REVIEWER IN ENGLISH ELECTIVE • Processes and Strategies

General Principles in Language Arts Teaching

4 main components of Language Art & Multiliteracies Curriculum (LAMC) MAKING MEANING THROUGH LANGUAGE
01. Language Process • Thinking
02. Effective Language Use • Writing and Representing
03. Making Meaning through Language • Listening, Speaking, and viewing
04. Holistic Assessment • Reading, viewing, and responding
Philosophy and Rationale HOLISTIC ASSESSMENT
- Language is the basis of all communication and the primary instrument of • Assessment
thought. • Feedback
- Language is the foundation of all human relationship.

Guiding Principles

➢ All languages are interrelated and interdependent.

➢ Language acquisition and learning is an active process that begins at birth
and continues throughout life.
➢ Learning requires meaning.
➢ Learners learn about language and how to use it effectively through their
engagement with and study of texts.
➢ Successful language learning involves viewing, listening, speaking, reading
and writing activities.
➢ Recognizing, accepting, valuing and building on students’ existing language
competence, including the use of non-standard forms of the language, &
extending the range of language available to students.

LANGUAGE PROCESS

• Spiral Progression – starts in basic, studying over and over again until
mastered.
• Interaction – opportunity to practice the language/exchange ideas
• Integration – connecting, integrating subjects to another
• Learner-Centeredness
• Contextualization – putting into real and meaningful context
• Construction – basic unit of language acquisition/involves morphemes, IDEOLOGY IN CURRICULUM
words, phrases to sentences, etc. ➢ Academic Rationalism – mastery of the content
EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE USE ➢ Social Efficiency/Economic – educational engineers, discover and develop
students to help or be used by the society in the future
• Understanding culture ➢ Social Reconstructionism – roles of school/learning in addressing social
• Understanding language injustices
 ➢ Cultural Pluralism – should prepare student to participate in different 1. Instruction is systematic when it is planned, deliberate in application,
culture not just the dominant once. and proceeds in an orderly manner. This does not mean a rigid
progression of one-size-fits-all teaching.
REMEDIAL CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT 2. Intensive instruction on any particular skill or strategy should be based
Remedial Teaching on need. Thus, intensity will vary both with individuals and groups.
3. There is no substitute for ongoing documentation and monitoring of
- Intended for “fallen behind students” learning to determine the order in which skills should be addressed and
- Aims to show out student’s abilities the level of intensity required to help child or group of children succeed
in a particular area.
Objectives (Education Bureau in Hong Kong, 2007)
4. To track specific goals and objectives within an integrated language-arts
framework, teachers must know the instructional objectives their
- To provide learning support to pupils who lag far behind their counterparts in
curriculum requires at the grade or year level they teach.
school performance. By adapting school curricula and teaching strategies,
teachers can: Organization of the Remedial Classroom
- Provide learning activities and practical experiences to students according to
their abilities and needs. CURRICULUM – blueprint/framework/ guide for teaching and learning.
- Design individualized educational programs with intensive remedial support 01. Base Goals and Standards on Theory and Research
to help pupils consolidate their basic knowledge in different subjects, master 02. Relate teacher beliefs and knowledge to research
the learning methods, strengthen their confidence, and enhance the 03. Organize the curriculum framework so that it is usable
effectiveness of learning. 04. Select materials that facilitate the achievement of school goals
- Provide systematic training to develop pupils' generic skills: interpersonal
relationships, communication, problem-solving, self-management, self- Types of Curriculum
learning, independent thinking, creativity, and the use of information
technology. SALT NCPR WH

Principles of Helping Pupils with Learning Difficulties • Supported – materials/resources

• Assessed – tested and evaluated curriculum/ assessment tools
• Teaching Preparation – identify student diversity. • Learned – learning outcomes achieved by the students
• Devise various learning activities – teachers should be flexible. • Taught – different planned activities which are done in classroom
• Design meaningful learning situations – activities should be connected to • Null – not taught
the lesson/given objectives. • Concomitant – emphasized at home, part of family experiences
• Teaching approaches – giving concrete examples before abstract. • Phantom – messages prevalent in and through exposure in media
• Provide Clear Instructions – simple, direct to the point. • Recommended – proposed by scholars, professionals, experts.
• Summarize main points • Written – put down in writing/ from experts but with involvement
• Enhanced Learning Interest and Motivation – to recover their of teachers
confidence and interest in learning. • Hidden – unintended, not planned but may modify behavior.
• Encourage pupils to active participation in class activities
• Focus on the learning process REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION – used as an interval program to target basic skills.
• Show concern for the performances of individual pupils 01. The program must identify instructional strategies and activities for
learners.
02. Instruction must be based upon what we know about the effective teaching
General Instructional Guidelines (Strickland, 1998 cited in Gunning, 2003 and in of language skills.
Vacca and Gove, 1991):
 03. Those involved in designing or selecting instructional activities need to - Structured lessons
consider the Instructions variables that contribute to success in language - Clear explanation
learning, given its interactive and constructive nature. - Guided Practice
04. Time must be provided in the classroom for practice. - Modeling Strategies
05. Composing should be an integral part of the program. - Reinforcement and Review
06. Students should be given opportunities to become independent and to self- - Targeted Interventions
monitor progress. - Monitoring Progress
07. The climate in a school must be conducive to the development of standards - Building confidence
08. The school must develop an organizational structure that meets individual - Differentiated instruction
needs of students.
09. The program must provide for coordination among all language program 03. Reinforcement & Extension Component - This period ideally should
offered in the school. build on the direct instructional period and be spent in empowered reading,
writing, and discussion of what was read.

