Course Overview and Classification of Internal Combustion Engines Internal Combustion Engine

In an internal combustion engine (ICE), the ignition and combustion of the fuel
occurs within the engine itself. The engine then partially converts the energy
from the combustion to work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a
moving piston.

Advantages of I.C. engine

 It has overall high efficiency over E.C. engine.

 These engines are compact and required less space.
 Initial cost of I.C. engine is lower than E.C. engine.
 This engine easily starts in cold because of it uses high volatile fuel.

COMPONENTS OF IC ENGINE

1. Cylinder block
Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the intake of
fuel, compression of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The main function of
cylinder is to guide the piston. It is in direct contact with the products of
combustion so it must be cooled. For cooling of cylinder, a water jacket (for
liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes)
are situated at the outer side of cylinder. At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder
head and at the bottom end crank case is bolted. The upper side of cylinder is
consisting a combustion chamber where fuel burns. To handle all this pressure
and temperature generated by combustion of fuel, cylinder material should
have high compressive strength. So it is made by high grade cast iron. It is
made by casting and usually cast in one piece.

2. Cylinder head
The top end of the engine cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder
head. There are two holes or ports at the cylinder head, one for intake of fuel
and other for exhaust. Both the intake and exhaust ports are closed by the two
valves known as inlet and exhaust valve. The inlet valve, exhaust valve, spark
plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head. The main function of
cylinder head is to seal the cylinder block and not to permit entry and exit of
gases on cover head valve engine. Cylinder head is usually made by cast iron or
aluminum. It is made by casting or forging and usually in one piece.

7. Engine bearing
3. Piston Everywhere there is rotary action in the engine, bearings are needed. Bearings 12. Manifold
A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas pressure and transmit are used to support the moving parts. The crankshaft is supported by bearing. The main function of manifold is to supply the air fuel mixture and collects the
the thrust to the connecting rod. It is a prime mover in the engine. The main The connecting rod big end is attached to the crank pin on the crank of the exhaust gases equally from all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine two
function of piston is to give tight seal to the cylinder through bore and slide crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the small end is used to attach the rod manifold are used, one for intake and other for exhaust. They are usually made
freely inside the cylinder. Piston should be light and sufficient strong to handle to the piston is also rides in bearings. The main function of bearings is to by aluminum alloy.
gas pressure generated by combustion of fuel. So the piston is made by reduce friction between these moving parts. In an IC engine sliding and rolling
aluminum alloy and sometimes it is made by cast iron because light alloy types of bearing used. The sliding type bearing which are sometime called bush 13. Camshaft
piston expands more than cast iron so they need more clearances to the bore. is use to attach the connecting rod to the piston and crankshaft. They are split Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at
in order to permit their assembly into the engine. The rolling and ball bearing is proper timing. For proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of
4. Piston rings used to support crankshaft so it can rotate freely. The typical bearing half is exhaust stroke and closed at the end of intake stroke. So to regulate its timing,
A piston must be a fairly loose fit in the cylinder so it can move freely inside the made of steel or bronze back to which a lining of relatively soft bearing a cam is use which is oval in shape and it exerts a pressure on the valve to
cylinder. If the piston is too tight fit, it would expand as it got hot and might material is applied. open and release to close. It is drive by the timing belt which drives by
stick tight in the cylinder and if it is too loose it would leaks the vapor pressure. crankshaft. It is placed at the top or at the bottom of cylinder.
To provide a good sealing fit and less friction resistance between the piston 8. Crankcase
and cylinder, pistons are equipped with piston rings. These rings are fitted in The main body of the engine at which the cylinder are attached and which 14. Gudgeon pin or piston pin
grooves which have been cut in the piston. They are split at one end so they contains the crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase. It serves as These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston bosses and
can expand or slipped over the end of piston. A small two stroke engine has the lubricating system too and sometime it is called oil sump. All the oil for the small end bushes or eyes to allow the connecting rods to swivel. It
two piston rings to provide good sealing but a four-stroke engine has an extra lubrication is placed in it. connects the piston to connecting rod. It is made hollow for lightness.
ring which is known as oil ring. Piston rings are made of cast iron of fine grain
and high elastic material which is not affected by the working heat. Sometimes 9. Valves 15. Pushrod
it is made by alloy spring steel. To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine, valves are Pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated at the bottom end of cylinder. It
used. The number of valves in an engine depends on the number of cylinders. carries the camshaft motion to the valves which are situated at the cylinder
5. Connecting rod Two valves are used for each cylinder one for inlet of air-fuel mixture inside the head.
Connecting rod connects the piston to crankshaft and transmits the motion cylinder and other for exhaust of combustion gases. The valves are fitted in the
and thrust of piston to crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of the port at the cylinder head by use of strong spring. This spring keep them closed. 16. Flywheel
piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. There are two end of connecting rod; Both valves usually open inwards. A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The main function of flywheel is to
one is known as big end and other as small end. Big end is connected to the rotate the shaft during preparatory stroke. It also makes crankshaft rotation
crankshaft and the small end is connected to the piston by use of piston pin. 10. Spark plug more uniform.
The connecting rods are made of nickel, chrome, and chrome vanadium steels. It is used in spark ignition engine. The main function of a spark plug is to
For small engines the material may be aluminum. conduct a high potential from the ignition system into the combustion
chamber to ignite the compressed air fuel mixture. It is fitted on cylinder head.
The spark plug consists of a metal shell having two electrodes which are
6. Crankshaft insulated from each other with an air gap. When high potential current supply
The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust to spark plug it jumping from the supply electrode and produces the necessary
supplied by piston to the connecting rod and converts the reciprocating spark.
motion of piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. The crankshaft mounts in
bearing so it can rotate freely. The shape and size of crankshaft depends on the 11. Injector
number and arrangement of cylinders. It is usually made by steel forging, but Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into
some makers use special types of cast-iron such as spheroidal graphitic or combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder
nickel alloy castings which are cheaper to produce and have good service life. head.
 Operation of 4 – Stroke Engine 1) Suction Stroke ADVANTAGES OF 4 STROKE ENGINE :- Operation of 2 – Stroke Engine
 Piston travels from TDC to BDC More torque :- In general, 4 stroke engines always make extra torque than 2
A four stroke engine completes it's cyclic operation into four strokes of piston The two stroke engine only requires two piston movements (one cycle) in
 Intake valve kept open
or two revolution of crankshaft. stroke engine at low RPM. Although 2 stroked ones give higher torque at order to generate power. The engine is able do produce power after one cycle
 Exhaust valve kept close
because the exhaust and intake of the gas occurs simultaneously.
These strokes are suction stroke, compression stroke, power or expansion  Fresh air fuel mixture inducted inside the chamber higher RPM but it has a lot to do with fuel efficiency.
stroke and exhaust stroke.  Total crank shaft rotation at the end of the stroke is 180 degrees There is a valve for the intake stroke that opens and closes due to changing
More fuel efficiency :- 4 stroke engines have greater fuel efficiency than 2
pressures.
Both SI and CI engines follow these four strokes to complete one cycle. stroke ones because fuel is consumed once every 4 strokes.
In addition, due to its frequent contact with moving components, the fuel is
2) Compression Stroke Less pollution :- As power is generated once every 4 strokes & also as no oil or mixed with oil to add lubrication, allowing smoother strokes.
 Piston travels from BDC to TDC
lubricant is added to the fuel; 4 stroke engine produces less pollution.
 Intake valve kept close
 Exhaust valve kept close More durability :- We all know that more the engine runs, quicker it wears out.
 Pressure inside combustion chamber increases 2 stroke engines are designed for high RPM. If an engine can go for 10000
 Total crank shaft rotation at the end of the stroke is 360 degrees
rpm’s before it wears out; a 4 stroke engine with 100 rpm will run for 100
minutes than the other 2 stroke engine which has a higher rpm of 500 & will
3) Power Stroke
run for only 20 minutes.
 Piston travels from TDC to BDC
 Intake valve kept close No extra addition of oil :- Only the moving parts need lubrication
 Exhaust valve kept close intermediately. No extra oil or lubricant is added to fuel.
 Ignition takes place in combustion chamber
 Total crank shaft rotation at the end of the stroke is 540 degrees
DISADVANTAGES OF 4 STROKE ENGINE :-
4) Exhaust Stroke Complicated design :- A 4 stroke engine has complex valve mechanisms
 Piston travels from TDC to BDC operated & controlled by gears & chain. Also there are many parts to worry
 Intake valve kept close
 Exhaust valve kept open about which makes it harder to troubleshoot.
 Burnt exhaust gases pushed away Less powerful :- As power gets delivered once every 2 rotations of crankshaft(4
 Total crank shaft rotation at the end of the stroke is 720 degrees strokes), hence 4 stroke is less powerful.
Expensive :- A four stroke engine has much more parts than 2 stroke engine. Working of 2-stroke engine

