� 2�0 2�0 2�
�0 � �0 �� �1 �0�� �1 �
0= − �� − �� −
2� 2�0 2�0 2�
�0 �� �1 �0 �� �1 � �0 �
− �� − �� = −
2�0 2�0 2� 2�
�0 �� �1 �0 � �� �1
− �� − �� = −1
2�0 2� 2�0
� �� �1 2�0 � �� �1 2�0 2�0 � 2�0
�� − �� =− −1 =− × − =− 1−
2� 2�0 �� �1 2� 2�0 �� �1 �� �1 2� �� �1
� � 2�0 � ��0
�� − �� =− + × =− +
2� 2� �� �1 2� �� �1 �
When V0 >> V1, then π/2ω can be neglected.
 ��0
�� − �� = −7
�� �1 �
Substitute equation 7 in equation 1
��0
∆�� = ∆� = �0 −8
�� �1 �
The time taken for the electron bunches to travel the distance L (Drift space) is known
as transit time (T) and is given by
�
� = �2 − �1 = −9
� �1
Substitute equation 4 in equation 9

� 1
�= = �0
�1 �� �� �1 �� ��
�0 1 + sin ��1 − 1+ sin ��1 −
2�0 2 2�0 2
�
Where �0 =
�
is called d.c. transit time.
0
−1
�1 �� ��
� = �0 1 + sin ��1 −
2�0 2
Expand by using binomial expansion and neglect higher order terms
T�1 �� ��
� = �0 1 − sin ��1 − − 10
2�0 2
�1 �� �� ��
�� = ��0 1 − sin ��1 − = �0 − � sin ��1 − − 11
CE
2�0 2 2
��
Where �0 = ��0 = � is known as d.c transit angle
0
�1 ��
�= � �� ������ ����ℎ��� ��������� �� � ��������
2�0 0
SJ

Small signal theory expressions for o/p power and efficiency:

To derive the equation for the power output and efficiency, let us assume the charge
‘dQ0’ is passing through the buncher cavity gap at a time interval of dt0. Then
��
�=
��
�� = � ��
Or ��0 = �0 ��0
Where I0 is the d.c. current. From the conservation of charge, that is charge neither be
created nor destroyed. The same amount of charge dQ0 will pass through the catcher
cavity gap at a time interval of dt2. Then
��0 = �2 ��2
Where ‘i2‘ is the current in the catcher cavity.
��0 = �0 ��0 = �2 ��2 −1
We have
�
� = �2 − �1 = −2
� �1
But
�1 �� ��
� �1 = �0 1 + sin ��0 + −3
2�0 2
Substitute equation 3 in equation 2
 �
� = �2 − �1 =
�1 �� ��
�0 1 + sin ��0 +
2�0 2
−1
�1 �� ��
�2 − �1 = �0 1 + sin ��0 +
2�0 2
Expand by using binomial expansion
�1 �� ��
�2 − �1 = �0 1 − sin ��0 + −4
2�0 2
�1 �� ��
�2 = �1 + �0 1 − sin ��0 + −5
2�0 2
We know that � = �1 − �0
�1 = � + �0 −6
Substitute equation 6 in equation 5
�1 �� ��
�2 = � + �0 + �0 1 − sin ��0 + −7
2�0 2
Differentiate above equation w.r.t t0
��2 ��0 � �1 �� ��
= + �0 1− sin ��0 +
��0 ��0 ��0 2�0 2
��2T �1 �� ��
= 1 + �0 0 − cos ��0 + ∙�
��0 2�0 2
��2 ��0 �1 �� �� �� �� �1 ��
=1− cos ��0 + =1− cos ��0 +
CE
��0 2�0 2 2�0 �0 2
��2 �1 �� �� ��
= 1 − �0 cos ��0 + = 1 − � cos ��0 +
��0 2�0 2 2
��
��2 = ��0 1 − � cos ��0 + −8
2
SJ

From equation 1
�0 ��0
�2 = −9
��2
Substitute equation 8 in equation 9
�0 ��0
�2 =
��
��0 1 − � cos ��0 +
2
�0
= − 10
��
1 − � cos ��0 +
2
The above equation gives the current arriving the catcher cavity in terms of t0. The
equation 10 in terms of t2 can be written as
From equation 7
��
�2 = � + �0 + �0 �� ��0 =−
2
��2 = �� + ��0 + ��0 = �� + ��0 + �0
��0 = ��2 − �� − �0 − 11
Substitute equation 11 in equation 10
 �0
�2 =
��
1 − � cos ��2 − �� − �0 +
2
�0
�2 = − 12
��
1 − � cos ��2 − �0 −
2
The beam current at the catcher cavity is a periodic signal having the period ‘T’.
Therefore, the current i2 can be expanded by using Fourier series
∞

� 2 = �0 + �� cos ���2 + �� sin ���2 − 13

�=1
� �
1 1 �0 �
�0 = �2 � ��2 = �0 � ��0 = ��0 −�
2� −� 2� −� 2�
= �0 − 14

1 �
�� = � cos ���2 � ��2
� −� 2
1 �
�� = � sin ���2 � ��2
� −� 2
The above two equations can be solved by suing Bessel functions and are given by
T
�� = 2�0 �� �X cos ��� + ��0 − 15
�� = 2�0 �� �X sin ��� + ��0 − 16
CE
Where Jn(nX) is the n order Bessel function.
th