ASSESSMENT (assidere “to sit beside”) - Pull-out Remediation – out of the classroom

- systematic basis for making inferences about the learning and development - Push-in Remediation – join / inside the class
of students. 04. Schema-Enhancement Component - This unit of time should be spent in
- It is the process of defining, selecting, designing, collecting, analyzing, building a knowledge base for further reading and independent thinking. It is an
interpreting, and using information to increase students' learning and ideal time to teach study skills such as outlining, note-taking, and memory
development. training.
Three types of Assessment - Study skills are basically the skills you need to enable you to study and
- Diagnostic – prior knowledge, before instructional process learn efficiently.
- Formative – checking, during the process. Here are the TOP NINE Study Skills by Oxford Learning:
- Summative – evaluation, after the process, end result
1. Use an Agenda
B. Develop scoring guides and rubrics. 2. Create a Studio
- To ensure the quality of the data acquired, each assessment must contain precise 3. Make Handwritten Study Notes
and equitable scoring guidelines and rubrics. This will assist the student understand 4. Color Code and Highlight
how the assessment is being scored or based on. 5. Pick the right time to study
6. Manage Time Effectively
C. Seek alignment among various layers of assessment. 7. Break it down
8. Quiz Yourself
- is it to make sure that there is consistency across the programs with precise 9. Paraphrasing
connections between evaluation, course goals, and learning tasks.
05. Personal-Emotional Growth Development - There is little learning or
consequence that can occur without the learner involvement and anticipation of
Management Components of Remediation personal progress.
01. The orientation component - The orientation component provides - Metacognition is merely thinking about one’s thinking.
continuity and focus to the remedial session.
02. Direct Instruction Component - This is the instructional heart of the 06. Cognitive-Development Component - This component should contain an
remedial session. attempt to enhance basic thinking operation such as:
- Identify learning gaps
 A. Inference. Inference can be defined as the process of drawing a conclusion a. To see if the student really listens
based on the available evidence plus previous knowledge and experience. b. To drip those students who will fail
B. Abstract verbal reasoning. This type of reasoning involves the ability to c. To determine whether the goals of education are being met
understand and manipulate complex concepts and ideas. d. To change the way of teaching
C. Analogical reasoning. It is the ability to perceive and use relational
similarity between two situations or events. 5. Provides continuity and focus to the remedial session.
D. Convergent and divergent analysis. Convergent thinking is the process of a. Reinforcement and Extension Component
finding concrete and familiar solutions to problems. Divergent thinking is b. Direct Instruction Component
the creative process of generating original ideas and new possibilities. c. Orientation Component
E. Problem-solving. The ability to control cognitive functions to direct them d. Cognitive Development Component
towards solving a specific problem.
F. Metacognition. It is the process of thinking about one’s own thinking and 6. It should never be traded away, even for one period, without some compelling
learning reason.

Convergent Thinking – finding concrete and familiar solution to problems/ a. Direct Instruction Component
b. Orientation Component
Divergent Thinking – creative process of generating original ideas and new c. Reinforcement and Extension Component
possibilities. d. Cognitive Development Component
GROUP 1 QUIZ 7. What should we use to set goals for language learning?
1. Below are the management Components of Remediation, which of the following a. Guesses
does not belong to the group? b. Popular Languages
a. The Orientation Component c. Research
b. Cognitive Development Component d. Trends
c. The Evaluation Component 8. Why do we need to make the curriculum easy to use?
d. Reinforcement and Extension Component
a. To make it look nice
2. This component should ideally precede the component 3 and is an ideal time in b. To help teachers teach
teaching study skills. c. To make books thicker
a. Personal Emotional Growth d. Because of new trends
b. Schema-Enhancement Component 9. It is used in an intervention program to target basic skills.
c. Direct Instruction Component
d. Reinforcement and Extension Component a. Instruction Materials
b. Remedial Instruction
3. It is the systematic basis for making inferences about the learning and c. Remedial Programs
development of students. d. Remedial Classroom
a. Evaluation 10. What are the four language skills?
b. Assessment
c. Grading a. Reading, Talking, Reciting, Watching
d. Examination b. Speaking, Reading, Writing, Listening
c. Speaking, Reading, Watching, Listening
4. Among all the choices, what do you think is the main purpose of the assessment? d. Speaking, Reciting, Writing, Listening
11. According to Personal-Emotional Growth Development Component, when will 16. This is to make sure that there us consistency across the programs with precise
learning occur? connections between evaluation, course goals, and learning tasks.

I. When initiative to develop oneself is low. a. To develop scoring guides and rubrics
II. When teachers reteach the information from the original lesson b. Formative Assessment
III. in a different way. c. Seek alignment among various layers of assessment
IV. When students are put in charge of their learning. d. Diagnostic Assessment
V. When rote-learning method is promoted in the classroom.
a. I only 17. Teacher Joy noticed that because of the diversity of her students, her strategy
b. II and IV doesn’t fit all of them. As a teacher, she became flexible and versatile in formulating
c. II and III her instructional strategy to make the program easier for all of her students. In what
d. III and IV General Instructional Guidelines does this belong?

12. Teacher C aims to introduce her pupils to geometry. After grouping them, she a. Instruction is systematic when it is planned, deliberate in application, and
gave each team a stack of blocks and asked them to brainstorm to think of how many proceeds in an orderly manner. This does not mean a rigid progression of
shapes they can create out of those blocks. What basic thinking operation best fits one size-fits-all teaching.
this activity? b. Intensive instruction on any particular skill or strategy should be based on
need. Thus, intensity will vary both with individuals and groups.
a. Problem-solving c. There is no substitute for ongoing documentation and monitoring of
b. Divergent Thinking/Analysis learning to determine the order in which skills should be addressed and the
c. Inference level of intensity required to help child or group of children succeed in a
d. Analogical Reasoning particular area.
d. To track specific goals and objectives within an integrated language-arts
framework, teachers must know the instructional objectives their curriculum
13. What do you think is the best goal of assessment? requires at the grade or year level they teach.
a. Is to evaluate students
b. To see if the students really listen
c. Is to develop scoring guides and rubrics 18. Being aware of the objectives or goals of their curriculum helped teacher Mary to
d. Is to assess students’ learning design a limited program that made learning more conducive forher students. In what
General Instructional Guidelines does this belong?
14. The climate in a school must not be conducive to the development of standards.
a. Instruction is systematic when it is planned, deliberate in application, and
a. True proceeds in an orderly manner. This does not mean a rigid progression of
b. False one size-fits-all teaching.
c. Maybe b. Intensive instruction on any particular skill or strategy should be based on
d. Somehow need. Thus, intensity will vary both with individuals and groups.
15. The program must provide for coordination among all language programs offered c. There is no substitute for ongoing documentation and monitoring of
in school. learning to determine the order in which skills should be addressed and the
level of intensity required to help child or group of children succeed in a
a. False particular area.
b. True d. There is no substitute for ongoing documentation and monitoring of
c. Maybe learning to determine the order in which skills should be addressed and the
d. Somehow level of intensity required to help child or group of children succeed in a
particular area.
19. Sophia can’t keep up with her class, as she is having a hard time figuring out the 2. Work on Active Listening Skill- Good listening skills help with phonetics
lesson. What does she need to do? and fluency
3. Read Aloud- Encourage your child to read aloud to improve phonetics and
a. Advance Reading fluency.
b. Drop out of class 4. Explore Individual Education Plans - Individual Education Plans (IEPs)
c. Ask the teacher for help are accommodations, program modifications, and/or alternative programs
d. Attend a remedial program that are designed to meet the needs of a student.
20. Remedial programs address learning gaps by reteaching basic skills. What should 5. Consider Tutoring - A reading tutor is a great addition to your child’s
a teacher do first? learning plan.

