A powered exoskeleton is generally a Biomechatronics system that

is worn and interacts with the user to augment their physically

ability or assist their physical limitation.
• Powered, passive or hybrid
• Rigid, soft or hybrid
• Mobile, portable, wearable and self-sustainable
• Anthropomorphic and compatible with human size
First designed system was by a Russian
scientist Nicholas Yagn in 1890. the system
relied on a steam engine that is strapped to
the back of the device to produce electricity
and power the system.
Type of Exoskeleton:

• Series based limb design (e.g. Sky runner

or power skip)
• Improve performance but reduce
efficiency
• Raise centre of mass which lead to
instability

• Parallel based limb design [1]

• Load transfer design / reduce g
• Joint torque augmentation design
• All of the above

Lokomat Indigo

[2] [3]
Type of Exoskeleton:

• Sride management and assist (joint

moment)

• Gravity balancing exoskeleton

• No floor contact

• Reduce felt weight

Honda Hip Exo.

Honda Walking Exo.

Harvard Biodesign lab

The development of powered exoskeleton is a complex task that requires
extensive multidisciplinary expertise:

• Structures
• Material
• Energy requirements
• Controls EXOATLET
• Actuation
• Biomechanics
• Anatomy/Physiology [4]
• And more

A successful development of a powered exoskeleton system would take no less

than 5 years for a company with a handful of employees!
Exoskeleton technical system criteria

• Gait Speed • Joints peak Power

• Gait Efficiency • Joints peak Torque Sagittal plane
• Gait Stability • Joints peak Torque Coronal plane
• Gait Versatility • Joints peak Torque Transverse plane
• Comfort • Joints range of Motion Sagittal plane
• Volume • Joints range of Motion Coronal Plane
• Height • Joints range of Motion Transverse Plane
• Weight • User Weight Range
• Weight Distribution • User Height Range
• Cost • etc.

e.g.:
• Ankle Max Power: 3 W/kg (stair ascent)
• Ankle Min Power: -3 W/kg (stair descent)
• Peak torque (sagittal plane) during normal walking: 1.5 Nm/kg
• Peak torque (frontal plane) during normal walking: 0.15 Nm/kg
It is essential to understand the gait mechanisms in order to
incorporate them into the design of an exoskeleton.

initial contact, loading response, mid Initial swing, mid swing &
stance, terminal stance & pre-swing terminal swing
The body can be subdivided into two major units:
• passenger unit (i.e. head, the arms and the trunk)
• Limited function in normal walking for
healthy individuals
• locomotor unit (i.e. pelvis & two lower limbs)

Functions of locomotor unit:

• stance stability • forward progression
• shock absorption • energy conservation.
The human body is naturally unstable! HAT
accounts for 70% of total body mass and rests on
the support of locomotor unit. Analogous to an
inverted pendulum with a point mass located at the
superior end representing the center-of-mass.

During walking, stability in the sagittal plane is

relatively easy !
• the gait cycle is self-stabilizing at a certain speed
for a particular energy input (e.g. passive
dynamic walker)
• The mechanism for which gait patterns converge
to stability depends highly on energy losses
during initial contact.
However, it is much more difficult to balance in the
frontal plane!
• Stability strategy is focused on the lateral foot [5]
placement (increasing step width) and hip muscle
activation (hip moment of 60 Nm).
During walking, the COM moves along a sinusoidal path in the
sagittal plane as well as in the transverse plane.
• potential and kinetic energy are generally exchanged in equal
proportions to maintain conservation of energy
• Potential energy is at its maximum during mid stance when the
COM is highest and then lowest during double support
• Kinetic energy is at its highest when the COM is at its lowest
position.
• The average net positive work produced at the lower limb joints
during one gait cycle is on average 16 J

Biped walking with spring legs Quasi-passive model of human [6]

level-walking
Ankle dorsi-plantar flexion during ankle internal/external rotation during
normal walking, normal walking

ankle joint moments in ankle joint moment in ankle joint moment in the
frontal (Nm/kg) transverse plane sagittal plane
 Ankle torque-angle curves for different walking speeds

[7]
For slow walking:
• A linear spring behaviour with a hysteresis
For normal and fast walking:
• Stiffness increases dramatically at a particular angle thus a non-
linear or a series of spring would require to replicate behaviour
Four-Point Gait with Crutches:

Generally exoskeletons provide no balance or

stability control and thus exoskeleton users
require the use of crutches (instrumented)

• Moving both crutches simultaneously after

each heel strike
• Moving the right crutch after right heel strike
and only swinging the left limb after the right
crutch has contacted the ground
• Use of crutches should be minimized to lower
the energetic expense of exoskeleton users
• thus increase walking time with the
exoskeleton before fatigue
• Free users’ hands in order to allow users to do
other tasks
eLegs from Ekso Bioniks

• Ekso bionics also offer passive systems

• Revolute joints at the ankle thus allowing
plantar and dorsi flexion (1 DOF).
• Passive torsional springs allow plantar
flexion during early stance, and dorsi
flexion during mid to late stance.
• The springs return the foot to a
neutral position (foot clearance).
• Walking speed up to 0.89 m/s.
• Unclear if ankle springs are energy
storage and release at push-off
• Crutches are used for balance and
instrumented as a key component in the
eLegs control system.
[8]
Indego by Parker

• No ankle joint
• Modular design
• Shank portion can be replaced with any
ankle-foot design.
• User specific ankle-feet can be used
• Typically rigid in-sole AFO orthotics are
used (with some compliance),
• Crutches are used for stability.