So they often require repairs which leads to greater expense.

1) Compression stroke or upward stroke
 Piston moves from BDC to TDC
 Pushing out the burnt exhaust gases through exhaust port
Working 4-stroke engine  Fresh fuel-air mixture gets compressed in crankcase

2) Power stroke or downward stroke Diesel Cycle vs Otto Cycle Otto Cycle
 Piston moves from TDC to BDC Today we will discuss about difference between Diesel cycle vs Otto Cycle. Both these cycle are
 A high voltage spark is generated by the spark plug air standard cycles of automobile engines. Otto cycle is used for petrol or spark ignition engine The Otto Cycle, describes how heat engines turn gasoline into motion. Like
while diesel cycle is used for diesel or compression ignition engine. other thermodynamic cycles, this cycle turns chemical energy into thermal energy and
 Fresh fuel-air mixture enters into crankcase
then into motion. The Otto cycle describes how internal combustion engines (that use
 Crankcase scavenging takes place
gasoline) work, like automobiles and lawn mowers.
ADVANTAGES OF 2 STROKE ENGINE :-
Application
Simple design & construction :- It doesn’t have valves. It simply has inlet & outlet ports
The Otto Cycle provides the energy for most transportation and was essential for the
which makes it simpler. modern world. Specifically, the vast majority of automobiles seen on the road today
More powerful :- In 2 stroke engine, every alternate stroke is power stroke unlike 4 use the Otto Cycle to convert gasoline into motion. Any machine (the list[1] would go
on and on) that uses gasoline will be divided into two categories of engines as seen
stroked one in which power gets delivered once every 4 strokes. This gives a significant
below.
power boost. Also, the acceleration will be higher & power delivery will be uniform due
Types of engines that use the Otto Cycle
to same reason. Two Strokes Four Strokes

Position doesn’t matter :- 2 stroke engine can work in any position as lubrication is done It has one revolution of the crankshaft It has two revolutions of the crankshaft during one
during one power stroke power stroke
through the means of fuel (as the fuel passes by through whole cylinder & crankcase).
DISADVANTAGES OF 2 STROKE ENGINE :-
It generates high torque It generates less torque The main difference between Otto cycle and Diesel cycle is that in Otto cycle heat addition takes
Less fuel efficiency :- For every alternate power stroke, fuel gets consumed every place at constant volume and in diesel cycle heat addition takes places at constant pressure.
Its uses port for fuel’s outlet and inlet It uses valves for outlet and inlet of a fuel This is the major difference between Otto cycle and diesel cycle. There are many other
alternate stroke. This makes the engine less fuel efficient although it results in uniform differences which are described below.
Its engines result in lesser thermal Its engines result in higher thermal efficiency
power delivery. efficiency
Oil addition could be expensive :- Two-stroke engines require a mix of oil in with the air- S.No.
It has a larger ratio in terms of power to It has a lesser ratio in terms of power to weight
Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
fuel mixture to lubricate the crankshaft, connecting rod and cylinder walls. These oils weight
1. Otto cycle is given by the Nicolas Otto in 1876. It was given by Dr. Rudolph Diesel in 1897.
may empty your pockets. It generates more smoke and shows less It generates less smoke and shows more efficiency Figure 1. A two stroke engine[2] Figure 2. A four stroke engine[3]
2. It is ideal cycle for petrol engine. It is ideal cycle for diesel engine.
efficiency
More pollution :- 2 stroke engine produces a lot of pollution. The combustion of oil 3. Otto cycle has higher thermal efficiency. It has lower thermal efficiency.
added in the mixture creates a lot of smoke which leads to air pollution. Requires more lubricating oil as some oil Requires less lubricating oil
This cycle has comparatively low compression Diesel cycle has high compression ratio. It
burns with the fuel 4. ratio. It compresses the mixture up to 11:1 ratio. compresses the mixture up to 22.1 ratios.
Wastage of fuel :- Sometimes the fresh charge which is going to undergo combustion
Due to poor lubrication, more wear and tear Less wear and tear occurs Otto cycle engine used spark plunge to ignite the Fuel automatically ignites due to high
gets out along with the exhaust gases. This leads to wastage of fuel & also power occurs 5. air fuel mixture. temperature of compressed gas.

