Lesson 6

Elements and Principles of Art

Elements of Art: Visual

Taking off from the scientific reference, elements of art are skin to the atoms that are defined as the units or
8building blocks= of matter. Together, in a variety of combinations and formations, they have the ability to create molecules
such as water, or the more complex sucrose. These formulations are something along the lines of what happens when
elements of art are joined together, in a variety of ways. In the same line of reasoning, the elements of art are the aspects of
an artwork that can be isolated from each other.

These elements of art generally produced when something is done to the medium after the technique is carried out.
It must be underscored however, that all works of art require all elements to be present as they are inherent in the very nature
of them. For example, sculptures automatically have the following elements with or without the decision of the artist to
include them: shape, form, and space. Without these elements, there is no sculpture to begin with. Elements are necessary
preconditions for the creation of art.

To enumerate, the elements of art and design are following: line, shape, form, space, color, and texture.

Line
A line refers to a point moving at an identification path-it has length and direction. It also has width. It is one-dimensional
however, it has the capacity to either define the parameters of the artwork (edges) and/or become a substantial component of the composition.
Although a line is <simple,= it has variations in view of its orientation/direction, shape, and thickness. These variations import not only the
visual elements into the artwork, but bring in suggestions as to be meaning or message being conveyed by the artist.

a. Horizontal and Vertical Lines

These refer to the orientation of the line. Horizontal lines are normally association with rest or calm.
Landscapes often contain these elements as works like these often connote a visual sense of being parallel to
the ground. It also alludes to position of the reclined, body at rest. Vertical lines on the other hand connote
elevation or height usually taken to mean exaltation or aspiration for action. Together, these lines
communicate stability and firmness.

b. Diagonal and Crooked Lines

Although the progression is can be seen, diagonal lines convey movement and instability. Crooked or
jagged lines on the other hand are reminiscent of violence, conflict, or struggle.

c. Curve lines

Lines that bend or coil allude to softness, grace, flexibility or even sensuality.

2-3. Shape and Form

These two are related to each other in that they define the space occupied by the object of art. Shape
refers to two dimension: height and width, while form refers to three dimensions: height, width, and depth. Shape
provides the contour of the artwork. Shapes can either be:

a. Geometric

Geometric shapes find their origin in mathematical propositions. As such, its translation and use are often man-made. These include
shapes such as squares, triangles, cubes, circles, spheres, and cones, among others.

b. Organic

Organic shapes are those readily occurring in nature, often irregular and asymmetrical.As for form, sculptures or ornate furniture for
instance are good examples of art objects with the element of form as their observable quality.

Space

In relation to shape and form is space. It is usually inferred from a sense of depth, whether it is real or
simulated. Real space is three-dimensional. Like what has been mentioned above, sculptures are a perfect example
 of artworks that bear this element. However, this can only be manifested in two-dimensional artworks through the
use of different techniques, or the use (or non-use) of area around a drawing or picture.

a. Positive and Negative Space

This is usually identified with the white space is the negative space. The positive space on the other hand
is the space where shadow is heavily used.
b. Three-dimensional Space
Like what is mentioned above, this can be simulated through a variety of techniques such as shading. An
illusion of three-dimensionality can be achieved in a two-dimensional work.
2. Color
Color is perhaps one of the elements that best enhance the appeal of an artwork. This element is a property of
light, as it is reflected off the object. It is characterized into three:
a. Hue
This dimension of color gives its name. It can be subdivided into:
 Primary colors: red, yellow, and blue
 Secondary colors: green, orange, and violet
 Tertiary colors: six in total, these hues are achieved when primary and secondary colors are mixed
b. Value
The brightness or darkness of the color refers to the value. Often, this is used by artists to create the
illusion of depth and solidity, a particular mood, communicate a feeling, or in establishing a scene (i.e.day
and night).
 Light colors: taken as the source of light in the composition.
 Dark colors: the lack or even absence of light.
c. Intensity
The color brightness or dullness is the intensity. It is identified as the strength of color, whether it is
vivid or muted.
 Bright or warm colors: positive energy
 Dull or cool colors: sedate/soothing, serious or calm.
3. Texture
Like space, texture can be either real or implied. This element in an artwork allows it to be experienced
through the sense of touch (and sight.) this element renders the art object tactile.
a. Textures In The Two-dimensional Plane
For two-dimensional works, texture can be implied through the use of technique or of using one or a
combination of other elements of art. By creating this visual quality in the artwork, one can imagine how it
the surface will feel if it was to be touched. Some of the words used to describe texture are the following:
rough or smooth, hard or soft, hairy, leathery, sharp or dull, etc. To be able to simulate the texture of a surface
in a flat, two-dimensional plan is one important skill that an artist must be familiar with, especially if his idea
or concept necessitates it.
b. Surface Texture
This refers to texture of the three-dimensional art object.
The elements of art make it possible to engage with the visual and tactile qualities of the artwork through a
<common language= that may be widely understood. Through these elements, there is something from which the idea,
concept, message, or intended mood of the artist maybe inferred. It offers a starting point or a baseline from which analysis
may take place. This kind of analysis is called formal analysis of art.