Substitute equations 14, 15 and 16 in equation 13

∞

� 2 = �0 + 2�0 �� �X cos ��� + ��0 cos ���2

�=1
SJ

+ 2�0 �� �X sin ��� + ��0 sin ���2

∞

� 2 = �0 + 2�0 �� �X cos ���2 cos ��� + ��0

�=1
+ sin ���2 sin ��� + ��0
∞

� 2 = �0 + 2�0 �� �X cos ���2 − ��� − ��0

�=1
∞

�2 = �0 + 2�0 �� �X cos ���2 − ��� − ���0

�=1
∞

� 2 = �0 + 2�0 �� �X cos �� �2 − � − �0 − 17
�=1
In above equation the first term ‘I0’ is the d.c. component and the second part is
related to a.c. components. Let us consider only a.c. components.
∞

�2 = 2�0 �� �X cos �� �2 − � − �0
�=1
The magnitude of fundamental component (when n = 1 ) of the above signal is given
by
�� = �2 = 2�0 �1 X − 18
This fundamental component has the maximum magnitude at X = 1.841
Output Power: The induced current at the catcher cavity is given by
�2�� = �0 �2 − 19
Substitute equation 18 in equation 19
�2�� = �0 2�0 �1 X = 2�0 �0 �1 X − 20

The average output power is given by

1 1
���� = �2��2 ��ℎ = �2 �2�� − 21
2 2
Where Rsh is the effective shunt resistance which includes wall resistance of the
catcher cavity, beam loading resistance and external load resistance.
Substitute equation 19 in equation 21
� 0 �2 2 �0 �2 �2
���� = ��ℎ =
2 2
Efficiency: The efficiency of two cavity klystron amplifier is given by
�0 �2 �2
���� 2 �0 �2 �2
�= = =
��� �0 �0 2�0�0

REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR

Structure: TRF output

L
CE
Electron beam
Anode
Cathode Repeller
SJ

V0

Vr
Fig: Structure of reflex klystron oscillator

The structure of reflex klystron oscillator is shown in above figure. It consists of

cathode, Reentrant cavity, Repeller. The purpose of cathode is to emit the beam of
electrons. A high d.c.voltage (V0) is applied to the cathode. The cavity is used to
velocity modulate the electrons. The repeller is used to repel the electrons. The
repeller is supplied with high d.c. voltage known as repeller voltage(Vr). The two
cavity klystron amplifier can be used as a oscillator by giving feedback such that
bharkhauson criteria is satisfied. But the problem arises with two cavity klystron is
when we want to operate the oscillator at some other frequency, we need to adjust
t(tune) both the cavities. In order to avoid this problem a single cavity klystron known
as reflex klystron is used.
Velocity modulation and Applegate diagram:
The basic principle in reflex klystron is by giving less energy to the electrons, more
energy will be gained with the help of velocity modulation. Initially due to noise or
transients, small oscillations will be exist within the cavity and this oscillations will be
sustained by the energy of electron bunches. The function of repeller is it reflects or
repels the electrons which are coming towards it. The velocity modulation process of
reflex klystron oscillator can be explained with the help of Applegate diagram shown
in figure below. In figure, the oscillations due to noise or transient also had shown
which exist across the cavity gap. The electron beam is emitted from the electron gun
and is accelerated with the help of high d.c. voltage (V0). The electron beam is
velocity modulated when it enters the cavity gap. As shown in figure, let the electron
‘A’ entering the cavity gap when the signal is at +ve maximum. The velocity of
electron ‘A’ is increased since it would be accelerated by the +ve half cycle. This
electron travels more distance in the repeller space and repelled by the repeller and
finally travels towards the cavity. Similarly let us assume the electron ‘B’ enters the
cavity gap when the gap voltage is zero. Then the velocity of the electron ‘B’ is not
changed and travels the lesser distance in the repeller space as compared with the
electron ‘A’ and repel by the repeller.
T
Distance from cavity gap

CE
SJ

A B C Bunch t

1 ¾ cycle
Returned electron beam
¾ cycle Is retarded during this
Half cycle

Electron beam is
Electron beam is decelerated During
accelerated this half cycle
During this half cycle