6. Heat addition takes place at constant volume. Heat addition takes place at constant pressure.
delivery of the engine gets effected.
Engines are cheaper and are simple for Engines are expensive due to lubrication and valves
manufacturing and are tough to manufacture Air fuel mixture drawn into the cylinder during Once air is drawn into intake stroke. Fuel is
Improper combustion :- The exhaust gases often get trapped inside the combustion intake injected after end or compression stroke by an
7. stroke. injector.
chamber. This makes the fresh charge impure. Therefore maximum power doesn’t get Engines are basically lighter and are noisy Engines are basically heavier because its flywheel is
heavy and are less noisy
delivered because of improper incomplete combustion.
The PV diagram (pressure-volume diagram) of the ideal Otto cycle is show above fig. This Diesel Cycle Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat addition:
diagram models how the changes in pressure and volume of the working fluid (gasoline and Purple line (Process 4 to 1 and exhaust phase): From process 4 to 1, all waste heat is expelled Now the heat is added at a constant pressure of the system. So only temperature increases
The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion from T2 to T3 and pressure remains constant P2=P3.
air fuel) change due to the combustion of hydrocarbons which powers the movements of a from the engine chamber. As the heat leaves the gas, the molecules lose kinetic And the volume varies v2 to v3.
piston, creating heat, to provide motion for a vehicle. There are expansion (increased volume energy causing the decrease in pressure.[6] Then the exhaust phase occurs when the engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in
chamber) piston motions—caused when the thermal energy is released from combustion— remaining mixture in the chamber is compressed by the piston to be "exhausted" out, without the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected. Heat Addition formula is,
inducing work being done by the gas and on the piston. In contrast, when the piston changing the pressure. Qadd = mCp(T3-T2)
does work on the gas, the engine chamber is being compressed (decreasing in volume).
Process 3-4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion Process:
Here in this process the fuel get expanded that means the work is being out and
It is important to note that Figure, depicts an ideal process for any engine using the Otto cycle. temperature is decreasing from point 3 to point 4. Entropy remians constant.
At point 3 there is maximum temperature and the temperature is decreasing to point 4.
It describes the basic working steps in a gasoline engine. The slight modification which depicts
a more realistic situation of the Otto Cycle's PV diagram for a two stroke and four stroke
Process 4-1: Constant volume Heat Rejection Process:
engine is explained on their respective pages. The work done by the engine can be calculated
Here the heat is being rejected at a constant volume process that means the pressure is
by solving the area of the closed cycle. decreasing P4 to P1 but volume remains constant V1=V4.

Heat rejected formula is,

The following describes what occurs during each step on the PV diagram, in which the Qrej = mCv(T4-T1)
combustion of the working fluid—gasoline and air (oxygen), changes the motion in the piston:
Diesel Cycle Derivation:
We can calculate efficiency of diesel cycle from the derivation. So lets start,
Green line: Referred to as the intake phase, the piston is drawn down to the bottom to allow
the volume in the chamber to increase so it can "intake" a fuel-air mixture. In terms of
thermodynamics, this is referred to as an isobaric process.

Process 1 to 2: During this phase the piston will be drawn up, so it can compress the fuel-air Diesel Cycle PV and TS Diagram:
mixture that entered the chamber. The compression causes the mixture to increase slightly Now we will study PV and TS Diagram:
in pressure and temperature—however, no heat is exchanged. In terms of thermodynamics,
this is referred to as an adiabatic process. When the cycle reaches point 2, that is when the
 Process 1-2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression Process
 Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat addition
fuel is met by the spark plug to be ignited.
 Process 3-4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion Process
 Process 4-1: Constant volume Heat rejection
Process 2 to 3: This is where combustion occurs due to the ignition of fuel by the spark plug.
The combustion of the gas is complete at point 3, which results in a highly pressurized
chamber that has a lot of heat (thermal energy). In terms of thermodynamics, this is referred
Process 1-2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression Process:
to as an isochoric process.
The cylinder contains full of air which is entered through the inlet port as we
studied above. Here P1, V1, and T1 are the corresponding Pressure, Volume,
Process 3 to 4: The thermal energy in the chamber as a result of combustion is used to do and Temperature.
work on the piston—which pushes the piston down—increasing the volume of the chamber. After the adiabatic compression process in which entropy remains constant
This is also known as the power stoke because it is when the thermal energy is turned into and the air is compressed by the piston. The P2, V2, and T2 are corresponding
motion to power the machine or vehicle. Pressure, Volume, and Temperature after the compression process.