a. Evaluate the students

b. Assess the students SIGHT WORDS
c. Measure the students learning
d. Formative Test - are commonly words that kids recognize instantly without sounding
them out.
- Words like (and, the and it) appear so often, that beginning readers
REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN READING don't need to sound them out.
- They recognize these words (and, the, it) by sight.
What Causes Reading Comprehension Problems?
6 steps in Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit
01. Lack of Support – availability of reading materials, one on one support
from other people. Step 1: Write the sentence on the chalkboard with the new word used in context.
02. Attention Disorder – ADHD, trouble giving attention, focus - Example: Allison is a retired Air Force colonel.
03. Difference in Learning Style – visual / auditory/ kinesthetic/ read write
04. Learning Disabilities – dyslexia (letters/reading/spelling) /dyscalculia Step 2: Let the student read the new sentence, and attempt to say the new word using
(numbers) context clues along with word-attack skills.

What Can I Do To Help? - Example: Allison is a retired Air Force colonel.

01. Explore Different Reading Materials Step 3: Discuss the meaning of the word or how it is used in talking and writing.

- For a learners who has difficulty reading, traditional books often seem - colonel - an army officer of high rank
intimidating. Cater to your child’s interests by using different formats
such as graphic novels, comics, recipe books, magazines, and Step 4. Write the word as student’s watch.
audiobooks. This is also a great opportunity to adapt reading to your - EXAMPLE:
child’s preferred learning style so he or she can build confidence in his
or her ability. ü The wallet was stolen yesterday.

Learning difficulties are the group of Learners involving significant difficulties in • The word ‘wallet’ is the unfamiliar word in the sentence. After discussing
acquisition, in the use of some Macro Skills: Reading, Listening, Writing, the meaning of the word, the teacher should show to the students how to
Reasoning, or Mathematical abilities. Things can do to help the students who are write it and ask them to identify if there are any double letters, extenders,
struggling in Reading: and descenders.
• In this case, it has the double letter ‘l’
1. Motivate and Reward Success- Celebrate tiny victories, practice patience,
and inspire perseverance in your child ü There were a lot of people in the room.
 • The unfamiliar word used in the sentence is ‘people’, and it has the letter ‘p’ ➢ Teaching sight words with pictures is an effective method to help young
as the descender. learners memorize and recognize these words more easily.
• We should also take note for the phonograms or word families that might be ➢ Practicing sight words in context means helping learners understand how
included in the unfamiliar words. Teachers can ask the students to identify these words are used in sentences or passages rather than just recognizing
the phonograms and word families. them in isolation.

ü The teacher had a very important meeting today. What is Dolch words?

• The word ‘important’ is the unfamiliar word in the sentence. And the word ➢ The Dolch word list was created by Edward William Dolch in 1936 and
contains the word family ‘ant’. first published in Problems in Reading in 1948.
➢ Dolch worked at the University of Illinois and based the list on the most
ü The chairs were arranged accordingly. common words in children’s books at the time.
➢ Dolch recognized the value in teaching first-grade readers high frequency
• The underline word is ‘chairs’, which contains the phonogram ‘ch’.
words without forcing children to memorize a list of 500+ terms.
Step 5 Ask students to write the word themselves and to be sure, have them say the ➢ He narrowed his collection to 220 words and chose to leave nouns off of the
word while they write it. list.

EXAMPLE: Examples of Dolch words

ü W/a/l/l/e/t/ = Wallet In Pre-kindergarten;