Third electron ‘C’ is enter the cavity gap later than the electron’B’ when the gap
voltage is at –ve maximum and its velocity will be decelerated. The electron ‘C’ will
travels less distance in the repeller space as compared with electron ‘B’ since it is
having less velocity compared to ‘B’ and will be repelled by the repeller. The time
taken by the electrons to travel the distance towards repeller and returned to the cavity
gap is called round trip transit time. Since the three electrons A,B & C enters the
cavity gap with difference in time and the electrons are travelling different distances,
as a result, all the three electrons forms as a bunch while traveling to the cavity.
Normally the electrons gains energy when those are accelerated by the voltage
and loose energy when they are retarded or slowed down by the voltage(-ve).
Therefore to gain more energy from the electron bunches, the electron bunch should
returned to the cavity when the gap voltage is at retarding phase(+ve maximum).
Therefore, the electron bunches will be retarded and give up their kinetic energy to
the –ve half cycle(Since electrons are retarded by the +ve half cycle). Therefore, as
shown in Applegate diagram the first +ve peak occurs (after reference electron ‘B’
since around it electron bunch takes place) after ¾ cycle. So we have to adjust the
repeller voltage such that the electron bunches returned to the cavity when the cavity
gap voltage is at first ¾ cycle. Therefore first mode occurs at first ¾ cycle. By varying
the repeller voltage, the electron bunches will return to the cavity gap after 1 ¾ cycle,
2 ¾ cycle and so on. Therefore, different modes of operation of a reflex klystron is
possible which is given as
� = � + 3/4
Where ‘N’ is the mode of operation and ‘n’ is the integer varies from 0 to infinity.
First mode occurs when n = 0, 2nd mode occurs when n = 1, and so on. The velocity
modulation equation of reflex klystron is similar to two cavity klystron and is given
by
T� �1 = �0 1 +
�1 ��
sin ��1 −
��
2�0 2
CE
Mathematical theory of bunching:
The analysis of reflex klystron is similar to two cavity klystron. The electron enters
the cavity gap with a velocity of �0 = 0.593 × 106 �0 at z = t0 and the electron
leave the cavity gap at z = t1 with a velocity of
�1 �� ��
SJ

� �1 = �0 1 + sin ��1 − −1
2�0 2
The same electron will be returned to the cavity gap at z = t2 by the retarding electric
field which is given by
� �� + �0 + �1 sin ��
�= = −2
� �
The force due to this electric field on the electron is given by
� =− �� −3
Substitute equation 2 in equation 3
�� + �0 + �1 sin �� �� + �0
� =− � ≅− � −4
� �
Since �1 sin �� ≪ �� + �0
We know that,
�2 �
� = �� = � 2 −5
��
Equate equations 4 and 5
�2 � �� + �0
� 2 =− �
�� �
�2 � � �� + �0
=−
��2 � �
Integrate above equation with respect to t
 �
�� � �� + �0 � �� + �0
=− �� =− � − �1 + �1 −6
�� �� �1 ��
��
At � = �1 , �� = � �1
Apply above condition to the equation 6
� �� + �0
� �1 =− �1 − �1 + �1
��
� �1 = 0 + �1
�1 = � �1 −7
Substitute equation 7 in equation 6
�� � �� + �0
=− � − �1 + � �1 −8
�� ��
Integrate above equation with respect to t
� �� + �0 � �
� =− � − �1 �� + � �1 ��
�� �1 �1
� �� + �0 � �
� =− � − �1 �� + � �1 ��
�� �1 �1
� �� + �0
� =− � − �1 2 + � �1 � − �1 + �2 −9
2��
At � = �1 , � = �
Apply above condition to the equation 9
� =−
T
� �� + �0
2��
�1 − �1 2 + � �1 �1 − �1 + �2 = 0 + 0 + �2
CE
�2 = � − 10
Substitute equation 10 in equation 9
� �� + �0
� =− � − �1 2 + � �1 � − �1 + � − 11
2��
The electrons are leaving the cavity (z = d) with time t1 and returning to the cavity (z
SJ

= d) at t = t2. Therefore, �� � = �2 , � = �
Apply above condition to equation 11
� �� + �0
� =− �2 − �1 2 + � �1 �2 − �1 + �
2��
� �� + �0
� − � =− �2 − �1 2 + � �1 �2 − �1
��
� �� + �0
0 =− �2 − �1 2 + � �1 �2 − �1
2��

� �� + �0
�2 − �1 2 = � �1 �2 − �1
2��
� �� + �0
�2 − �1 = � �1
2��
� �1 2��
�' = �2 − �1 = − 12
� �� + �0
Where T’ is known as round trip transit time
Substitute equation 1 in equation 12
 �1 �� ��
�0 1 + sin ��1 − 2��
'
2�0 2
� = �2 − �1 =
� �� + �0
2���0 �1 �� ��
= 1+ sin ��1 −
� �� + �0 2�0 2
� �
1 � � �
�2 − �1 = �0 ' 1 + sin ��1 − − 13
2�0 2
2���
Where �0 ' = 0
is known as round trip d.c. transit time. Multiply equation 13
� � +�� 0
with ω on both sides
�1 �� ��
� �2 − �1 = ��0 ' 1 +sin ��1 −
2�0 2
�1 �� ��
� �2 − �1 = �0 ' 1 + sin ��1 −
2�0 2
' '
Where �0 = ��0 is known as round trip d.c. transit angle.
�1 �� ��
� �2 − �1 = �0 ' + �0 ' sin ��1 −
2�0 2
��
= �0 ' + �' sin ��1 − − 14
T 2
�1 ��
Where �' = 2�0
�0 ' is known as bunching parameter of reflex klystron oscillator.
Power output and efficiency:
CE
For transferring of maximum energy the round trip transit angle, referring to the
center of the bunch must be given by
� �2 − �1 = ��0 ' = � − 1/4 = 2�� = 2�� − �/2
Where � = � − 1/4, ‘n’ is any positive integer for cycle number. ‘N’ is the mode
numbers (no.of modes).
SJ