Duel Cycle Isochoric compression (ignition phase) – In this phase (between state 2 and
Diesel cycle Application: state 3), there is a constant volume (the piston is at rest ) heat transfer to the
Dual cycle, or limited pressure cycle, is a thermodynamic cycle that combines air from an external source while the piston is at rest at the top dead center.
 Diesel Cycle is used in two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engine. The diesel cycle the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle. In the dual cycle, combustion occurs partly This process is similar to the isochoric process in the Otto cycle. It is intended
produces more amount of power compared with less fuel to the Otto cycle. at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. It can be used to describe to represent the ignition of the fuel-air mixture injected into the chamber and
 The diesel engine is used in heavy vehicles like Car, Trucks, Generator, and Buses internal combustion engines. the subsequent rapid burning. The pressure rises, and the ratio (P3 / P2) is
extra. known as the “explosion ratio”.
 The fuel system is larger here but where in Otto cycle has smaller.
Isobaric expansion (power stroke) – In this phase (between state 3 and state
 Diesel Engine has the lowest Specific fuel consumption.
4), there is a constant pressure (idealized model) heat transfer to the air from
an external source (combustion of the fuel) while the piston is moving toward
the V4. During the constant pressure process, energy enters the system as heat
Qadd, and a part of the work is done by moving pistons.

Isentropic expansion (power stroke) – The gas expands adiabatically from

state 4 to state 5 as the piston moves from V3 to the bottom dead center. The
gas works on the surroundings (piston) and loses an amount of internal energy
equal to the work that leaves the system. Again the entropy remains
unchanged.

Isochoric decompression (exhaust stroke) – In this phase, the cycle completes

by a constant-volume process in which heat is rejected from the air while the
piston is at the bottom dead center. The working gas pressure drops
instantaneously from point 5 to point 1. The exhaust valve opens at point 5.
The exhaust stroke is directly after this decompression. As the piston moves
from the bottom dead center (point 1) to the top dead center (point 0) with
Dual Cycle – Processes the exhaust valve opened, the gaseous mixture is vented to the atmosphere,
and the process starts anew.
In a dual cycle, the system executing the cycle undergoes a series of five
So here we find out the efficiency of diesel engine. processes: two isentropic (reversible adiabatic) processes alternated with two Thermal Efficiency for Dual Cycle
isochoric processes and one isobaric process:
In general, the thermal efficiency, ηth, of any heat engine is defined as the ratio
Diesel Cycle Efficiency: of the work it does, W, to the heat input at the high temperature, QH.
Isentropic compression (compression stroke) – The gas is compressed
The efficiency of the diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle but not more than the adiabatically from state 1 to state 2, as the piston moves from intake valve
Carnot cycle which is having 75 Percent. The diesel cycle efficiency can be calculated from
the formulas which are, (Net Work)/
closing point (1) to top dead center. The surroundings do work on the gas,
(Heat supplied). increasing its internal energy (temperature) and compressing it. On the other
hand, the entropy remains unchanged. The changes in volumes and their ratio The thermal efficiency, ηth, represents the fraction of heat, QH, converted to
(V1 / V2) are known as the compression ratio. The compression ratio is smaller work. Since energy is conserved according to the first law of
than the expansion ratio. thermodynamics and energy cannot be converted to work completely, the
heat input, QH, must equal the work done, W, plus the heat that must be
dissipated as waste heat QC into the environment. Therefore we can rewrite Engine Performance Supercharger
the formula for thermal efficiency as:
Engine performance is often characterized by the engine operating behavior in the
speed–load domain, for example, the behavior of emissions, fuel consumption,
Superchargers are pressure boosting devices (compressors) which increase the
noise, mechanical and thermal loading.
pressure of the air before inletting it get into cylinder of the internal combustion
engine, and the process of increasing the pressure OR forcing more air to get into
Therefore the heat added and rejected are given by: engine is called as supercharging.
Why engine performance is important ?

Qadd-1 = mcv (T3 – T2) 1) Efficient and reliable operation of the engine.
Qadd-2 = mcp (T4 – T3) What is turbocharger and supercharger?
2) Helps in saving fuel and optimizing SFOC( Specific Fuel Oil Consumption.
Qout = mcv (T5 – T1) Turbochargers use the vehicle's exhaust gas; two fans – a turbine fan and a
3) Helps in predicting the necessary repairs and preventing engine failure. compressor fan – rotate from exhaust gas.
Therefore the thermal efficiency for a dual cycle is:
Conversely, superchargers are powered directly by the engine; a belt pulley drives
4) Helps in reducing spare parts cost and increasing time between overhauls.
gears that cause a compressor fan to rotate

How engine performance is measured?

The most common method for measuring torque and power of an engine is through
a dynamometer, or “dyno” test. This test works usually by connecting the output
shaft of an engine to a set-up that applies a resistive load

What improves engine performance?

Increasing compression is the most productive way to increase horsepower. Build
compression into your engine and you build in power. In more than a century of
internal combustion, there has never been a more common sense way to make
power. But be careful about how you raise compression

What can affect engine performance?

Factors Affecting the Engine Performance (Automobile)
 Heat Transfer. The heat is exchanged in both directions between the gases
and engine cylinder walls and. ...
 Residual Gas. ...
 Valve Resistance. ...
 Valve Timing. ...
 Combustion Time. ...
 Incomplete Combustion. ...
 Atmospheric Conditions