[3]
REX by REX Bionics

• System balances itself without the use of

crutches.
• Static balancing is used as the exoskeleton
moves very slowly
• For stability, the system has very wide feet and 5
actuated DOFs per leg.
• Sagittal plane stability is ensured by ankle and
hip actuators that control rotation in this plane,
and
• Frontal plane stability is ensured by ankle and
hip actuators that control abduction and
adduction at these two joints.
• Actuators used are custom linear actuators,
however no further details are available.
[11]
HULC by Lockheed Martin

• Low flow hydraulic actuation

• Total weight of 53 lbs
• Uses lithium batteries
• Increases user strength and endurance
• Designed for military applications

[12]
 Keeogo by B-Temia

• Intended for elderly individuals and

rehabilitation
• Motorized knee joints
• Uses user’s movements as control inputs
to activates system and assist in motion.

[14]
 Honda Walk Assist Stride management
• Boost user’s hip torque
• Angular sensors track gait
• Brushless DC motors and a planetary gear
system provide power
• Operating time per battery charge approximately
2 hours

Weight support
• Support user’s body weight
• Weighs 6.5 kg and has two
battery
• Powered by elec. motors
which operate for 2 hours per
charge.
 The FORTIS passive exoskeleton by Lockheed Martin and Ekso Bionics

• main disadvantage of power

exoskeletons is their high cost
• Passive exoskeleton has no motors,
sensors or electrical devices
• Zero G mechanical arm to connect to
heavy tools

XPED 2 by Delft University -

• Passive exoskeleton to aid in walking
• Energy storage and release system

[16]

[17]
 MIT Quasi-passive exoskeleton

• Electric power is used only to engage clutches or modify knee damping

• Passive dorsi-plantar flexion where plantar flexion
• Unidirectional plantar flexion spring which absorbed energy during stance and
released it at push-off
• Dorsi flexion for swing phase was caused by a lower stiffness spring.
• Compliancy of material allowed small amounts of Eversion/inversion and
internal/external rotation.

[18]
 “Smart Clutch” ankle exoskeleton

• Uses a passive spring in parallel with the

Achilles tendon
• “Smart Clutch” engages spring during
stance phase and disconnects the spring
during the swing phase.
• Simple, Compact, light weight

[19]
 Enco Running Shoe

• Absorbs heal impact

• Stores energy through mid-stance
• Releases energy during terminal stance

[20]
Harvard Soft Exo-Suit

• Wearable walking assist designed to run

parallel to specific muscle groups
• Compact electric motors pull on cables to
produce movement
• Lightweight and flexible

[21]
Mawashi's Exoskeleton

• Passive Exoskeleton Technology, developed for

Special Operations Force
• Transfer load carried by the soldier to the ground

[22]
References
[1] http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2814086/Bionic-boots-let-run-fast-CAR-
Springy-shoes-mimic-ostrich-s-gait-let-wearers-travel-25-miles-hour.html
[2] https://www.hocoma.com/usa/us/products/lokomat/
[3] http://www.indego.com/indego/en/home
[4] http://www.exoatlet.com/
[5]https://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/shc17/Passive_Robot/Collins_2001_IJRR.pdf
[6] http://biomech.media.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2013/07/Walsh-2007_A-
QUASI-PASSIVE-LEG-EXOSKELETON-FOR-LOAD-CARRYING-AUGMENTATION.pdf
[7] Hansen A. et al, “The human ankle during walking: implications for design of
biomechanical ankle prostheses”, Journal of Biomechanics, 2004
[8]http://bleex.me.berkeley.edu/research/exoskeleton/elegs%E2%84%A2/
[9] http://rewalk.com/
[10] http://www.cyberdyne.jp/english/
[11] http://www.rexbionics.com/
[12] http://bleex.me.berkeley.edu/research/exoskeleton/hulc/
[13] http://www.sarcos.com/
[14] http://www.b-temia.com/
[15] http://world.honda.com/Walking-Assist/
[16] http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/products/exoskeleton/industrial.html
[17] Van Dijk W. and Van der Kooij H., “XPED2 A Passive Exoskeleton with Artificial
Tendons” IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine 2014
[18] Walsh C.J., et al “A Quasi-Passive Leg Exoskeleton For Load-Carrying Augmentation”
International Journal of Humanoid Robotics, 2007
[19] Collins S.H., et al “Reducing the energy cost of human walking using an unpowered
exoskeleton” Nature International Journal of Science 2015
[20] http://en.enko-running-shoes.com/
[21] http://biodesign.seas.harvard.edu/soft-exosuits
[22] http://www.mawashi.net/en/projects-and-achievements/project/biomimetic-passive-
tactical-exoskeleton