The induced current in the cavity of reflex klystron can be derived similar to the two
cavity klystron and is given by
∞

�2 = −�0 − 2�0 �� �X' cos � ��2 − �� − ��0 '

�=1
∞

�2 = −�0 − 2�0 �� �X' cos � ��2 − �� − �0 '

�=1
In above equation –ve sign indicates that the current induced after reflection by the
repeller. The fundamental component of a.c. current is given by
�2 = 2�0 �1 X' cos ��2 − �� − �0 '
The magnitude of induced current in the cavity is given by
�2 = �� �2 = 2�0 �� �1 X'
The average value of the power delivered to the load is given by
�1 �2 2�0 �� �1 X' �1
��� = = = �1 �0 �� �1 X' −1
2 2
We know that,
�1 �� '
�' = � −2
2�0 0
�
�0 ' = ��0 ' = 2�� − −3
2
Substitute equation 3 in equation 2
�1 �� �
2�� − �' =
2�0 2
2�' �0
�1 = � −4
�� 2�� −
2
Substitute equation 4 in equation 1
2�' �0 '
2�0 �0�' �1 X'
��� = � �0 �� �1 X = � −5
�� 2�� − 2�� −
2 2
The above equation is known as output power of a reflex klystron oscillator.
The efficiency of the reflex klystron oscillator is given by
2�0 �0 �' �1 X'
�
��� 2�� − 2 2�' �1 X'
�= = = � −6
��� �0 �0 2�� − 2
In practice the mode of n = 2 has the most power output. The factor �' �1 X' reaches
a maximum when X = 2.408. Then the efficiency for mode 2 is given by
2�' �1 X' 2 2.408 �1 2.408 2 2.408 0.52
�= � = = × 100 = 22.7%
2�� − 2 2 2 � − �/2 2 2 � − �/2
T
Oscillating modes and o/p characteristics:
The following graph represents the mode characteristics of reflex klystron oscillator.
CE
From the figure we can observe that, the output power is maximum for 1 ¾ mode.
The power output is approximately 400 mW for 1 ¾ mode. The output power is less
for 2 ¾ mode and 3 ¾ mode as compared with 1 ¾ mode. Therefore the reflex
klystron oscillator should be operated at 1 ¾ mode to get high power output.
SJ

10.04
Frequency in GHz

10.02

10.00

9.98

9.96

400
1¾
Power output inmW

mode
300 2¾
3¾
mode mode
200

100

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Repeller voltage in volts

Fig: Power output and frequency characteristics of a reflex klystron

 TRAVELLING WAVE TUBE (TWT)
Significance, types and characteristics of slow wave structure:
As the operating frequency is increased, both the inductance and capacitance of the
resonant circuit must be decreased in order to maintain resonance at the operating
frequency. Because the gain bandwidth product is limited by the resonant circuit, the
resonator cannot generate a large output.

(b)
(a)

(c) (d)

T (e)

Fig: Slow-wave structures. (a) Helical line (b) Folded-back line (c) Zigzag line
(d) Interdigital line (e) Corrugated waveguide
CE
Several nonresonant periodic circuits or slow-wave structures are designed for
producing large gain over a wide bandwidth. Various types of slow-wave structures
are shown in figure above. Slow-wave structures are special circuits that are used in
microwave tubes to reduce the wave velocity in a certain direction so that the electron
beam and the signal wave can interact. The commonly used slow-wave structure is a
SJ

helical line. So let us discuss about the helical line. In the helical line structure RF
field or EM waves travels along the turns of the helix with a speed equal to velocity of
light(c).
P
P

d
C= πD
ψ

Let ‘τ’ be the time taken by the RF field to travel along one turn of the helix and is
given by
�2 + �2 �2 + �� 2
�= = −1
� �
Where ‘d’ is the diameter of the helix, ‘C’ is the circumference of helix, ‘c’ is the
velocity of light and ‘P’ is the helix pitch which is defined as the distance traveled by
the wave along the helix axis. Let τ’ be the time required by the axial electric field to
travel the distance of ‘P’ and is given as
 �
�' = −2
��
Where vp is the phase velocity of the axial electric field. The time taken by the RF
field and axial electric field must be same, why because, these two waves traveling
different distances with different velocities.
Therefore equate equations 1 and 2
�2 + �� 2 �
=
� ��
�∙�
�� =
�2 + �� 2
When � ≪ �� , then P can be neglected
�∙� �∙�
�� = =
�� 2 ��
Therefore the velocity of axial electric field is the product of velocity of light(c) and
the ratio of pitch to circumference (P/πd).
� �∙�
�� = = −3
� ��
The following figure shows the ω-β diagram or Brillouin diagram for helical slow-
wave structure. The helix ω-β diagram is very useful in designing a helical slow-
wave structure. Once β(phase constant) is known then the phase velocity (vp) can be
T
computed from the equation for a given dimension of the helix.
CE
ω
ω/β = c
SJ

β
Fig: ω-β diagram for helical structure

Structure of TWT, Bunching process and amplification process:

The schematic structure of Traveling Wave Tube is shown in figure below. The
simplified structure or circuit of helix TWT is shown in figure below. Kompfner
invented the helix TWT in 1944. Before starting to describe the TWT, it seems
appropriate to compare the basic operating principle of both TWT and klystron
amplifier. In case of TWT the microwave circuit is a nonresonant and the wave
travels with the same speed as the electrons in the beam. The initial effect on the
beam is small amount of velocity modulation caused by the weak electric fields
associated with the traveling wave and this velocity modulation later translates to
current modulation, which then induces RF current in the circuit, causing
amplification. However, there are some major differences between the TWT and
klystron which are
 (i) The interaction of electron beam and RF field in the TWT is continuous over
the entire length of the circuit, but the interaction in the klystron occurs
only at the gaps of a resonant cavities.
(ii) The wave in the TWT is a propagating wave, where as in klystron it not
propagating wave.
In the coupled cavity TWT there is a coupling effect between cavities, where as in
klystron each cavity operates independently.
Control anode Electron beam Attenuator
Focusing magnet
Cathode Collector
Heater

Heater
supply

Helix Electron
beam
RF input RF output

Gain or modulation
Control voltage
Helix current
Regulated
T
beam supply
Overload relay
CE
Collector
supply

Fig: Schematic diagram of helix traveling wave tube

SJ

A helix TWT consists of electron beam and slow-wave structure. The electron beam
is focused by a constant magnetic field along the electron beam and slow-wave
structure. The slow-wave structure is either the helical type or folded-back line. The
TWT has an electron gun to produce a narrow electron beam which in turn passed
through the centre of the long axial helix. A magnetic focusing is provided to prevent
the beam from spreading and to guide it through the centre of the helix. A signal to be
amplified is applied to the one end of the helix adjacent to the electron gun. The
amplified signal appears at the output or other end of the helix.

RF input Slow-wave structure RF output

Anode
Cathode

Magnetic focusing structure

Heater Collector

Fig: Simplified circuit of helix TWT

 Retarding field

Retarding force
Electric
field

Electron beam

Accelerating force

Fig: interaction between electron beam and electric filed

The basic principle can be explained as follows: The RF signal (input)

propagating around the turns of the helix produces an electric field at the centre of the
helix, which is called axial electric field. The RF signal is propagating along the helix
with a velocity equal to velocity of light, where as the axial electric field travels with
velocity which equal to the velocity of light multiplied with the ratio of helix pitch to
helix circumference. The purpose of helix is to reduce the velocity of axial electric
field such that the interaction will takes place between electron beam and axial
T
electric field. The interaction is such that on an average the electron delivers energy to
the wave on the helix. As a result, the signal wave grows and amplified output is
CE
obtained. The mechanism by which the electrons transfer energy to the RF input can
be explained with the help of following figure.
As shown in above figure, the electrons which are entering the retarding field(+ve
half cycle of input or RF signal) are decelerated because the force applied by that field
is opposite to the motion of electrons(F = -QE). Similarly the electrons which are
SJ

entering the RF field during its accelerating field(-ve half cycle) are accelerated by the
accelerating force. The velocity of the electrons which are entering during the zero
point of the input signal is not changed. Therefore due to above mechanism velocity
modulation takes place and electrons form as a bunch. This electron bunch delivers
energy to the input signal. Since the velocity of electrons is slightly greater than the
axial wave velocity, more electrons are in the retarding field than in accelerating field
and a great amount of energy is transferred to the electromagnetic field from the
electron bunches because when electrons are slowed down they deliver the energy.
Whereas accelerating electrons extracts the energy from the RF field. The bunch
continuous to become more compact and large amplification of the signal voltage
occurs at the end of helix. The attenuator is placed at the center of the helix to reduce
all the waves which are traveling along the helix from load, so that the reflected
waves from the mismatched load can be prevented from reaching the input and
causing oscillations.
CROSSED FIELD TUBES
Cross field effects:
Crossed-field tubes derive their name from the fact that the dc electric field and the dc
magnetic field are perpendicular to each other. They are also called M-type tubes. In
crossed-filed tubes, the electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated by the electric
field and gain velocity, but the greater the velocity, the more their path is bent by the
magnetic field. If an RF field is applied to the anode circuit, those electrons entering
the circuit during the retarding filed are decelerated and give up some of their energy
to the RF field. Consequently, their velocity is decreased, and these slower electrons
will then travel the dc electric field far enough to regain essentially the same velocity
as before. Because of the crossed-field interactions, only those electrons that have
given up sufficient energy to the RF field can travel all the way to the anode.