Planes and Perspective

It was discussed how illusions can be made and implied through techniques in visual art, specifically in paintings,
drawings, and illustrations. In order to do so, an understanding of the notion of planes is needed, and the technique is called
perspective.

In tackling the first one, planes maybe taken as picture plane or ground plane. Picture plane is actual surface of the
painting or drawing, where no illusion of a third dimension exists. Here the elements lay flat, as if you are looking through a
window into what lies on the other side of the glass.

Once notion of the third dimension is asserted, an integral idea is ground plane, which pertains to the theoretical
horizontal plane and makes the image or picture presented seem
<real=.

In Western art, one of the most important techniques developed is the ability to make a flat surface appear three-
dimensional, which has depth and space. This technique called perspective is credited to Renaissance artists, the early
proponents included Leon Battista Alberti and Paolo Uccello architect Filippo Brunelleschi in the early fifteenth century and
was published in Alberti9s On Painting, in 1435. Often synonymous to linear perspective, it is an illusion that uses
converging lines and vanishing points that affect the size and distance of objects relative to that of the viewer. A viewpoint
may be construed as normal (view standing up), low (view from a lower angle), of high (view looking down on a scene).

There are three types of perspective, grounded on the number of vanishing points used by the artist:

1. One-point perspective 3 often used in depicting roads, tracks, hallways or rows of trees, this type of perspective
shows parallel lines that seem to converge at a specific and lone vanishing point, along the horizon line.
2. Two-point perspective 3 pertains to a painting or drawing that makes use of two vanishing points, which can be
placed anywhere along the horizon line. It is often usedin depicting structures such houses of buildings in the
landscape that are viewed from a specific corner.
3. Three-point perspective 3 in this type of perspective, the viewer is looking at a scene from above or below. As
the name suggests, it makes use of the three-vanishing points, each corresponding to each axes of the scene.

Elements of Art: Auditory

Together with literature, music as an art form is classified as auditory art. However, some would argue that it is
actually under the broad category of performance art. Either way, music, much like the visual arts, has its own building
blocks or elements.

Perhaps one of the most widespread forms of art, whose intersection in daily life is most perceptible, is music.
Music is sound organized in a specific time. It is considered n implement to cultural activities, answering a specific role or
function. During the when man had to hunt for food, music was used a corral or herd animals, or as an element of specific
rituals or rites. Singing or dancing to music was also often included in opportunities for members of society to gather and
interact. Some are adept with the skill and sense to produce music, while others consume it as listeners, audiences, and even
performers.

If there is an important quality that music has, it is that it has the capacity to transcend barriers, even that of
differences in language or conventions in sound. Different demographics, group and individuals may have specific
preferences as to the genre of music. However, in order to establish this preference, listeners often take to its elements for its
evolution. Some of the common elements of music are the following: rhythm, dynamics, melody, harmony, timbre, texture,
and form.

1. Rhythm
Often associated to the terms beat, meter, and tempo, rhythm is the element of music that situates it in
time. It is the pulse of the music. Beat is basic unit of music while tempo refers to its speed (beats/second). Beats
can be organized into a recognizable recurrent pattern called the meter.
Classical terms are used to refer to the variations in tempo, some of which are the following:
a. Largo 3 slowly and broadly
b. Andante 3 walking pace
c. Moderato 3 at moderate speed
d. Allegro 3 fast
e. Vivace 3 lively
f. Accelerando 3 gradually speeding up
g. Rallentado 3 gradually slowing down
h. Allargando 3 getting slower and broadening
i. Allargando 3 getting slower, broadening
j. Rubato 3 literally <robbed time,= rhythm is played freely for expressive effect

2. Dynamics
The element of music that refers to the loudness or quietness of music is dynamics. Classical terms are
used to refer to the different levels pertaining to this:
a. pianissimo [pp] 3 very quiet
 b. piano [p] 3 quiet
c. mezzo-piano [mp] 3 moderately quiet
d. mezzo-forte [mf] 3 moderately loud
e. forte [f] 3 loud
f. fortissimo [ff] 3 very loud
For composers to indicate an increase or decrease of loudness, they use the terms
crescendo for the former; and decrescendo or diminuendo for the latter.

3. Melody
Melody refers to the linear presentation (horizontal) of pitch. By horizontal, it means that in musical
notation, it is read in succession from left to right. Pitch is the highness or lowness of musical sound.