ü P/e/o/p/l/e/ = People
- a, and, away, big, blue, can, come, down, find, for, funny, go, help, here, I,
ü I/m/p/o/r/t/a/n/t/ = Important in, is, it, jump, little, look, make, me, my, not, one, play, red, run, said, see,
the, three, to, two, up, we, where, yellow, you.
ü C/h/a/i/r/s/ = Chairs In Kindergarten;
- all, am, are, at, ate, be, black, brown, but, came, did, do, eat, four, get, good,
have, he, into, like, must, new, no, now, on, our, out, please, pretty, ran, ride,
Step 6. Have students make up and write sentences in which the word is used in saw, say, she, so, soon, that, there, they, this, too, under, want, was, well,
context. Have them read these sentences to each other and discuss them. went, what, white, who, will, with, yes.
In grade 1;
- To further assess the student, the teacher can ask the students to create a
sentence using the new word. At the same time, the teacher can ask - after, again, an, any, as, ask, by, could, every, fly, from, give, going, had, has,
them a question regarding the sentence and the new word to see if they her, him, his, how, just, know, let, live, may, of, old, once, open, over, put,
really understood the lesson. round, some, stop, take, thank, them, then, think, walk, were, when.
In grade 2;
C. CORRECTING BASIC SIGHT VOCABULARY DEFICIT
- always, around, because, been, before, best, both, buy, call, cold, does, don’t,
What is basic sight vocabulary? fast, first, five, found, gave, goes, green, its, made, many, off, or, pull, read,
right, sing, sit, sleep, tell, their, these, those, upon, us, use, very, wash, which,
- Basic sight vocabulary encompasses a collection of words that young why, wish, work, would, write, your.
readers should be able to recognize and read instantly by sight, without In grade 3;
the need for phonetic decoding.
- These words are often common and appear frequently in text, playing a - about, better, bring, carry, clean, cut, done, draw, drink, eight, fall, far, full,
crucial role in developing reading fluency got, grow, hold, hot, hurt, if, keep, kind, laugh, light, long, much, myself,
never, only, own, pick, seven, shall, show, six, small, start, ten, today,
How can teachers teach basic sight words? together, try, warm.
 Step 5: Implementing the Program
How can teachers aid basic sight vocabulary deficit?
● Over a set period, the tutor and learner work together regularly, whether
1. Have the student trace the word; write it on paper, or use chalks or magic during designated study sessions, before or after school, or in the classroom.
slates. They focus on the target vocabulary words.
- Tracing, writing, and using tactile methods like chalks or magic ● Tutors use various teaching techniques, such as flashcards, games,
slates can help reinforce word recognition and retention. storytelling, and discussions, to help the learners grasp the words' meanings
2. Have the student repeat the word each time it is written. and usage.
- having the student repeat the word each time it's written can be a
helpful learning technique to reinforce memory and pronunciation.
● Tutors provide positive reinforcement, encouragement, and support to
motivate the learners throughout the process.
3. Have the students write the word without looking at the flash card; then
Step 6: Monitoring and Assessment
compare the two.
- This can help improve retention and reinforce spelling and ● Regularly assess the progress of both learners and tutors. This can be done
recognition. through quizzes, verbal assessments, or other means.
4. Create “study buddies”. Match learners in the classroom with fellow
students who have mastered the words. Take time to teach the “tutors” how
● Keep track of how many words each learner has mastered and note their
overall improvement.
to reinforce new words. Provide big rewards both to the tutor and the learner
Step 7: Rewards and Recognition
once the learner has attained the goal.
Example : ● Offer incentives to motivate both tutors and learners. These rewards could
Step 1: Word Mastery Assessment include:
● Certificates of achievement.
● Begin by assessing all students' proficiency in a particular set of vocabulary ● Special privileges in the classroom.
words. You can use quizzes, flashcards, or other methods to determine their
● Public recognition during class or school assemblies.
current knowledge level.
● Small prizes or tokens of appreciation.
Step 8: Celebrate Achievements
Step 2: Pairing Learners and Tutors
● When learners reach their vocabulary goals, celebrate their success.
● Identify students who have already mastered the vocabulary words and are Recognize the hard work and dedication of both learners and tutors.
willing to serve as tutors. These students can be volunteers or selected based ● Host a "graduation" ceremony where each learner receives their certificate
on their excellent performance. and the tutors receive their recognition
● Pair each learner (who needs to improve their vocabulary) with a tutor. It's
essential to create pairs that work well together and have compatible learning 5. Provide reinforcement games for students to use on their own with their study
styles and personalities. buddies
Step 3: Tutor Training
➢ Examples: word scramble, math puzzles
● Hold a training session for the tutors to ensure they understand their role and
how to effectively reinforce new words. This training might include: 6. Provide charts, graphs, and devices for students to display their progress.
● Strategies for teaching and explaining words. ➢ Examples: weekly progress charts
● Tips for providing constructive feedback.
● Methods for making learning fun and engaging. 7. Use your imagination. Have students dramatize phrases, build a sight word
● Ways to track the progress of the learner they are paired with. “cave” practice words while lining up, read sight-word “plays” etc.
Step 4: Establish Clear Goals
➢ Example: Sight Word "Plays":
● Set specific and achievable vocabulary goals for each learner. These goals - Encourage students to write short plays or skits that feature sight words.
should be tailored to their current proficiency level. - They can work together to create scripts and act out their plays for the class.
 - This promotes creativity and collaboration while reinforcing sight-word course, kids are confused when they have such similar letters thrown at
recognition. them back-to-back.
3. Short vowels are taught before long vowels. Short vowels make quick
D. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence sounds, while long vowels sound like the letter’s name 1. For example,
a in cat is short, while a in cake is long
● Sound-Symbol Correspondence, also known as phonics or grapheme-
4. Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently
phoneme correspondence, refers to the relationship between the sounds of a than upper case letters.
language and the letters or symbols used to represent those sounds.
★ JOLLY PHONICS
It uses multi-sensory actions for all the 42 sounds of the English language and helps
For example, the letter "A" can represent different sounds in words like "cat," children associate the sounds with the letters, letter group, and syllables.
"fate," and "all." Similarly, the letter combination "oe" can represent different sounds
1. Sound - The 42 sounds are divided into 7 groups with 6 sounds in each group.
in words like "toe" and "shoe." Using a multi-sensory approach each letter sound is introduced with fun
actions, stories and songs.

In sound-symbol correspondence, we mainly study or teach about Phonemes. 2. Letter Formation - After the introduction to letter sounds, children are
taught to form and write these letters.
Take note that phonemes also include letter combinations like blends and digraphs.
3. Blending – putting sound together ex. Mat/bed
Blends and digraphs are also taught in sound-symbol correspondence.
4. Segmentation - Blending and segmentation are taught at the same time so
that children can understand the phonic components of a word and become
Blends - are 2 or 3 consonants combined to form a distinct sound such as: bl cl, fl, gl, familiar with assembling and breaking down the sounds within words.
pl, br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr, sk, sl, sp, st, sw, spr, cr, str. 5. Tricky words - There are some special words or tricky words in English that
have irregular spelling. These are taught separately to the children by
gradually introducing them.
Digraphs - Digraph Sounds are single sounds that are represented in writing with two
letters: ch, th, sh, wh, and ng.
★ PHONIC METHOD
Letter-sound correspondences are considered as basic building blocks of Start by teaching the sounds of the letters, not their names. Knowing the names of
letters is not necessary to read or write. Knowledge of letter names can interfere with
literacy learning in terms of reading and writing. When children understand that letters successful decoding.
represent sounds, they can decode words and make connections between letters and
- For example, the learner looks at a word and thinks of the names of the letters
sounds during reading. This enables them to accurately pronounce and understand instead of the sounds.
written words.
SYLLABICATION PRINCIPLES

2 Methods in Sound-Symbol Correspondence Syllabication is the process of dividing words into syllables, which are the basic sound
units in a word. It helps readers pronounce and understand words by breaking them
down into smaller, more manageable parts.
★ CARNINE ORDER
1. Letters that occur frequently in simple words (e.g., a, m, t) are taught 1. When two consonants stand between two vowels, the word is usually divided
first. between the consonants, e.g., dag-ger and cir-cus. In some of the newer
2. Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) (p and q) materials, materials are divided after the double consonant,de e.g., dagg-er.
are separated in the instructional sequence to avoid confusion. ). Of
 2. When one consonant stands between two vowels, try dividing first so that the E. Remediation through Phonemic Awareness
consonant goes with the second vowels, e,g., pa-per and motor, Students
should be taught that flexibility is required in using this rule; if this does not - A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech distinguishing one word (or word
give a word in the student's speaking-listening vocabulary, then the student element) from another
should divide it so that the consonant goes with the first vowel, as in riv-er - Phonemic awareness is the ability to understand the “phonemes” and is
and lev-er. simply dealing with just the sounds in words and sentences.
3. When a word ends in a consonant and le, the consonant usually begins the
last syllable, e.g., ta-ble and hum-ble. Skills of Phonemic Awareness
4. Compound words are usually divided between word parts and between
syllables in these parts, e.g., hen-house and po-lice-man. ➢ Isolation - Students recognize individual sounds in a given word
5. Prefixes and suffixes usually form separate syllables.
Example: The word bed, bed starts with b and ends with d
Vowel Rules or Principles and Accent Generalizations
Blending - Students listen to a sequence of sounds spoken separately and combine
1. In words containing a single vowel letter at the end of the word, the vowel letter
usually has the long vowel sound. them