MAGNETRON OSCILLATOR
Different types
Basically there are three types of magnetrons such as
(i) Split anode magnetron
(ii) Cyclotron frequency magnetron
(iii)Traveling wave magnetron
Commonly, traveling wave magnetron is preferable as compared with other two. In
traveling wave magnetron there are different types and are given by
(i) Cylindrical magnetron
(ii) Linear or planar magnetron
(iii)Coaxial magnetron
(iv)Voltage tunable magnetron
(v) Inverted coaxial magnetron
(vi)Frequency-agile magnetron
Cylindrical traveling wave magnetron
The schematic diagram of a cylindrical magnetron is shown in figure 1 below. This
T
type of magnetron is also called as conventional magnetron.
Constructional features: The cavity magnetron or traveling wave magnetron has
CE
cylindrical construction employing a radial electric field (Er) and axial magnetic field
(B0) and anode structure with permanent cavities. Figure 2, shows the cross sectional
view of the magnetron. Here cylindrical cathode is surrounded by the anode with
cavities and thus radial d.c. electric field will exist. With the help of some permanent
magnet, a magnetic field will be applied to the magnetron such that magnetic lines of
SJ

force are at right angles to the plane of the radial electric field. Since the magnetic
field is perpendicular to the radial electric field, the magnetron also called as crossed-
field device.
B0
Anode

V0

Er

End hat Cathode

RF output

Fig(1): Schematic diagram of a cylindrical magnetron

 Cathode Anode cavity

Anode

Output

Fig(2): Simplified diagram of magnetron

The output of the magnetron oscillator is taken from one of the cavities by means of a
coaxial line as shown in figure 2. The material used for cathode is copper. There are
number of resonant cavities in magnetron and each cavity having its resonant
frequency. Therefore magnetron
having many number of modes of operation which are equal to number of cavities.
For example if a magnetron having 8 cavities, then it has 8 modes of operation. The
phase difference of the waves which are existing between the adjacent cavities must
be chosen such that total phase difference of all the anode cavities must be 3600. For
T
example if magnetron having 8 cavities, the phase difference between the adjacent
cavities must be 450.
CE
pi-mode operation:
When magnetic and electric fields acts simultaneously upon the electron, its path can
have any number of shapes depends upon their relative strength of the mutually
perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. Some of these electron paths are shown in
figure 3.
SJ

Cathode

Fig(3): Electron paths in magnetron

The d.c voltage (V0) is applied to the cathode of the magnetron with respect to the
anode. Due to this d.c voltage electric field will be existing between the anode and
cathode. The direction of electric field is from anode to cathode. This electric field is
in the direction of radius of cylindrical magnetron and hence the electric field is
known as radial eclectic field. The electrons will be emitted or generated at the
cathode and travels towards the anode under the influence of force exerted by the
electric field. When the magnetic field is zero, the electron goes straight away from
the cathode to anode. This is indicated as path ‘x’ as shown in figure 3. When the
magnetic field is small, but definite strength, it will exert as a lateral force on the
electron, as a result the electrons takes a bending path which is shown as path ‘y’ in
figure 3. As the electron approaches the anode, its velocity continuous to increase
radially as it is accelerating. Therefore, the effect of magnetic field upon electron
increases so that the path curvature becomes sharper as the electron approaches the
anode.
It is possible to make the magnetic field so strong the electrons will not reach
the anode at all. The magnetic field required to return the electrons to the cathode
after they have just grazed the anode is called cutoff field. The resulting path ‘z’ is
shown in figure 3. The electric field (RF field) distribution in π-mode (PI-mode)
cavity magnetron is shown in figure 4 below.
2
RF Electric field
3

4
b

5
T 7
CE
6

Fig(4): Field distribution in PI-mode magnetron

The phase difference between the adjacent cavities is 1800. Since the cavities are
resonant in nature, RF oscillations are present due to noise or transient. These small
SJ

RF oscillations will be sustained by the taking the energy from the electrons. We have
to choose the axial magnetic field and radial electric field such that the more number
of electrons should reach the cavity gap voltage(RF voltage) at a proper time interval.
Then all the electrons give up their energy to the RF electric field. As shown in figure
4, the electron ‘a’ is enters the RF electric field in the cavity. The phase of the signal
(RF Signal) in the cavity is such that the electron may accelerated or decelerated
(retarded) depending upon the accelerating force or retarding force by the RF
oscillations. If the electron ‘a’ is slowed down by the cavity gap voltage, then that
electron gives its energy to the RF oscillations. Once electron slowed down, it will
take different path as shown by the electron ‘a’ in figure 4.
In a magnetron a self consistent oscillations can exist only if the phase
difference (φ) between the adjoining anode poles is nπ/4, where ‘n’ is integer. For
best results n = 4 is used in practice. The resulting π-mode (if n = 4, φ = π)
oscillations are shown in figure 4. In the absence of RF electric field electrons ‘a’ and
‘b’ would have followed the paths shown by the dotted line a & b respectively, but RF
field naturally modifies these paths. The RF oscillations also exist inside the cavity
resonators. Due to the application of d.c voltage to the cathode of the magnetron, the
electrons tries to travel straight away toward the anode but due to the application of
axial magnetic field the electrons will take a bending paths as shown in figure 4. The
electron ‘a’ enter in the cavity gap RF oscillations. The direction of the motion of the
electron ‘a’ is in the same direction of the RF electric field of 1st cavity and hence the
electron ‘a’ will be slowed down by the electric field because the electric field
produces opposing force on electrons. Therefore the electron ‘a’ give up energy to the
RF oscillations. But the electron ‘b’ is entering the RF electric field of cavity 2 as
shown in figure 4. The electron ‘b’ will be accelerated by the RF electric field and
gains energy from the RF electric field instead of giving the energy. So we must
choose the magnetic field and radial electric field such that large number of electrons
should give their energy to the RF oscillations. Due to effect of RF electric field on
the electron, bunching will takes place because of each cavity having opposite phase
with respect to adjacent cavity. Instead of individual electrons, bunch of electrons
traveling towards the anode cavities and give their large amount of energy to the RF
oscillations.
Power output and efficiency:
The output characteristics of magnetron will be studied by means of Rieke diagram
shown in figure below.
60% 55% 50%