4. Harmony
If melody is horizontal, harmony is vertical. It arises when pitches are combined to form chords. When
several noted are simultaneously played, this refers to a chord.
Harmony can be described in terms of its <harshness=: dissonance or a harsh- sounding combination; or
consonance, the smooth-sounding combination.

5. Timbre
Timbre is often likened to the color of music. It is a quality that distinguishes a voice or an instrument
from another. Dependent on the technique, the timbre may give a certain tone or characteristic to music, much like
how a painter evokes different effects or impressions onto the canvas.

6. Texture
The number of melodies, the type of layers, and their relatedness in a composition is the texture of music. It
may be:
a. Monophonic 3 single melodic line
b. Polyphonic 3 two or more melodic lines
c. Homophonic 3 main melody accompanied by chords

Akin to artworks whose style, medium, and technique emphasizes some of the elements in visual arts, a particular
composition and genre of music may emphasize the elements of music outlined above. Some elements may even be de-
emphasized or omitted altogether. Like what was mentioned above, these elements maybe isolated from each other,
however, as visual or musical compositions, the combination of these elements in art is what we initially engage with.
Most often, elements do not only coexist in the artwork, but are fused together or overlap with each other. In visual
arts, most artworks have overlapping elements.

Principles of Art

To reiterate the appreciation and engagement of art relies substantially on being equipped with the appropriate
language that allows it to be more comprehensible. If the elements of art were like the letters (and stringing of these letters
into words, phrases, and sentences), then principles of art would perhaps be closest to the rules of grammar and composition.
Learning these principles will lessen the intimidation and might even open up vast possibilities for the novice looker to have
a more pleasurable experience of art. These principles will provide explicit ways in which these elements are used, how they
are manipulated, how they interact, and how they inform the overall composition of the artwork in order to assist the artist in
conveying his intention. It is the principles of art that influence the effect achieved by the elements, and the linkages of other
principles. These principles are: balance, proportion, emphasis and contrast, unity/variety, harmony, movement, rhythm,
scale, unity, and repetition and pattern.

1. Balance
This principle refers to the distribution of the visual elements in view of their placement in relation to each other.
There are three forms of balance:
a. Symmetrical 3 the elements used on one side are reflected on the other. This offers the most
stable visual sense to any artwork.
b. Asymmetrical 3 the elements are not the same (or of the same weight) on each side, putting the
heaviness on one side.
c. Radial 3 there is a central point in the composition, around which elements and objects are
 distributed.
2. Scale and Proportion
The size of an object in relation to another, or relative to a whole composition describes proportion. This
can also refer to values such as amounts or number of elements or objects in the composition. It can be:
a. Natural 3 especially for figurative artworks, it relates to the realistic size- relations of the visual
elements in the artwork. When it is the accuracy in relation to the real world that we are after, this is
what is now referred to as the principle of scale.
b. Exaggerated 3 these refer to unusual size-relations of visual elements, deliberately exaggerating
the immensity or minuteness of an object.
In relation to this, there are notions in scale that differentiates when an element is considered to be
smaller than expected (diminutive); and when something appears to be larger than what is presumed
(monumental).
c. Idealized 3 most common to those that follow canons of perfection, the size- relations of elements
or objects achieve the most ideal size-relations.

3-4. Emphasis and Contrast

Emphasis allows the attention of the viewer to a focal point(s), accentuating or drawing attention to these elements
or objects. This can be done through the manipulation of the elements or through the assistance of other principles, especially
that of contrast.
Contrast is the disparity between the elements that figure into the composition. One object may be made stronger as compared to other objects
(hence emphasis). This can be done in several ways using the elements of art. For instance, the use of negative and positive space is an
example of contrast. Another example is the use of complementary colors in a particular work of art.

5-6. Unity and Variety

Unless intended to ne otherwise, compositions are intended to imbue a sense of accord of completeness from the
artwork. This is unity.

Variety on the other hand is the principles that aims to retain the interest by allowing patches or areas that both
excite and allow the eye to rest.

7. Harmony

Like what is hinted above, unity and variety is related to the principle of harmony, in which the elements or objects
achieve a sense of flow and interconnectedness.

8. Movement
This refers to the direction of the viewing eye as it goes through the artwork, often guided by areas or elements
that are emphasized. These focal points can be lines, edges, shape, and color within the work of art, among others.

9. Rhythm
This is created by an element is repeated, creating implied movement. Variety of repetition helps in invigorating
the rhythm depicted in the artwork.

10-11. Repetition and Pattern

Lines, shapes, colors, and other elements may appear in the artwork in a recurring manner. This is repetition.
While the image created out of the repetition, is called pattern. With repetition, there is a sense of predictable that is
conveyed, which in turn imbue the feelings of security and calm.