2. In syllables containing a single vowel letter at the end of the syllable, the vowel Example: The sound of B + E + D, when students blend it, it will become BED
letter may have either the long or short vowel sound.
➢ Substitution - Students substitute one phoneme for another
3. A single vowel in a syllable usually has the short vowel sound if it is not the last
letter or is not followed by r, w, or l .When explaining this to students it is often helpful
Example: The word bed, the letter a substitute for e and becomes bad
to indicate that a single vowel in a closed syllable is usually short. Students should be
taught that a closed syllable is one in which there is a consonant on the right-hand side.
➢ Addition - Students make a new word by adding a phoneme to an existing
They will also need to know, as indicated above, the r, w, and l control rules
word.
4. Vowels followed by r usually have a sound that is neither long nor short.
For example, change ‘pan’ to ‘pant’ by adding phoneme /t/ at the end.
5. A y at the beginning of a word has the “y” consonant sound; y at the end of a single-
syllable word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long I sound; and y at ➢ Segmentation - Students break the word they hear into individual sounds and
the end of a multisyllable word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long e also count the number of sounds they hear.
sound.
For example, ‘set’ has three sounds.
6. In words ending with vowel-consonant-silent e the e is silent and the first vowel
may be either long or short.
➢ Deletion - Students delete one phoneme from a word to create a new word.
7. When aj, ay, ea, ee, and oa are found together, the first vowel is usually long and
the second is usually silent. For example, delete /t/ in ‘pant’ to make ‘pan’

8. The vowel pair ow may have either the sound heard in cow or the sound heard in
crow. Strategies for Teaching Phonemic Awareness
9. When au, aw, ou, oi, and oy are found together, they usually blend to form a
diphthong. Things to remember when teaching phonemic awareness are:
• It is important for children to hear lots of modeling of these skills, before
10. The oo sound is either long as in moon or short as in book being asked to do it themselves.
• Most children learn to orally blend words before they can orally segment, and
11. If a is the only vowel in a syllable and is followed by l or w ,then the a is usually when learning to segment, they may not hear and say all the phonemes in a
neither long nor short. word. For example, for the word cup, they may say “c-p”.
 • Ideally, they should grasp the concept of phonemic awareness, or at least Remedial Reading Instruction is an educational strategy that offers specialized
show some understanding of it, before learning grapheme-phoneme support to individuals facing challenges in reading.
correspondences (GPCs).
• Continually working on phonemic awareness and other phonological Individualization - recognizing that each learner is unique. It involves tailoring
activities alongside teaching phonics is important. instruction to meet the specific needs, abilities, and interests of each student.
• Stick to CVC words (consonant vowel consonant) at first, but remember that
these don’t just include words like hat and van, but also words like sheep (sh-
Assessment - evaluating students' knowledge, skills, and understanding.
ee-p) and chick (ch-i-ck).
• Activities should be enjoyable and engaging; children should want to do the
activity again. Remember, creating a positive attitude toward reading and Structured Lessons - refers to well-organized and planned instructional sessions.
writing is essential to build on these skills.
• Phonemic awareness can be developed without any written word. Making Progress Monitoring - is an ongoing process of tracking and evaluating students'
activities multi-sensory and practical is important, especially with younger academic progress.
children or those with SEND.
Feedback and Encouragement - Constructive feedback helps students learn and
grow. Additionally, encouragement and positive reinforcement motivate students,
If a Child is Struggling with Phonemic Awareness\ boost their confidence, and create a supportive learning environment.
If this is the case, it is worth spending some time focussing on listening games, and
other phonological games and activities. GROUP 2 QUIZ

Listening games include: 1. It is To help your child think more deeply about the subject and improve
comprehension, ask him or her questions about what they just heard
• Using instruments to keep a beat and compare the pitch and tone.
• Environmental sound walks: going for a walk and listening to sounds in the A. Motivate and Reward Success
environment. B. Work on Active Listening Skill
• Body percussion and voice sounds: for example, make your voice sound like: C. Read aloud
a ball – “boing boing”; going down a slide – “wheeee”; and a train – D. Explore Individual Education Plans
“chchchch choo choo!”
2. Celebrate tiny victories, practice patience, and inspire perseverance in your child—
Other phonological awareness activities include:
especially when he or she is feeling pressured or upset.
● Word awareness: count the words in a sentence, or clap or stamp each word
in a sentence, for example in “A frog on a log”. A. Motivate and Reward Success
● Alliteration: identifying, and later producing, words that begin with the same B. Work on Active Listening Skill
sound, and making silly sentences like “an angry alligator ate all Abby’s C. Read aloud
apple!”. D. Explore Individual Education Plans
● Rhyming: identifying, and later producing, words which have the same
3. The ability to understand the “phonemes”
endings. For example, looking at pictures of a cat, bat, hat and dog and finding
the words which rhyme.
A. Phonological Awareness
● Syllable Awareness: clapping or tapping parts of a word into syllables, such
B. Phonemic Awareness
as children’s names. For example, ‘A-lex-an-der’ would have four claps.
C. Phonology Awareness
D. Phoneme Awareness
4. Students listen to a sequence of sounds spoken separately and combine them 9. How many vowel rules or principles on correcting knowledge in sound-symbol
correspondence?
A. Addition
B. Substitution A. 9
C. Blending B. 10
D. Isolation C. 11
D. 5
5. Start by teaching the sounds of the letters, not their names.
10. The ____ rule tells that in words containing a single vowel letter at the end of the
A. Phonic Method word, the vowel letter usually has the long vowel sound. – FIRST
B. Carnine Order
C. Jolly Method 11. What kind of disability have trouble converting their thoughts into writing and
D. Phoneme Method drawing? - DYSGRAPHIA

12. It is a attention disorder that hard to focus and concentrate? - ADHD

6. It refers to the relationship between the sounds of a language and the letters or 13 It means modifying instruction to meet the unique needs and abilities of each
symbols used to represent those sounds. student. - INDIVIDUALIZATION

A. Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit 14. These are well-organized, clear, and designed to each specific learning skill.
B. Sound-Symbol Correspondence
C. Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit -STRUCTURED LESSONS
D. Phonemic Awareness
15. As a teacher, you should provide these kind of games for the students to use on
7. Students break the word they hear into individual sounds and also count the number their own.
of sounds they hear. For example, ‘set’ has three sounds.
-REINFORCEMENT GAMES
A. Addition
B. Segmentation 16. Let the student to create “____________” that matches their mastery of words. -
C. Isolation STUDY BUDDIES
D. Blending
17. These words are often common and appear frequently in text, playing a crucial role
8. Students substitute one phoneme for another. Example: The word bed, the letter a in developing reading fluency. -BASIC SIGHT VOCABULARY
substitute for e and becomes bad
18. It was created by Edward William Dolch in 1936 and first published in problems
A. Isolation in reading in 1948.
B. Blending
C. Substitution -DOLCH WORDS
D. Addition
19. These are commonly words that kids recognize instantly without sounding them
out.
-SIGHT WORDS 2. They get left behind trying to work out what a previous word meant.