30 500

Efficiency
Anode voltage (KV)

25 400

20 T 300

15 200
CE
10 Power

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Electric field
Anode current (A)
SJ

Fig: Rieke diagram

The Rieke diagram is nothing but a chart or graph which is used to design or study the
performance characteristics of a magnetron. The Rieke diagram represented in terms
of anode voltage and anode current. With the help of Rieke diagram we can find the
power, electric field and efficiency by knowing the anode voltage and anode current.
Hartree Condition:
In order to understand the Hull cutoff condition and Hartree resonance condition, let
us derive the equation for magnetic field and voltage from the following figure.

E H

φ
Let ‘a’ be the radius of cathode, ‘b’ be the radius of anode and ‘ϕ’ be the angular
displacement of the electron bends. Force acting on the electron due to magnetic field
is given by
� = ��� −1
Where ‘B’ is the magnetic flux density, ‘e’ is the charge of electron and ‘v’ is the
velocity of electron. In the direction of ϕ the force is given by
�� = ���� −2
Where ‘ρ’ is the radial distance from the cathode, ‘vρ’ is the velocity of electrons in
the direction of radial distance (ρ). The torque in ϕ direction is given by
�� = ��� −3
Substitute equation 2 in equation 3
�� = ����� −4
Angular momentum is equal to the multiplication of angular velocity and moment of
inertia. i.e.
��
������� �������� = × ��2
��
Since ϕ is the angular displacement, the rate of change of angular displacement is
nothing but angular velocity. In equation 4 ‘m’ is the mass of electron. The time rate
of change of angular momentum is nothing but a torque. i.e
� ��
�= × ��2 −5
T �� ��
Equate equations 4 and 5
� �� �� �2 �
����� = × ��2 = 2�� + ��2 2
CE
�� �� �� ��
Take integration on both sides with respect to ‘t’,
�� �2 �
Then ����� = 2��
��
+ ��2 ��2
�� �2 �
�� ��� . �� = 2�� . �� + ��2 . ��
�� ��2
SJ

��
But �� =
��
�� �� �2 �
�� � . �� = 2�� . �� + ��2 . ��
�� �� ��2
�2 �
�� � �� = 2�� �� + ��2
��
�2 ��
�� = 2��� + ��2 −6
2 ��
For particular direction the parameters ϕ, mρϕ, can be thought of constant and let it be
‘c’, then equation 6 becomes
�2 ��
�� = ��2 +� −7
2 ��
��
From figure, at � = �, �� = 0 , then apply this condition to equation 7
�2
�� = 0 + �
2
�2
� = �� −8
2
Substitute equation 8 in equation 7
�2 �� �2
�� = ��2 + ��
2 �� 2
 ��2
�2 �2 �� 2
�� = �� − �� = � − �2
�� 2 2 2
�� �� 2 2
�� �2
= � − � = 1 − −9
�� 2��2 2� �2
��
From above equation, when ρ = a, then �� = 0 that is angular velocity is equal to zero
��
and when � ≫ �, then ��
will be maximum. That is
�� ��
= ���� = − 10
�� ��� 2�
�2
In above equation �2 is neglected, because ρ2 is large as compared with a2.
We know that,
1 1
��0 = ��2 = � �� 2 + �� 2 − 11
2 2
Where �� ��� �� are the components of ‘v’ in ‘ρ’ and’ ϕ’ directions respectively. V0
is the applied d.c voltage to the cathode. But
�� ��
�� = ��� �� = � − 12
�� ��
Substitute equation 12 in equation 11
1 �� 2 �� 2
��0 = � + � − 13
2 �� ��
T
From equations 9 and 10 we have
�� �2
CE
= ���� 1 − 2 − 14
�� �
Substitute equation 14 in equation 13
2
2
1 �� �2
��0 = � + ����� 1− 2 − 15
2 �� �
SJ