Combined or Hybrid Art

Looking at the elements and principles of art discussed above, it is apparent that art may be defined under strict
lines that separate one art form of style from another. In a broad sense, it is easy to depicter visual arts from auditory arts. In
the same vein, when looking at more specific art forms, there is considerable ease when one is confronted with the challenge
of differentiating a painting from a sculpture, a print from a drawing or a soundtrack from a poem. However, with the
complexity of contemporary times, in which experimentation and innovation are encouraged, the arts are not production and
their resultant consumption. One of the buzzwords of the tail end of the twentieth century is interdisciplinary. Rooted on the
realization that the problems of society are becoming more and more complex, it is necessary that solutions become just as
innovative wherein alternative routes to what is familiar, common, and customary is given premium. It was also a direct
upshot of postmodernist ideas in which barriers were more porous-strict delineation of art forms were overthrown to make
way for collaborations and partnerships between fields, professionals, and creative. The idea of a single-medium-based art
seems like a strange past that no longer holds in the interdisciplinary reality we live in. In contemporary art, these
developments were mirrored in the multifaceted nature of artworks that were created. It is not surprising that themes,
subjects, and the problem addressed shaped and produced new kinds of articulation in which two or more art forms and
styles are combined. Some examples of combined arts include dance, theatre, installation art, film, video art, documentary,
photography, puppetry, design, and other forms of products and productions.

These combined art forms are interesting and can be studied to understand what art forms and styles have been
combined, and what skills, techniques, or creative processes can be put together to produce interesting and innovative
compositions. In combined arts, improvisation is often tapped in addition to practical and logical considerations of creating
an artwork. From a specific vista of an art form, there is a seeming road map to creation. However, in combined arts, the
artist is challenged to deconstruct an idea or stimulus, to which the content, narrative, technique, and art forms and styles will
take form. Often improvisation or inventiveness is necessary to create an artwork that is to some extent unprecedented. As
different art forms and styles are tapped, inspiration may come from numerous sources, and documenting the process of
fusing these influences may be part of the production. A clear example of combined art is a theatrical performance that taps
into several art forms such as music, 2D and 3D art, literature, lighting, and set design, among others.

Another movement that is reminiscent of the motivations of the Renaissance Period, and whose emergence is
hinged on the frontiers of science and technology, is called hybrid arts. Referencing and tapping into the fields of robotics,
artificial intelligence, biotechnology, natural and computer sciences, telecommunication, information, digital and interface
technologies (software, programs, speech and face recognition, social media and online platforms, among many other
emergent developments), artists whose works tread under this movement disrupts the norms in terms of what is considered as
art, and even the way we envisage artistic production. More than anything else, hybrid are driven the expansion of the
imagination and what is possible through the <blistering pace of scientific and technological development= (Piirma, 2014).
At its heart is an inquiry-and through information and data; the capacity of the artist to move around platforms; and the
implementation and manipulation of newfound tools in production- the artist is able to address that inquiry.

Let’s Wrap It Up

In any art appreciation course, the module or lesson on the elements and principles of art are considered one of the
most rudimentary stages in easing the student into a meaningful experience with art, regardless of its form. A
familiarity with these blocks ofcomposition and formal analysis will aid the viewer in his or her attempt to come into
terms with the intention of the artist.

The elements and principles of art are essential to any artwork. Some of them will be more obvious than others,
becoming the anchors in which the viewer may latch on to engage with the artwork. The focal point(s) that draw the
attention of the viewer is also interesting to note, as this provides insight as to the interests and values that are of most weight
to him or her. These perhaps will help create a bridge in which a person, who may not normally find pleasure in looking at
art, may consider future engagements with it. In short, familiarity of the elements and principles has the potential to break
the barriers in which art becomes ineffable.

Unit II. Western Art History

Lesson 7
Art in Early Civilizations

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lessons, the students must be able to:

1. Discuss how art was used by pre-historic people to depict everyday life;
2. Identify the central themes of pre-historic art;
3. Differentiate the techniques used during the three kingdoms of early Egypt; and
4. Explain how art is linked with religion in early Egyptian civilization.

Introduction

Stone Age is a term used to describe a period of history when stones were used to make tools for survival. The
term <conjures an image of men and women dressed in skins, huddling before a fire in a cave= (Fitcher Rathus, 2013).
Though prehistoric humans would not necessarily possess the complex rational capabilities to tell their story through written
records and accounts, some artifacts in the form of cave paintings and sculptures would serve as the
<storytellers.=

In order to talk about pre-historic art, there is a need to situate them within the context of the three periods of the
Stone Age culture (which roughly span the 14,000-2,000 BCE): Paleolithic (the late years of the Stone Age), Mesolithic
(Middle Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age).