20. Ask students to write the word themselves and to be sure, have them say the word 3. They don’t recognize the words that they know.
while they write it. - CORRECTING SIGHT-WORD KNOWLEDGE DEFICIT
4. They just don’t know the most important words.

5. They have problems with different accents.

6. They lack listening stamina.

GROUP 3: REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN LISTENING
7. They have a mental block.
LISTENING- it is the ability to accurately receive and comprehend the
message in the communication process to gain information. 8. They are distracted by background noise.

ACTIVE LISTENING- It entails more than just hearing a words. It requires 9. They can’t cope with not having images.
physical and mental attention and concentration.
10. They have hearing problems- Sensorineural loss
L - Lend an ear: Pay full attention to what's being said.
HOW TO ADDRESS THE DIFFICULTIES
I - Interpret words: Understand the meaning behind the words.
Remembering the Information
S - Stay engaged: Keep your focus on the speaker.
1. Start short and work your way to longer clips.
T - Tune into emotions: Be aware of the speaker's feelings and emotions
2. Teach students active listening skills.
E - Empathize: Try to understand things from the speaker's perspective.
Speaker Accent and Rate of Speed
N - Note the details: Pay attention to important points being made.
3. Choose an audio clips with an accent that the students are used to.
I - Inquire for clarity: Ask questions to ensure understanding.
4. Use audio clips with built-in transcripts and speed controls.
N - Nod and provide feedback: Show that you're listening through non-verbal
cues. Limited Learner Vocabulary

G - Give time to respond: Allow the speaker to finish before responding 5. Frontload challenging vocabulary

DIFFICULTIES OF STUDENTS’ LISTENING COMPREHENSION INTERNAL FACTORS

1.They are trying to understand every word. - Refers to the language proficiency,age,gender background knowledge
as well as physiological and psychological factors.
1. Problems in language proficiency - The speaker becomes the major factor influencing the students’
comprehension in listening. The matters relating to the speaker are speaker’s
2. Poor Background Knowledge accent, speech rate, style and speaking technique. Graham (2006) in his study
reports that the main problems in listening process are related to the speed of
3. Lack of motivation to listen-Students' motivation is one of the crucial text delivery causing the failure in identifying the input.
factors that affect listening comprehension. It can be difficult for students to
maintain concentration in a foreign language learning classroom. In listening 2. The content and task of listening materials
comprehension, even the smallest pause inattention may spoil comprehension.
-The material of listening is also the major factor confusing students in
two motivational types: intrinsic and extrinsic listening. The length of text, for instance, affects the students in which they
find many unfamiliar words in the long text. the material context should be
4. Psychological factors-are the elements of your personality that limit or made based on the students’ competence.
enhance the ways that you think. Your personality can render something as
simple as conversation extremely difficult or very easy. 3. Context

5 . Other internal factors -to the spatial-temporal location of the utterance. Context refers to the broader
situation or environment in which communication is taking place. It includes
Age- Speech comprehension declines more rapidly in older adults than in factors like the location, time, social setting, and the overall subject matter of
younger adults as speech rate increases. This effect is usually attributed to a the conversation or text
slowing of brain function with age
4. Co-text- another major factor influencing the interpretation of meaning. It
Attention span- key to effective learning. The amount of time a child spends refers to the linguistic context or the textual environment provided by the
listening to and understanding the information shared by the teacher during a discourse or text in which a particular utterance occurs
class affects how much the child has taken from the lesson.
How to improve student listening comprehension
Memory span- Listening and memory are often interrelated. When you listen
carefully, you are more likely to remember what has been said and to put the 1. Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of the critical sounds of
information into your long-term memory. English

Reaction- There is an inverse relationship between listening and upset Intonation - is the way the pitch of a speaker’s voice goes up or down as they
emotions. The more upset you become, the harder it gets to listen to someone speak.

Sensitivity- Sensitive students are driven by the need to be appreciated and are Falling intonation – is typically used in English for Commands, Statements,
focused on other people and their needs. and Wh- questions

EXTERNAL FACTORS Rise-Fall Intonation – is typically used in English for Either/or Questions or
statements, Lists, and conditional statements.
1. Speed of delivery and different accents of the speakers
2. Practice sound discrimination, liaisons, and incomplete plosives
Sound discrimination/ auditory discrimination – is the ability to recognize, 7. Improve skills in predicting
compare, and distinguish between distinct and separate sounds.
Predicting - what is closely related to other process skills such observing,
Liaison -is also called glide. It is either a slight [y] sound or [w] sound inferring, and classifying. Effective readers use pictures, titles, headings, and
text as well as personal experience to make predictions before they begin to
Plosives- are the kinds of sounds usually associated with the letters read.
“p,t,k,b,d,g” in which air flow from the lungs is interrupted by a complete
closure being made in the mouth. WE MAKE PREDICTIONS:

An incomplete plosive is when a plosive consonant is followed by another 1. Before reading - We think about the title, illustrations and pictures.
plosive or an affricate (complete closure of air stream) sound in the same word,
the first plosive Is not fully pronounced as /k/ in ‘act’ and ‘picture’. 2. During reading - We stop and predict what will happen next.