Combustion in SI Engines This first phase or preparation phase in stages of combustion in SI engines depends Knocking in CI engines:
upon the different factors such as the temperature of fuel, pressure, molecular
The combustion process of SI engines can be divided into three broad regions: structure of fuel, density and air-fuel ratio in the combustion chamber. Comparison of Knock in S.I and C.I Engines  In spark ignition engines (SI engines), at the end part of the gas, if flame
speed and delay period are low in the combustion chamber, produce
(1) ignition and flame development 2. Flame Propagation Phase detonation in SI engine. In the case of the CI engine, it was the first part
When the first flame appears after the spark at point B, this flame travels of the gas which causes the Knocking in CI engine and rough running of
(2) flame propagation
surrounding and burns the fuel in different layers. This fuel burning rate and flame the engine.
(3) flame termination. speed are noticeably low and there is a small but steady pressure rise in the  In CI engines, when fuel is injected in the combustion chamber and
combustion chamber. combustion occurs by the way of the autoignition system. When the
Flame development is generally considered the consumption of the first 5% of
period of injection of fuel is long, an excess amount of fuel starts to
the air-fuel mixture (some sources use the first 10%). This burning of air and fuel in the combustion chamber continues further and it inject in the combustion chamber. Then there is a large amount of fuel
causes a continuous rise in pressure and temperature. It releases heat energy in the accumulate in the combustion chamber due to longer injection of fuel
combustion chamber which is transferred from burned to unburned charge. The or delay period.
speed of flame propagation is becoming very high in the range of 15 to 35 m/s.  When there is uncontrolled combustion, the amount of fuel
Differentiating between the first and second phase i.e. Preparation phase and flame accumulated in the combustion chamber suddenly explodes. It
propagation phase is quite a difficult task. But you can distinguish between these two increases the rate of pressure rise in the combustion chamber and
phases by observing ( P – θ ) diagram given above. The second phase i.e. flame ultimately high pressure. This high rate of pressure rise in the internal
propagation phase starts when the pressure in the combustion chamber starts rising combustion engine is equivalent to a sudden increase in load on the
at point B and the phase ends when the highest pressure is achieved in the cylinder engine.
at point C on ( P – θ ) diagram.  Also high and increasing pressure of gases in the chamber affects the
whole engine structure during the pressure equalization process. Due
Curve BC on the diagram represents the rate of pressure rise. The rate of heat to this, you will hear a thudding sound from the engine, the same
transfer to the cylinder walls is very low at the beginning of the flame propagation sound is called Knock or Knocking in CI engine.
phase. This stage is one the most important stage in the stages of combustion in SI  From the above explanation, we can conclude that the knocking in CI
engine. engines occurs if the delay period of injection is longer than the usual
condition.
3. After Burning
We attained point C in the second stage of the combustion. But, it does not Knocking in SI engines:
Stages of combustion in SI engine:
represent the completion of the combustion of the mixture. Because of the
continuous burning of the remaining fuels in the cylinder and reassociation of  In the normal combustion of the CI engine, air is sucked and then compressed
1. Preparation Phase by the piston. At the end of compression, the fuel injector sprays the fuel into
dissociated gases in the combustion chamber.
The preparation phase is also called a period of ignition lag. This is the first stage in the high-temperature compressed air. The fuel gets ignited and flames
the combustion stages in SI engines. According to the experiment, there is some time During the expansion stroke, the combustion of air and fuel mixture continues after smoothly propagate throughout the cylinder with consuming the air-fuel
interval between the first spark given to the mixture (at point A) and the first flame point C. This phase is called after burning. After burning represents the third stage of mixture.
appears out of the mixture. This time interval is known as ignition lag and it is combustion in SI engine up to point D on ( P – θ ) diagram.  While In the case of detonation in the CI engine, at the end compression (BDC
represented on the above map as period AB. Due to this combustion, there is a clear During after burning phase, flame velocity reduces to a certain level. This was the last to TDC) of air, the fuel injector sprays the fuel into the air. But due to the high
rise in cylinder pressure. phase of the stages of combustion in SI engine. ignition lag, more unburnt fuel accumulates inside the chamber.
 When this lot of fuel accumulated inside the chamber reaches to self-ignition
This ignition lag represents the preflame reaction. According to the chain reaction temperature, it gets ignited, a large explosion takes place inside the chamber
theory of combustion, in preflame reactions chain carriers are produced. which applies the opposite force to the piston movement from BDC to TDC.
During the AB period, the angle changed by the crank between points A and B is  Therefore, this phenomenon creates a high pinging sound and pressure pulses
known as the ignition delay angle. which has a bad effect on the engine.
 In the CI engine, the detonation process is observed at the starting of the
combustion process.
What causes detonation/knocking in engine? How to prevent engine knocking/denotation? The temperature of the air becomes higher than the temperature of the fuel which is delay completes, the time interval up to the fuel ignites and the flame of the
diesel in the CI engine. Then diesel fuel is injected in the combustion chamber under combustion appears is called chemical delay.
The factors responsible for detonation in an SI engine are as follows:- The detonation in an SI engine can be controlled by the following ways: very high pressure about 120 to 210 bar. The temperature of this fuel is around 20°
 High compression ratio. to 35° before TDC (Top Dead Center). 2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
 Autoignition  Decreasing intake manifold pressure. This is the second stage of combustion in the CI engine. After the above-mentioned
 Less ingition lag. Retarding spark timing. delay period is over, the air and fuel mixture will auto-ignite as they have achieved
 Point A on the above graph shows the time at which diesel fuel injection starts. Then,
 High self ignition temperature of fuel.  Reducing the compression ratio. their self-ignition temperature.
the process of combustion in the CI engine starts. This combustion takes place in four
 High temperature of inlet air-fuel mixture.  Using the high octane fuel. stages as discussed below.
 More quantity of inlet air-fuel mixture.  Reducing the intake temperature of air. The mixture of air and fuel in CI engines is heterogeneous unlike homogeneous in the
 Hot spots (Overheated area inside chamber)  Reducing peak cylinder pressure. SI engines. Due to this heterogeneous mixture, flames appear at more than one
 Due to used of low octane fuel. Stages of Combustion in CI engine: location where the concentration of the mixture is high.
 Reducing the engine size.
 Increasing the amount of intake fuel.
There are four different stages of combustion in CI engine where proper combustion When the flame formed the mixture in the other low concentration starts burning by
The factors responsible for detonation in a CI engine are as follows:- of air and fuel takes place as follows: the propagation of flames or due to auto-ignition, because of the process of heat
The detonation in the CI engine can be controlled by the following ways: 1. Ignition Delay Period transfer.
 High ignition lag 2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
3. Period of Controlled Combustion The accumulated fuel during the delay is now started burning at an extremely rapid
 High ignition lag  Using the high cetane fuel helps to reduce the ignition lag.
4. After Burning rate. It causes a rise in in-cylinder pressure and temperature. So, the higher the delay
 High engine speed  Increasing engine size.
period, the higher would be the rate of pressure rise.
 Due to used of low cetane fuel  Increasing the intake fuel and air temperature.
During this stage, you can’t control the amount of fuel burning, that’s why this period
 Less temperature and pressure of intake fuel and air  Using the supercharging or turbocharging.
1. Ignition Delay Period is called a period of uncontrolled combustion. This period is represented by the curve
Therefore, these are different factors that cause the detonation in both kinds of CD in the above figure.
At this first stage of combustion in the CI engine, the fuel from the injection system
engines.
Combustion in CI Engines sprayed in the combustion chamber in the form of a jet. Due to atomization and
vaporization, this fuel disintegrates at the core which is surrounded by a spray of air 3. Period of Controlled Combustion
and fuel particles. When the accumulated fuel during the delay period completely burned in the period
uncontrolled combustion, the temperature and pressure of the mixture in the
What is effect knocking in engine? In this vaporization process, the fuel gets heat from the compressed and hot cylinder are so high that new injected fuel from the nozzle will burn rapidly due to
surrounding air. It causes some pressure drop in the cylinder. You can see this the presence of sufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber.
The effects of the detonation on the engine are as follows: pressure drop (curve AB) in the above figure. That’s the reason we can control the rise of pressure into the cylinder by controlling
the fuel injection rate. Therefore, this period of combustion is called a period of
 Bending of connecting rod. After completion of the vaporization process, the preflame reaction of the mixture in controlled combustion.
 Scuffing of cylinder bore. the combustion chamber starts. During the preflame reaction, pressure into the
 Breaking of piston head and piston rings. cylinder starts increasing with the release of energy at a slow rate. 4. After Burning
 Erosion of cylinder head This is the last stage out of the four stages of combustion in CI engine.
 Loss of engine power. This preflame reaction starts slowly and then speeds up until the ignition of the fuel Naturally, the combustion process is completed at the point when the maximum
 Produces the high intensity sound waves. takes place. You can see this process at point C on the diagram. pressure is obtained in the combustion chamber at point E as shown in the figure.
 Causes pre-ignition due to high comustion temperature. Practically, the burning of the fuel in the combustion chamber remains to continue
 Damage to spark plug. This time interval between the starting of the fuel injection and the beginning of the during the expansion stroke. The main reason behind it is the reassociation of
 Melting of valves. combustion is called the delay period. This delay period can further be divided into dissociated gases and unburnt fuel.
two parts – Physical delay and chemical delay. Therefore, this last phase of combustion is called After Burning.
In CI or compression ignition engine, in the compression stroke, only air is
These are the four different stages of combustion in CI engine.
compressed at very high pressure and temperature. The compression ratio used is in
The period between the time of injection of the fuel and its achievement of self-
the range of 12 to 120.
ignition temperature during vaporization is called physical delay. When physical