The unearthing of archeological artifacts and remains provide modern society a glimpse of the beliefs, practices
and activities of early civilizations. The motives and reasons behind the creation of ancient materials such as sculptures,
paintings and architectural structures may not be clearly defined. Nevertheless, the early people produced such materials that
reflect their attitudes and belief systems on spiritual, social, political, and economic matters. It can be noted that works of art
and architecture were created from a wide array of materials from limestone to precious gems and metals to name few. As
the early human started to transition from being nomads to permanent settlers, their everyday activities also had changes,
which is evident through the materials and even the works of art they have created. Despite changes as a result of adapting to
their environment, there are central themes in their artworks. Most ancient artworks depict religious symbols, a wide array of
organisms from nature and activities of everyday life.

Prehistoric Art

Archeological explorations reveal that there has been a gradual shift from a nomadic lifestyle of early humans to
that of permanent settlements, paving the way for the rise of early civilizations. The Stone Age has witnessed how humans
were able to lead more stable lives and eventually come up with permanent shelters and tools for survival. To complement
this stability and sense of permanence, early humans also turned to the creation of paintings and sculptures that depict
humans, animals, and their natural habitats. It would seem that there were attempts to record the kind of lives they led within
that period of time. Central to the representation of early civilizations would be the establishing of possible linkages among
art, religion, and life.

Paleolithic Art is a product of climate change. As the climate got colder, part of the early humans9 instinct is to
look for shelters that would provide them with warmth. Caves became protective havens for the early humans and these
caves paved the way for the birth of their first attempts to create art. One cave painting can be trace back to Lascaux, France
and its discovery came as surprise. Two boys chased after their dog into a hole where their ball got stuck in. When they
followed the dog, they were astonished to discover a cave with beautiful paintings. The cave paintings would eventually be
called the Hall of Bulls.

Figure 1. Hall of Bulls found in cave in Lascaux, France

The figures depicted on the walls were done with a certain level of crispness and life that there was initial
hesitations of the work9s authentically. However, evidence would later on point out that the cave paintings were created
during the Paleolothic Period. It is also important to take note that the paintings evoke naturalism, which is evidently seen
through the contours of the animals9 body and their dark colors. Although most people would think that early humans were
primitive, some of their art techniques were considered advanced for their time. Some of the early humans already used their
own version of spray painting techniques by using ground pigments blown through reeds or hollowed-out bones since these
were the readily available materials for them. Aside from this spray-painting technique, early humans also worked with
foreshortening and contrasting of lights and shadows. These techniques created the illusion of three- dimensional forms and
seemingly real representation of animals.

Artworks can be considered ornamental but there is little evidence to

fully back up this notion that early humans created these cave paintings for that
very purpose. Most of these work were discovered inside the deep, recesses of
caves so they may not necessarily be used as decorative items. Some would say
that these caves with paintings all over the walls and ceilings served as a kind of
sanctuary for the early humans. As a safe haven, religious rituals could have
possibly transpired within the confines of the caves. Some believed that there
is a linkage between what
was drawn and what could happen in real life. For example, drawing or
painting the capture of a prey would translate to an actual capturing of an animal in
real life. In addition, some of the works found reflected some of the early beliefs of
humans especially with life and fertility. One of the work that reflected such beliefs
would be a sculpture called the Venus of Willendorf. This figure is a highly abstracted
woman from highlighted body parts associated with fertility. The figure of the sculpture
bellows shows that the woman has oversized breasts, enlarged hips, and round
abdomen. The representation may show the importance of taking care of these body
parts for procreation and consequently the survival of species.Neolithic art has
developed especially when life for the early humans has become more stable. They
have learned to cultivate the land and domesticate animals. By 4000 BCE there were
several monumental and architectural structures erected. One of them is the Stonehenge
located in Southern England. The purpose of this fascinating edifice remains a mystery
up to this day and age. Some regard it as temple while others see it as complex calendar
the tracked the movements of both Sun and Moon. Others ascribe some magical
element to it by associating it with Merlin the magician from King Arthur9s story.
Whatever purpose it was built on, it still remains as one of the architectural wonders the
world has ever seen.

Figure 2. Venus of
Willendorf

Figure 3.
Stonehenge
As the Neolithic Period drew to a close, it was evident that different elements of civilization flourished in various parts of the world.
It is also notable that most early civilizations emerged and flourished in river valleys: the Nile in Egypt, Indus in India, Tigris and
Euphrates in Mesopotamia, and Yellow River in China.