��
At � = �, ��
= 0, �ℎ�� equation 15 becomes
2
1 2
�2
��0 = � 0 + ����� 1− 2
2 �
2
1 2
�2
= �� ���� 1 − 22 − 16
2 �
Substitute equation 10 in equation 16
2 2
1 2
�� 2 �2 �2 �2 �2 �2
��0 = �� 1− 2 = 1− 2 − 17
2 2� � 8� �
2
�
����� �2 ≫ �2 , �ℎ�� 2 ��� �� ���������
�
�2�2 �2
��0 = − 18
8�
8�0 � 1 8�0 �
� = �� = = − 19
��2 � �
The above equation is known as hull cutoff magnetic equation. That is hull cutoff
magnetic field is defined as the magnetic field above which the electrons will not
reach the anode. Therefore when the magnetic field is greater than Bc, then the
electrons will return to the cathode and this returned electrons will produce a back
heating. From equation 17, the equation for Bc can also expressed as
8�0 �/�
�� = − 20
�2
� 1− 2
�
Again from equation 17, we can have
2 2
�2 � 2 � 2 �2 �2 ��2 �2
�0 = �0� = 1− 2 = 1− 2 − 21
8�� � 8� �
The equation 21 is known as hull cutoff voltage equation. That is the hull cutoff
voltage is defined as the voltage below which the electrons will not reach the anode.
The Hull cutoff condition determines the anode voltage or magnetic field necessary to
obtain the non-zero anode current as a function of the magnetic field or anode voltage
in the absence of the Electromagnetic field. The hartree anode voltage is given by
��0 � �2 �
��ℎ = − 2
� � 2�
Where ‘ω’ is the angular frequency, B0 is the magnetic field, ‘d’ is the spacing
between the cathode and anode, ‘β’ is the phase constant, ‘m’ is the mass of the
electron and ‘e’ is the charge of electron.
Mode jumping in Magnetron: T
The number of resonant frequencies of a magnetron oscillator depends upon the
number of cavities in the magnetron. For example, if magnetron having 8 cavities,
CE
then there are 8 possible modes of operation. In case of normal magnetron the
wavelength of different modes differ very slightly from adjacent modes. Due to this
small difference in frequency of one mode with adjacent mode, there is a possibility
of mode jumping. That means when the magnetron is operating in one mode, it may
enter into the other node which is adjacent to the operating mode. For example, let N
= 8 cavities, then the phase difference between the adjacent cavities is given by
SJ

2�� 2�� ��
�� = = =
� 8 4
Where ‘n’ is integer
To get satisfactorily results, we need to avoid this mode jumping. To avoid the mode
jumping one method is, changing the cavity structure of the anode which is shown in
figure below.
Cathode Anode cavity

Anode

Fig(2): Rising sun magnetron

The structure shown in above figure is known as rising sun magnetron. From it can be
observed that, the adjacent cavities having different shape such that there will be large
difference in the resonant frequency of each cavity from the adjacent cavity. One
more method to avoid the mode jumping is strapping which is shown in figure below.
In the strapping method two rings will be wounded around the anode structure such
that the rings should the cavities. One ring is connected to cavity numbers 1, 3, 5 & 7
such that these four cavities operated together and more difference in the frequency
between the cavities. Similarly second ring is connected to the cavity numbers 2, 4, 6
& 8.

2
3
T
Fig(4): Strapping scheme for PI-mode
CE
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A two cavity klystron amplifier has the following parameters:
�� = ���� �, �� = �� ��, �� = �� ��, � = � ���
Gap spacing in either cavity (d) = 1 mm
Spacing between the two cavities (L) = 4 cm
SJ

Effective shunt impedance excluding beam loading (Rsh) = 30 KΩ

(a) Find the input gap voltage to give maximum voltage V2
(b) Find the voltage gain, neglecting the beam loading in the output cavity
(c) Find the efficiency of the amplifier, neglecting beam loading
(d) Calculate the beam loading conductance and show that neglecting it was
justified in the preceding calculations.
Answer: Given data:
�0 = 1000 �, �0 = 40 ��, �0 = 25 ��, � = 3 ���
Gap spacing in either cavity (d) = 1 mm
Spacing between the two cavities (L) = 4 cm
Effective shunt impedance excluding beam loading (Rsh) = 30 KΩ
(a) For maximum V2, J1(X) must be maximum. That is J1(X) = 0.582 at X =
1.841(from Bessel function table)
�0 = 0.593 × 106 �0 = 0.593 × 106 1000 = 1.88 × 107 �/�
�� 2��� 2 × � × 3 × 109 × 1 × 10−3
�� = = = = 1 ���
�0 �0 1.88 × 107
��� �� /2 ��� 1�57.3/2
�� = �� = = = 0.952
�� /2 1/2
 �� 2��� 2� × 3 × 109 × 0.04
�� = ��� = = = = 40 ���
�� �� 1.88 × 107
βi V1θo
X =
2Vo
2�� � 2 × 1000 × 1.841
�1 = = = 96.7 �
�� �� 0.952 × 40
(b)
�2
�� =
�1
�2 = 2�� �1 � = 2 × 25 × 10−3 × 0.582 = 29.1 ��
�2 = �� �2 ��ℎ = 0.952 × 29.1 × 10−3 × 30 × 103 = 831 �
�2 831
�� = = = 8.61
�1 96.7
�� = 20 ���(8.61) = 18.7 ��
(c)
βo I2 V2 0.952 × 29.1 × 10−3 × 831
% Efficiency = = × 100 = 46.2%
2Io Vo 2 × 25 × 10−3 × 1000
(d)
The beam loading conductance is given by
�� 2 T �� �� /�� 2 ��
�� = �� − �� ���( ) = �� − �� ���( )
2 2 2 2
−3
25 × 10 /1000
CE
Gb = 0.9522 − 0.952��� 1/2 = 8.8 × 10−7 �ℎ��
2
Beam loading resistance is given by
1 1
�� = = = 1.14 × 106 �ℎ��
�� 8.8 × 10−7
SJ
SJ
CE
T