Carburetion Vaporization characteristics of the fuel Fuel System The Fuel Rail
The presence of highly volatile hydrocarbons in the fuel plays a big role in good
quality carburation, especially at high engine speed. Fuels that vaporize easily at
The component that receives the fuel before it enters the engine’s combustion
normal temperature give good carburation.
What is meant by carburation? What is A Fuel System? chamber is the fuel rail. This component has several sensors that measure the fuel
Design of carburetor pressure received from the pump and the amount of fuel required by the engine. By
Carburation is defined as the process of mixing of combustible fuel with the proper
There are different types of carburetor based on the design. Carburetor must be The fuel system in a vehicle consists of a few components that help transfer fuel calculating the requirement of the engine the fuel rail releases fuel to perhaps the
amount of air before it enters the engine cylinder. The purpose carburation is to
provide an air-fuel mixture in required quantity and quality for the efficient designed for quality carburation at various operating conditions (idling condition to from the tank to the engine for combustion. Since fuel delivery to the engine is most important part of the fuel system – the fuel injectors.
operation of engine. The correct air-fuel ratio is important in performance of spark maximum power requirement). essential for smooth driving; your fuel system must always be in efficient working
ignition engine under various condition. The process of carburation not required in condition. If there is a lapse in the system you will feel a loss in power and The Fuel Injectors
compression ignition engine because in CI engine, fuel directly injected into the performance.
Advantages of simple carburetor
compressed air in the cylinder at the end of compression stroke. The device which The final piece in the fuel system puzzle is fuel injectors. As their name suggests,
mix air and fuel in the required ratio is known as a carburetor.  Simple carburetors are inexpensive compared to Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
Let’s take a look at the components in a fuel system in detail to get a better injectors ‘inject’ fuel into the engine cylinders. The process of fuel injection happens
 Fine adjustment according to the environment very easy.
 Simple carburetor is a mechanical device and it will respond uniquely in every understanding of how the fuel system works and how each component plays a part thousands of times while you are driving and that makes the injectors susceptible to
What are the factors affecting carburetion? possible adjustment. in the fuel system. wear. Fuel injectors are the second most vulnerable component in the fuel system
 There is no restriction on the amount of fuel drawn to the cylinder from the and while they don’t need to be replaced that often, they need to be cleaned every
Various Factors that affect the carburation process are listed below float chamber. It can provide a denser mixture at high speed for great power.
 Easy and affordable carburetor repair maintenance. once in a while for them to perform at their best. A fuel system cleaner is what is
 Carburetor vehicle shows more power and precision in the road test. needed.
The Fuel Tank
 Engine speed
 Temperature of incoming air The tank is where all your fuel is stored. It is also the starting point of the entire fuel
 Vaporization characteristics of the fuel Disadvantages of simple carburetor system. Fuel tanks in older cars are usually situated at the back-end, right between Analysis of Carburetor
 Design of carburetor
 At low speed, the amount of fuel in air-fuel mixture is very low. This too lean mixture the rear seat and the trunk. However, modern requirements for trunk space and leg
will not ignite properly. At that conditions, some arrangement is required for the space have led designers to shift the fuel tank under the rear seat in many newer What is a Carburetor?
proper running of engine. vehicles.
Engine speed  It gives stoichiometric mixture only at one specific speed and load. Simple carburetor A carburetor is a component in an automobile engine that is designed to take in
Modern engine run at a very high speed that reduces the time for carburation. For is more suitable for engine running at constant speed. Several modifications have exact air and fuel needed for proper combustion. The part has been the heart of a
example, the engine running at 3000 rpm get approximately only 10 millisecond for made to overcome this drawback of simple carburetor. vehicle’s engine makes it run smoothly and give better horse-power.
the carburation. In this scenario in order to get high-quality air-fuel mixture, the  Fuel economy is very low. It consumes more fuel than the fuel injectors.
 The working of simple carburetor will be affected by the atmospheric pressure. The
The Fuel Pump Carburettors are so perfect that even at cold starting or running hot at high speed,
velocity air should be increased. This high velocity is achieved by introducing getting the exact fuel/air mixture is the job of the mechanical gadget.
setting for carburetor varies with varying altitude.
a venturi section in the path of air. Once you have gas in your tank, it needs to go from the tank through to the engine.
 The working of simple carburetor will be affected by the change in atmospheric
temperature. It happens because of the change in density of air with a change in The distance between the tank and the engine is just too much that gravity or even The working of this component is quite complex in car engine but let me explain. If
Temperature of incoming air temperature. The cold starting of the engine is a big issue. If the carburetor tune up you have enough atoms of oxygen to burn all your atoms of fuel, that is known as
momentum could help. This is where a fuel pump comes in. The pump injects fuel
Temperature and pressure play a major role in producing a homogeneous air-fuel is done in winter, it will give a richer mixture at summer season. a stochiometric mixture.
 The mixture quality will be affected by the inertia of fuel. Sudden opening of throttle into the fuel lines with extreme pressure so that the engine gets the right amount of
mixture. High air temperature increases the vaporization of the fuel. Temperature
can be increased by heating the intake manifold but the higher temperature of input leads to the supply of too lean mixture to the cylinder because the inertia effect fuel at the right time. If the fuel pump is not doing its job properly you are bound to
prevents the immediate flow of fuel (sudden acceleration and starting time). lose power. Also, the fuel pump is the most vulnerable part of the entire fuel system
air decreases output power and volumetric efficiency.
so there are more chances for it needing replacement.
Functions of Carburetor Strainer: Throttle Return Check: Types of Carburetors

