Definitions I:

Sensor

A device that responds to a physical stimulus.

Transducer

A device that converts energy of one form into energy of another form.

Actuator

A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action

Stimulus

 The quantity that is sensed.

 Sometimes called the measurand.

Active sensor:

a sensor that requires external power to operate. Examples: the carbon microphone,
thermistors, strain gauges, capacitive and inductive sensors, etc.

Other name: parametric sensors (output is a function of a parameter - like resistance)

Passive sensor: generates its own electric signal and does not require a power source.
Examples: thermocouples, magnetic microphones, piezoelectric sensors.

 Other name: self-generating sensors

Contact sensor: a sensor that requires physical contact with the stimulus. Examples: strain
gauges, most temperature sensors

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Non-contact sensor: requires no physical contact. Examples: most optical and magnetic
sensors, infrared thermometers, etc.

Absolute sensor: a sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an absolute scale: Thermistors,

strain gauges, etc., (thermistor will always read the absolute temperature)

Relative scale: The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or variable reference.

Thermocouple measures the temperature difference, pressure is often measured relative to
atmospheric pressure.

Measurement error: That is the difference between the measured value and the true
value. error = measured value - true value

Range – is the maximum and minimum value range over which a sensor works well. Often
sensors will work well outside this range,

Random errors: They are caused by several parameters and change in time in an
unpredictable fashion. They can be quantified by mean errors, standard deviation.

Precision: Measurements with small deviation

Accuracy: Measurements with small errors, i.e. small bias and high precision.

Sensitivity: change in output for unit change in input

Resolution: the smallest change in the signal that can be detected and accurately indicated
by a sensor.

Linearity: the closeness of the calibration curve to a straight line.

Drift: the deviation from the null reading of the sensor when the value is kept constant for
a long time.

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Hysteresis: the indicated value depends on direction of the test (increasing and decreasing)

Repeatability: This is the ability of a sensor to repeat a measurement when put back in the
same environment.
Response time – a simple estimate of the frequency response of a sensor assuming an
exponential behavior .
Analog transducers:

• These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a
continuous function of time.

• Thus a strain gauge, an L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a thermistor may be called as

Analog Transducers as they give an output which is a continuous function of time.

Digital Transducers:

• These transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output which is in the
form of pulses and its output is represented by 0 and 1.

Inductive Sensors: The inductive proximity sensor can be used to detect metallic targets
only. The main components of the inductive proximity sensor are coil, oscillator, detector
and the output circuit.
The coil generates the high frequency magnetic field in front of the face. When the metallic
target comes in this magnetic field it absorbs some of the energy. Hence the oscillator field
is affected. This is detected by the detector. if the oscillation amplitude reaches a certain
threshold value the output switches.
The inductive proximity sensor works better with ferromagnetic targets as they absorb
more energy compare to non Ferromagnetic materials. Hence operating distance for sensor
is more for Ferromagnetic targets.

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The advantages of inductive proximity sensors are
They are very accurate compared to other technologies

 Have high switching rate

 Can work in harsh environmental conditions

The disadvantages of inductive proximity sensor are

It can detect only metallic targets

 Operating range may be limited

Capacitive Sensors: Capacitive proximity sensors can be used to detect metallic and also
non metallic targets like paper, wood, plastic, glass, wood, powder, liquid..etc without
physical contact. The capacitive proximity sensor works on the capacitor principle. The
main components of the capacitive proximity sensor are plate, oscillator, threshold detector
and the output circuit.
The plate inside the sensor acts as one plate of the capacitor and the target acts as another
plate and the air acts as the dielectric between the plates.
As the object comes close to the plate of the capacitor the capacitance increases and as the
object moves away the capacitance decreases. The detector circuit checks the amplitude
output from the oscillator and based on that the output switches.
The capacitive sensor can detect any targets whose dielectric constant is more than air

The advantages of capacitive sensor are

It can detect both metallic and non metallic targets.

 Good stability
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  High Speed
 Good Resolution
 Capacitive sensors are good in terms of power usage
 Low cost

The disadvantages of capacitive sensors are

They are affected by temperature and humidity

 Could be triggered by dust, moisture..etc

 Sensitive to noise
 Difficulties in designing
 Linearity is not good
 Capacitive proximity sensors are not as accurate compare to inductive sensors.

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