Egyptian Art

The Fertile Ribbon starts from the banks of the Nile River, which flows north to Africa and ventures into the
Mediterranean. It is in this very ribbon where early Egyptians recognized the integral role of the Nile River to their daily lives.
It is the indispensability and utility that eventually led to the belief that the Nile is to be worshipped as a good. With his came the
notion that art was something that can be ascribed and associated with religion. The Egyptian civilization can be divided into
three periods. Old, Middle, and New Kingdom. Looking at the three periods, it can be noticed that for the Egyptians, art should
be something religious and spiritual. There may have been differences in the techniques used and style emphasized, but there are
common denominators among the artworks created during their respective time periods.

During the Old Kingdom, it was evident that religion was bound to the afterlife. A concrete manifestation of this
would have to be the erection of tombs. But the tombs were not just for keeping the dead bodies of important people particularly
the pharaohs; they served as a shelter for the next journey, which is the afterlife. They decorated the tombs with everyday
objects that would reflect day-to-day activities as if the afterlife is a mere continuation of what transpired on earth. The human
figures seen in the tombs were represented in such a way that the profile of the head was evident, while the pelvis, legs, and
upper torso were prominent and the eyes are in frontal view. Inside the tombs, the walls were also decorated and carved in very
low relief and incised detail. It can be noticed that the use of color was evident but may have not been widely utilized because of
its relative impermanence. One of the cosmetic palate found in Egypt was called the Narmer Palette. It was a palette that utilized
and applied dark colors around King Narmer9s eyes. The palette was also a symbol that commemorates the unification of Upper
and Lower Egypt. The unification was significant because it marked the beginning of their civilization.

Figure 4. Narmer Pallete

At the back of the palette, King Narmer can be seen wearing the crown of Upper Egypt looking victorious over a slain enemy. In
addition, two more dead warriors can the seen beneath him. To his right is a falcon, the god Horus perched on papyrus stalks, which is a
symbol of Lower Egypt. The top is sculpted with bull-shaped heads with human features that is a representation of Hathor. This god
symbolizes love and joy. What is very prominent is the king9s size in comparison with the objects in the palette. Narmer, being the subject, is
evidently larger than the people around him. This is a clear indication and assertion of his royal status. The front palette, on the other hand,
shows lion-like figures with intertwined necks bound on leashes and tamed by two men. King Narmer is still in present at the front side and he
is shown reviewing the captured enemies. In this portrait, he is seen wearing the crown of Lower Egypt and holding some objects that denote
power. The Narmer palette is one of the artifacts that emphasize the king9s supreme and absolute authority. In the most cases, the king is not
just an authority figure but can be depicted and revered as a deity. This common notion among Egyptians is seen in Egyptian tomb sculptures,
which are basically large in dimensions and proportions and made out of ahrd materials. The choice of materials is deliberated since they want
that sculptures to endure and withstand any condition. Permanence was important because these sculptures would serve as the house of the ka
or soul once the remains of the mummy disintegrate. One striking feature of most sculptures is that regardless of the age of death, the ka
figures highlight the prime life of the deceased.
During the Old Kingdom, one of the architectural wonders was also constructed. The pyramids in Giza served as tombs since their
main purpose is to provide a resting place for the pharaohs. These pyramids are massive in size and were constructed using roughly more than
two million limestone blocks. The stones used for the pyramids were quarried from a nearby plateau. The construction of the pyramids
highlighted the ingenuity and advancement of the Egyptians for their time. Workers painstakingly moved the stones from the plateau going to
the construction site using wooden rollers. Stonecutters on the site carved the blocks in a fine way before stacking them. The stacking process
also shows the advancement of the Egyptians since they already used a system of ropes and pulleys. They finished it off by applying the
surface with limestone for a more refined and flawless finish. The construction of the pyramids did not only show the brilliance of the early
Egyptians but it also highlights the reverence of the people to their pharaoh at the expense of the citizens. A lot of the workers died or
punished for not reaching the quota in the process of constructing these massive architectural structures. But they did not stop ensuring the
excellent quality of the outsides. The Egyptians also ensured that them of the pyramids would celebrate the life of their pharaoh by lavishly
decorating them. However, this would pose as a problem since thieves usually plundered the valuable objects used to decorate the insides of
the pyramids.
 Figure 5. The Great Pyramid of Giza
One of the key features of the Middle Kingdom is a shift in the political hierarchy. There is an emergence of powerful groups
of landlords that threatened the authority and rule of the pharaoh. Because of the internal struggle between these two influential sides,
art has taken a back seat during the Middle Kingdom. In order for art to reemerge and flourish, Egypt needed to have more stable
situation. This happened during the rule of King Mentuhotep when Egypt eventually got back on track. Art during the Middle
Kingdom had some experimentation in terms of style that transpired during this period. Portrait sculptures and fresco paintings that
were freely drawn are some of the styles that emerged during this period. To solve the problem of thieves that plunder the tombs, the
Egyptians made rock-cut tombs by carving out a living rock. The insides of the tombs were still filled with chamber and the hallways
were lavishly decorated to celebrate the life of the deceased.