 As earlier mentioned, the primary function of a carburetor is to allow a A strainer is a device that filters the fuel before entering the float chamber. It is Due to the fact that the total throttle on an engine running at a very high speed Below are the various types of carburettors which are considered according to the
suitable amount of air and fuel needed to produce power. It’s done at made of a fine wire mesh which filters the fuel from dust and other suspended causes a very high intake manifold vacuum. This will draw exhaust into the engine direction of airflow:
the correct strength under all conditions of load and speed of the engine. particles. Nozzles get block if particles are not removed from the surface of the intake during v/v overlap. The intake chart will be diluted causing misfiring or stall.
strainer.
 It regulates the air-fuel ratio and also mixes the fuels. In modern engines, a throttle return check v/v is connected to the throttle linkage to
Venturi: avoid this issue. Up-draft carburetor:
 Controls the engine speed.
A venturi is a cross-sectional hollow which gradually decreases to reduce the air Automatic Mixture Control: In the up-draft types of carburetor air enters through the bottom side and leaves
 According to the engine speed and load changing, carburettors increase pressure of the chamber. From it, fuel comes out from the fuel pipe to mix. through the top. This is to let the direction of its flow upward. The fuel comes from
or decrease the amount of mixture. There is a plunger shaped valve in a carburetor which is controlled by a solenoid and the float chamber and the pressure difference within the two-chamber is achieved
Choke Valve: spring. It operates the separate jet in the float chamber. The solenoid is turned on by venturi.
 It vaporizes the fuel and mixes the air to a homogeneous air-fuel mixture. and the v/v is lifted to increase the amount of fuel supply to the jet. When the
A choke valve is another part in the carburetor that controls the mixture of air/fuel. solenoid is turned off the spring pushes the valve down to decrease fuel supplied. Fuel comes out from the fuel pipe and mixes with the inlet air to make the fuel/air
 Also, help to keep a certain head of fuel in the float chamber all the time. Its purpose is to control the quantity of the air inside the mixing chamber. mixture. The fuel pass through the throttle valve which is directly connected directly
This solenoid is a computer control system which received signals from the engine’s to the accelerator. This mixture then goes into the engine cylinder to perform the
 Helps the fuel to burn smoothly and properly without any problem. It is a valve that normally stays at semi-open condition, but when a rich mixture is speed, coolant temperature. carburetor with this feature is also called feedback- combustion.
required the valve is operated. The inlet of the air within the chamber is closed so controlled calculators.
the rich mixture can be obtained. This as a result of the quantity of fuel in the There is a limitation with this type of carburetor that makes other more preferred
Functional Parts of Carburetors mixture is more because of less air in the chamber. Anti-dieseling Solenoid: which is that the sprayed fuel droplet must be lifted by air friction.