3. Recognize stressed and unstressed words 3. After reading - We confirm or adjust our prediction. If our prediction was
wrong, we think about what happened.
4. Enrich vocabulary
8. TEACH NOTE-TAKING SKILLS
Vocabulary- is the list or collection of words defined or explained. Words that
are used in a language Note-taking - is writing in condensed form the content of a chapter or a whole
book or classroom lectures or speeches.
• Develop a reading habit
• Learn from context THE 5 R’s OF NOTE-TAKING
• Play word games
Record - During the lecture, write all meaningful information legibly.
• Use it or lose it!
Reduce - After the lecture, write a summary of the ideas and facts using key
5. Teach grammar- teaching grammar in a remedial listening class is
words as cue words.
important because it provides learners with the tools and knowledge needed to
comprehend spoken language effectively, reduce ambiguity, and improve Recite - Recite all information in your own words without looking out our
overall language proficiency. It is a fundamental component of language notes or the text. Reflect - Think about your own opinions and ideas. Raise
learning that supports listening, speaking, and communication skills. questions and record original ideas

6. Practice inferring information not directly stated- practicing the skill of Review - Before reading new material. Take 10 minutes to review your older
inferring information not directly stated in a remedial listening class is notes. Skim over main ideas and details.
essential because it equips students with the ability to comprehend spoken
language more effectively, engage in real-world communication, and develop Group 4: Remedial Instruction in Speaking
critical thinking skills that extend beyond language learning. It is a
fundamental aspect of language proficiency and overall cognitive development A. What makes speaking difficult (brown, 2001)
1. Clustering- involves the repetition of consonant sounds within or between 6. Rate of delivery- refers to how quickly or slowly a person speaks when
words. Fluent speech is phrasal not word by word. communicating. The rate of delivery can impact speaking difficulty in several
ways: Clarity and Comprehension
- Articulatory Complexity
- Pronunciation Challenges 7. Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation

2. Redundancy- when you use more words than necessary to express Stress-the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word,
something, especially words and/or phrases in the same sentence that mean the or to certain words in a phrase or sentence
same thing. Speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through
language redundancy. Rhythm-Sound pattern achieved by using stress in words

Redundancy can lead to: Intonation-describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. It can express the
speaker's attitude or feeling about something.
• Miscommunication
• Ambiguity 8. Interaction- The speaker should engage the audience by interacting with
• Reduced clarity them instead of just speaking to them.

3. Reduced forms- Contraction, elision, reduced vowels, and such. They all B. Teaching pronunciation
form special problems in teaching spoken English.
When learners meet new language, as well as understanding the meaning and
Reduced forms affect speaking in terms of: how to use the language, they need to know the correct pronunciation.

This helps learners both to understand the words when they hear them, and to
• Ambiguity
say them in a way that others can understand.
• Comprehension
• Formality The key concept in teaching pronunciation is comprehensibility — being
understood by other speakers of the language.
4. Performance variables- refer to the factors that can affect how well
someone communicates when they are speaking. These variables can impact 1. Listen and imitate- It is a technique used in the Direct Method in which
students ’ ability to express themselves clearly and effectively. Performance students listen to a teacher or a recording and mimic it.
variables can include things like: Nervousness and Vocabulary
2. Phonetic training- It is a technique for teaching students how to recognize,
5. Colloquial language- refers to words, phrases, or expressions that are understand, practice, and internalize phonetic terminologies.
commonly used in casual, everyday conversation among a specific group of
people. This can make speaking difficult in few reasons: Understanding and 3. Minimal pair drills- A technique to assist students in distinguishing
Miscommunication between similar and problematic sounds in the target language through
listening discrimination and spoken practice.
4. Contextualized minimal pairs- Bowen's (1972, 1975b) attempt to make Hedge (2000) explains how to make accuracy- based activities meaningful to
minimal pair drills responsive to Cognitive Approach criticisms of achieve balance:
meaninglessness and lack of context. In the technique, the teacher establishes
the setting (e.g., a blacksmith shoeing a horse) and presents key vocabulary; Contextualized Practice- aims to connect the form and the function
students are then trained to respond to a sentence stem with the appropriate
meaningful response (a or b) Personalizing language- /Personalizing practice encourages learners to
express their ideas, feelings, thoughts, and opinions.
5. Visual aids- vital tools in pronunciation teaching. For effective teaching of
pronunciation, teachers use visual aids to emphasize on stressed syllables such 3. Building awareness of the social use of language- social conventions,
as: capitalization, underlining, thickening, coloring and others (Celcia-Murcia, contextualized activities.
1987). Visual aids enables student understand the position of stress in every
Two social conventions
word and avoid word stress misuse (Chun, 2002).
Conversational Language-, or “ everyday language, ” “ social
6. Tongue twister- Tongue twisters re perfect warm up techniques for both
communication, ” or natural language is used with peers, adults, and family
individual and choral groups in practice. (Lee, 2005)
members.
7. Developmental approximation drills- A technique suggested by first-
Academic Language - It‘s the language students need to do work in schools.
language acquisition studies in which second language speakers are taught to
As a teacher, one of our goals is to further develop their academic language
retrace the steps that many English-speaking children follow as they acquire
abilities.
certain sounds in their first language.
4. Building your student confidence-
8. Practice of vowel shift and stress shift related by affixation
Confidence is essential for any pursuit, and language learning is no exception.
vowel shift- is a systematic sound change in the pronunciation of the vowel
The key is creating a positive classroom climate where learners are encouraged
sounds of a language.
to take risks and engage in activities.
Stress - is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a
D. Talking to second language (l2) learners in the beginning level
word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence.
Cary (1997) suggests that teachers need to make speech modifications as a
Stress- can be characterized as fixed and free. In languages with fixed type of
form of instructional support when teaching with second language learners.
stress the place of stress is always the same.
1. Speak at standard speed- providing more and slightly longer pauses to
9. Reading aloud/recitation- Passages and scripts are used for students to
give students more time to make sense of the utterances. (Examples: lecture
practice and then read aloud focusing on stress, timing, and intonation
discussion, storytelling, language learning)
10. Recording of learners’ production- Playback allows for giving of
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial expressions- adds emphasis to
feedback and self-evaluation.
words but also offers learners valuable non-verbal cues to aid in their
C. The use of accuracy- based activities comprehension and interpretation of spoken content.
Purpose of using gestures, movement, and facial expressions: balance performance goals, which relate to documenting performance and
achieving success, and mastery goals, which relate to acquiring competence.
• Emphasis Have negative self-efficacy (competency) beliefs. Exhibit maladaptive
• Clarification attributions by attributing academic success to external and uncontrollable
• Engagement factors such as task ease or teacher assistance, but academic failure to internal
• Multisensory yet uncontrollable factors such as limited aptitude. Lack persistence. Feel
helpless and poorly motivated due to repeated failure.
3. Be careful with fused forms- Language compressions or reduced forms
can be difficult for learners. Use these forms without overusing or eliminating B. Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction
them altogether.
Writing Instruction- process of how learners are taught to write. For instance,
4. Use shorter, and simpler sentences- Utilize simple words and phrases how to use punctuation correctly, spelling, and how to structure sentences or
instead than more complex ones essays