Egypt was not immune from foreign invaders and eventually fell into the hands of the Hyksos. This Asiatic tribe introduced
Bronze Age weapons and horses to the Egyptians. When these foreign invaders were overthrown, the Egyptians formed the New
Kingdom. It was a time of expansionism through territorial acquisition. Consequently, with the expansion comes an increase in
wealth leading not only to economic but also political stability.

The art of the New Kingdom had references from both of the preceding kingdoms. Monuments and sculptures were still
linked with death and reverence for the decreased. During the previous kingdoms, tombs were just used for worshipping the dead but
with the New Kingdom, they started having mortuary temples. These temples, which were carved out of living rocks, served not only
a sanctuary for the dead but also a place of worship for the living. During this period, Egypt has established itself as a more advanced
and powerful civilization. With this newly found strength and power comes an inflated ego. Their high regard for their people can be
seen through their sculptures built on massive and monumental scales.

After the New Kingdom, Egypt witnessed the Amana Revolution lead by King Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti. He moved the capital
to Tel El-Amarna, thus the name Amarna. During his reign, King Amenhotep wanted to revolutionize the arts and religion. He later on
changed his name to Akhenaton, which came from Aton who is the sun god. This changing of names also signified the shift in religion. During
this period the only god to be revered was Aton. Egypt became monotheistic and Akhenaton ordered all to tear down all monuments of other
gods. He then fervently ordered the creation and erection of new monuments in reverence to Aton. Most sculptures during this period had
curving lines and full- bodied forms. There is emphasis to life-like features of the face like an elongate jaw and thick- lidded eyes. Most artists
created works that are natural and seemingly real highlighting the features of their subjects. Naturalism was not only used to depict the
pharaoh but also was used for members of the royal family. The bust of Queen Nefertiti (Figure 6) has a long and sensuous neck. This figure
was enhanced by applying paint to the limestone.

Figure 6. Queen Nefertiti

The use of naturalism in artworks was rather short-lived. When King Akhenaton died, his successors returned to
the more rigid and conventional styles they employed during the period of the kingdoms. They also destroyed images and
figures of Aton and subscribed to monotheism.

Probably one of the greatest discoveries from the Egyptians civilization was the tomb of Tutankhamen. He became
king at a very young age and died at the age of eighteen. Howard Carter discovered his tomb in 1922. They were astonished
to find old artworks and that the coffin was made out of solid gold. The body of the young king was coverer in linen and a
gold mask covered his face.
 Figure 7. King Tutankhamen
Let's Wrap It Up

During the prehistoric period, the early humans have transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle to that of a more
permanent one, which lead to early civilizations. Some of the works discovered from this period would give modern society
a glimpse of what was life like during that period. One of the early civilizations where art flourished was the Egyptian
civilization. Throughout the three kingdoms all the way to the Amarna Revolution, art has been directly used particularly in
religious and spiritual activities. Through these unearthed and discovered artworks, the modern world could have a better
understanding of the past and how can it affect the present.

Lesson 8
Art of Emerging Europe

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. identify the major periods in Western art history;
2. compare and contrast the artworks produced during the different time periods and art movements; and
3. discuss the importance of art to the development of Western culture.

Introduction

Art has been an integral part in European history. From the time of the ancient civilizations like the Greeks and the
Romans all the way to the modern times have used art to communicate ideologies and belief systems prevalent within their
context. There are different art movements that emerged within the different time periods in Europe. Each movement has a
distinctive characteristic to them highlighting the different trends and changes as they transition from one period to the next.

Ancient Greece

The Greeks were known to place prime importance in the use of reasons. For this civilization, man is at the center
of society and how they train their minds could be the very foundation of how they live their lives. The humanist ideals of
the Greeks were also reflected in their democratic form of government. This certain level of freedom was also reflected in

their artworks, architecture, literature, and philosophy. The Greeks were also passionate about natural phenomenon and
belief that nature should be in perfect order. These principles, belief systems, and ideologies are at the core of Greek art and
architecture.

The development of Greek art can be divided into four (4) periods: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic.
The Geometric Period was a time when Greece was starting to get back from the onslaught of what seemed to be their Dark
Ages. It was a period when geometric shapes and patterns have taken the spotlight in most of the artworks. The Archaic
Period, on the other hand, placed importance on human figures. This was primarily a result of Greece9s trading activities
with other civilizations. The peak of Greek sculpture and architecture was during the Classical Period. It was during this time
when the Greeks found themselves rebuilding their temples and focusing on creating artworks. The time of Alexander the
Great was called the Hellenistic Period. During this time, art was primarily focused on showcasing emotions and depicting
reality.