5. Use specific names instead of pronouns Four core components

Group 5: Remedial Instruction in Writing 1. Learners should have authentic writing tasks that promote reflection, social
change, personal and collective expression, inquiry and discovery for them to
A. Areas of Difficulty for Students with Writing Problems have a meaningful writing experiences

3 Areas Difficulty in Writing 2. The procedure should make learners comfortable with the writing process
and go along with the process over an enough period based on their own rate.
Knowledge difficulties- less awareness, restricted knowledge, poor
declarative, procedural, and conditional strategy knowledge, Limited 3. Lessons should be designed to help learners master craft elements, writing
Vocabulary, Underdeveloped Knowledge of Words and Sentences, skills, and process strategies.
Impoverished, Fragmented, and Poorly Organized Topic Knowledge,
Difficulty accessing existing topic Knowledge, Insensitivity to audience needs 4. A common language for shared expectations and feedback regarding writing
and Perspectives quality might include the use of traits (organization, ideas, sentence fluency,
word choice, voice, and conventions).
Skills difficulties- Often do not plan before or during writing, Exhibit poor
text transcription, Focus revision efforts (if they revise at all) on superficial C. Adaptations for Struggling Writers
aspects of writing (e.g., handwriting, spelling, and grammar), Do not analyze
or reflect on writing, Having visual motor integration weaknesses and fine 1. Accommodations in Learning environment
motor difficulties. Have limited ability to selfregulate thoughts, feelings, and
Adaptations- include accommodations in the learning environment,
actions throughout the writing process
instructional materials, and teaching strategies as well as modifications to task
Motivation difficulties- Often do not develop writing goals and subgoals or demands and actual tasks
flexibly alter them to meet audience, task, and personal demands. Fail to
Why some students struggle in writing:
 • Some students hate writing. 3. Accommodations in Teaching Strategies
• They might have physical or mental impairment (dyslexia or
dysgraphia) • Devote more instructional time to writing materials
• Provide physical assistance during handwriting practice
How to address? • Re- Teach writing skills and strategies.
• Expect and support mastery learning of skills and strategies (e.g.,
a. Increase instructional time for writing. memorization of strategy steps)
• Use cross- age peer tutor to reinforce writing instruction.
b. Provide quiet and comfortable spaces for student to work.
• assign homework designed to reinforce writing instruction.
c. Provide unimpeded access to writing tools. • Help students set specific and challenging yet attainable goals for the
writing process.
d. Let students identify and select meaningful reinforcement for achieving • Help students develop self-instructions and self-help questions.
writing goals . • Teach students to evaluate and adjust their writing behaviors and
handwriting strategy-use to improve their writing productivity and
e. Consult with an occupational therapist to identify specialized adaptations . performance.
• Promote maintenance and generalization of writing strategies
2. Accommodations in Instructional materials
4. Modifications to Task Demands
Instructional materials - are the content or information conveyed within a
course. These include the lectures, readings, textbooks, multimedia Task Demands- specific requirements associated with a particular task or
components, and other resources in a course. activity. Help struggling students in developing the essential writing skills and
strategies to become proficient and confident writers.
• Simplify language of writing prompts.
• Highlight key word and phrases. The goal of modifying task demands is often to make tasks more
• Transition from simple to more elaborate graphic organizers and accessible, manageable, or suitable for the individuals involved:
procedural checklist.
• Post strategies, graphic organizers, and checklists in the classroom and • Increase the amount of time allotted for completing written
give students personal copies. assignments.
• Develop individualized spelling lists. • Decrease the length and/or complexity of written assignments.
• Have students keep a personal dictionary of “demon” words and • Have students complete text frames (i.e., partially finished texts)
frequently used spelling vocabulary. • Reduce or eliminate copying demands.
• Provide paper positioning marks on students’ desks. • Allow students to use temporary/invented spelling.
• Provide pencil grips for students. • Pre-teach spelling vocabulary for assignments
• Provide raised- or colored- lined paper. • Evaluate spelling using correct letter sequences rather than the number
• Provide students with personal copies of alphabet strips of words spelled correctly to measure and reward incremental progress
attributable to partial correct spelling
• Permit students to dictate written work to a scribe.
 • if students have adequately developed keyboarding skills, permit them • Initial use of one type of script (e.g manuscript versus cursive or
to write papers with a word processor. different versions of manuscript) does not appear to affect handwriting
• Permit students to use outlining and semantic mapping software to performance.
facilitate planning • Special emphasis is placed on difficult-to-form letters and those that
• Permit students to use voice recognition technology to facilitate text are frequently reversed.
transcription • Lowercase letters are introduced before uppercase letters, unless they
• Permit students to use integrated spell checker and word prediction are formed using similar strokes (e.g c, c)
software to facilitate correct spelling. • Letters that share common strokes are grouped together (e,g o, c, d, a)
• permit students to use speech synthesis technology to facilitate • The introduction of easily confused letters (b, d, p, q) is staggered.
revising and editing. • The formation of individual upper- and lowercase letters and, for
• Selectively weight grading for content, organization, style, and cursive, difficult letter transitions (e.g roam) are modeled.
conventions. • Visual cues, such as numbered dots and arrows, and verbal
• Grade assignments based on the amount of improvement rather than descriptions are used to guide letter formation
absolute performance. • Activities to reinforce letter recognition and naming are combined
• Assign letter grades for the body of work collected over time (i.e., with handwriting practice.
portfolio assessment) rather than for each paper. • students practice using a comfortable and efficient tripod pencil grasp.
• Provide feedback on content organization, style, and conventions for • students are shown and expected to use appropriate posture and paper
some rather than all assignments (which may reduce students anxiety positioning for their handedness,
about writing) • handwriting fluency is developed through frequent writing and speed
• Provide feedback on targeted aspects of writing rather than all aspects trials, with an emphasis on maintaining legibility.
to avoid overwhelming students. • Opportunities are provided for distributed practice and judicious
review of individual letters and letter sequences.
Using the right adjustments and modifications removes learning obstacles • Students are permitted to develop their own handwriting style and to
and enables all students to show competence choose which script (manuscript, cursive or even a blend) they prefer
to use after mastering handwriting (manuscript tends to be more
5. Modifications to Learning Tasks
legible than cursive and can be written just as quickly if given equal
• Permit students to dramatize or orally present a written assignment, emphasis)
either in lieu of writing or in preparation for writing. Ex. ( dictation, • Students are prompted to identify when a high degree of legibility is
role playing, presentation, and many more. and is not necessary
• Assign students suitable roles (e.g brainstorm manager) for the
creation of a group generated paper.

D. Teaching Handwriting