Figure 8. Lacoon and his sons.

This is an example of work wherein the Greeks emphasized the details of the body.
Most subjects of their work included that of the gods from Greek mythology.

Rome

The Roman Catholic was established around 500 BCE. This civilization would eventually transform into one of
Western Europe9s mightiest empires. Since they had expanded and covered a lot of territories, they had interactions with
neighboring civilizations, particularly with the Greeks. The fusion of Greek and Roman cultures can be seen in most Roman
artworks.
Some would argue that the Romans merely copied Greek art. This eventually made the Romans produce artworks that are
often looking stern, harsh, and strong. They also invoked the principles of realism in most of their works, highlighting the
features of human beings. Aside from this, the Romans were also known to be master builders, which earned their reputation
for grand monuments and architectural infrastructures.

Figure 9. Poseidon and Medusa. Just like the Greeks, the Romans valued their gods and
this was evident with their sculptures and artworks.

Renaissance Art

During the Renaissance Period, artists valued the <individual= as a subject of arts. The influence of humanism
shifted the focus of some artworks during the Renaissance Period to empower the <individual.= Most artworks emphasized
naturalism, which was also an influence of humanism since there was a great emphasis on the proportionality of the human
body. Most artists also added perspective of depth wherein spaces were explored in different artworks. This technique
provided a three-dimensional perspective of most Renaissance paintings. Renaissance artists also gave importance to non-
religious themes or subjects. This was also brought by the privatizations of the art during the Renaissance Period; however
most artworks remained religious in its focus and theme.

Figure 10. Micahelangelo9s The Dvid. This scuplure is an example of how humanism was a dominant
belief system
during the Renassaince. There is emphasis on the details of the body of the human being.

Mannerism

Mannerism was a period in art history, which was a product of the Renaissnce Period.
During the Renaissance, artists would observe nature and try their best to emulate it based from
their observations. As the Renaissance drew to a close, artists started directly copying the subjects from existing works of art.
Most artworks during this period showcased distorted figures, two-dimensional spaces, discordant hues and colors, and lack
of defined local point.
Baroque and the Rococo

Rome was the birthplace of the Baroque Period, which according to

some historians was a response to Protestantism. This was a time when Italy in
particular strengthened not only their religion but also other aspects like politics
and art. Expansion was the central theme of this period, which became very
much evident in the artworks produced during this time.

Figure 11. The Assumption of Virgin. A painting by Titan located at

Venice, Italy. The Biblical event in the said painting shows
how this period reverted back to having religious subjects in
their works.

Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism was a movement in Europe that transpired during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was the dominant art movement that
time which basically aims to revive and rekindle the influences of Greek and Roman into art and architecture. The ancient Greeks and
Europeans have placed emphasis on human reason and keeping society in order. These very principles were also the dominant principles
during the Enlightenment period. Some historians would also say that this movement was a reaction to the artworks produced during the
Baroque period. There was a call to veer away from such extravagance in terms of style and form of the Baroque period.

Romanticism
Romanticism, as an art movement, used the central themes of Neoclassicists have highlighted heroic elements into their work. During the Age
of Revolutions, there has been a tremendous focus on patriotic and nationalistic movements. One of the major revolutions in history would be
the French Revolution. Such revolutionary movements became the focal point of most Romantic works.
The major and central themes of this movement include the emphasis on the goodness of mankind. Most works also promoted justice,
equality, and social order. Artist also emphasized emotions and feelings of man, which was a deviation from the humanist principles of
rationalism.
Realism
Realism as a style of work focuses on the accuracy of details that depict and somehow mirror reality. There is little room for imagination in
this movement since emphasis is placed in observable traits that can concretize through artworks. Realism was heavily influenced by
Hellenistic Greek culture since most works during that period placed emphasis on the human body.
Impressionism
Impressionism is a style of painting that emerged in the mid to late 1800s. The distinctive characteristic of this style is that allows the artist to
emphasize the immediate impression he has of a particular event or scene. The said impression is communicated by the artist through his work
and can be seen through the brushstrokes, distinction of colors, and the lights and shadows used by the artist.
Let’s Wrap It Up
Western Europe has seen tremendous changes in their political landscape and social makeup. Throughout history, Europe has witnessed
transitions of different art movements on different timeframes. The beginning of using art as a medium of communication of different
cultural elements originated with the Greek and Roman civilizations. These two civilizations have greatly influenced the succeeding periods in
art. There were movements like realism that highlighted the primacy of individuality. Man being the focal point of most work is not new since
the Greeks and even during the Renaissance highlighted the centrality of man in any society. The evolution of art in Europe has shaped not
only their culture but is also a reflection of their societies
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