Below are the major parts of a carburetor: This valve is also helpful in winter season when engines hardly start. It is used to Because modern emission control engine usually runs hotter, resulting in some hot
supply the mixture of rich air-fuel to the engine cylinder. spots on the combustion chamber. These hot spots cause pre-ignition in the
Throttle Valve: chamber. Carburettors are designed with an anti-dieseling solenoid in modern
Float Chamber: engines to prevent the pre-ignition. Down-draft Carburetor:
The function of a throttle valve in a carburetor is to controls the air/fuel mixture
Float chambers are storage tank for fuel that aid the continuous supply of fuel. It Down-draft carburetor is the most used and common because of its advantages. It
(charge) that enters the engine cylinder. This throttle valve is opened when the
features a floating valve that maintains the level of fuel in the float chamber. supplies air from the top portion of the mixing chamber. Some of its advantages
accelerating pedal is pressed.
include:
Metering system: When the fuel level increases, the float moves upward which close and stop the fuel  The gravity assists the flow of the mixture, making the engine pulls better
supply. Also, when the level of fuel decreases in the float chamber the float moves at lower speeds under load.
This part controls the flow of fuel into the nozzle making it responsible for the exact downward. This opens the fuel supply valve and allows more flow of fuel into the  The position of the carburetor is easily accessible.
mixture of air-fuel. It consists of metering orifice and a fuel discharge nozzle. float chamber.  A higher value of volumetric efficiency can be achieved with an engine
with such a part.
When air passes through the venturi, the low-pressure field is produced across the Mixing Chamber:
throat because of the pressure difference between air and fuel. The fuel is then
discharged into the air stream. The metering orifice and a discharge hole at the exit The mixing chamber is where air and fuel mixture takes place, which is then Horizontal Carburetor:
of the fuel discharge nozzle control the quantity of the fuel. transferred to the engine cylinder.
The horizontal carburetor is third types which are known when a down-draft
Idling system: Idle and transfer port: carburetor is in a horizontal direction. Its working principle is very simple. The
carburetor stays in a horizontal position where the air is coming in through one end
The passage from the float chamber to the venturi tube is called an idling system. It In the carburettor’s venturi, there are two nozzles or ports that help to deliver fuel to
of it. it mixes the fuel before going into the engine cylinder for combustion
offers a rich mixture during idling and at low speed. it works when the throttle is the engine cylinder.
open below 15% or during idling.
In modern automobile engines, there are some additional parts that featured their
carburettors to improve efficiency. These parts include:

Advantages: Automotive Powertrain Axles: Axles are an important member of a powertrain. It lies between the wheels What is an Automotive Clutch?
 Carburetor parts are less expensive when compared to that of a fuel and mainly performs two functions: first, it puts up with the weight of the vehicle The meaning of clutch is to hold on to or grab or grip something. The automotive
injector. and it also rotates and transmits the power of the engine to the wheels. clutch is a device that engages and disengages the drive between two moving
 Air and fuel mixture is perfectly done with the component. mechanisms or assemblies, such as a gearbox. One of them consists of the driving
 It has more power and precision of the air/fuel mixture. Differential: A differential is a part of the rear axle. It allows each rear wheel to turn gears while the other has driven gears.
 The engine component is not restricted by the amount of gas pumped at a different speed. For instance, the differential is important when turning a corner,
from the fuel tank. This is to say; the cylinders may pull more fuel as the outside wheel needs to rotate faster than the inside wheel. However, the driving gears get the engine’s rotating motion while the driven gears
through the carburetor leading to greater power and denser mixture in The powertrain is crucial because without the system working properly, your vehicle rotate the wheels. An automotive clutch connects/disconnects the engine with the
the chamber. cannot move forward. To sum up, it's a group of parts that generate, convert, and gearbox that spins at different speeds than the engine. It allows the smooth shifting
consume energy to thrust your vehicle into motion. of gears by disengaging and re-engaging the engine from the gearbox when the
Disadvantages: vehicle is in motion.
 Mixture supplied at a very low speed is weak making the engine not to
The Difference Between a Powertrain and Drivetrain
perfectly ignite. Function:
The words “powertrain” and “drivetrain” are often used interchangeably, but they
 The engine part can be affected by changes in atmospheric pressure. The clutch ‘engages’ when it connects the two rotating shafts to lock together. Thus,
are a little bit different. Simply put, a drivetrain transmits power to the wheels. A
 More fuel is consumed more fuel when compared with fuel injectors. they become one unit and spin at the same speed. It ‘disengages’ when the shafts
powertrain consists of an engine (or a motor) and a drivetrain. The drivetrain, like
 More air emissions than fuel injectors. are unlocked (not locked) and spin at different speeds. However, the clutch is said to
the powertrain, is not a single component of your vehicle. The drivetrain is made of
 Higher maintenance than fuel injectors. be ‘slipping’ when the shafts are still locked together, but they rotate at different
the transmission, driveshaft, axles, differential, and wheels
speeds.

In other words, the automotive clutch engages and disengages

Emission Control System the power transmission to the gearbox while shifting the gears either accelerates or
Automotive Clutch slows down the vehicle. Thus, it avoids the friction between the driving and driven
What is automotive powertrain? gears being engaged/disengaged. It also prevents any damage to the gears.
emission control system, in automobiles, means employed to limit the
discharge of noxious gases from the internal-combustion engine and other A powertrain is an assembly of every component that pushes your vehicle forward. Generally, vehicles with manual gearboxes have a single clutch. However, automatic
components. There are three main sources of these gases: the engine exhaust, Your car's powertrain creates power from the engine and delivers it to the wheels on transmission vehicles could have more than one clutch.
the crankcase, and the fuel tank and carburetor. The exhaust pipe discharges the ground. The key components of a powertrain include an engine, transmission,
driveshaft, axles, and differential Characteristics of automotive clutch:
burned and unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides
The automotive clutch must possess the following qualities:
of nitrogen and sulfur, and traces of various acids, alcohols, and phenols. 1. Transmission of torque – It should be capable of transmitting the
Engine: As the heart of your vehicle, an engine generates power to drive the car. An
The crankcase is a secondary source of unburned hydrocarbons and, to a lesser engine consists of pistons that move up and down inside cylinders and a crankshaft maximum engine torque.
extent, carbon monoxide. In the fuel tank and (in older automobiles) that translates the reciprocating motion into a rotating motion. 2. Gradual engagement – It should engage/disengage gradually and
the carburetor, hydrocarbons that are continually evaporating positively without any jerks/shocks.
from gasoline constitute a minor but not insignificant contributing factor in Transmission: A transmission is a basic component in your car that makes sure the 3. Dissipation of heat – Operation of clutch generates a large amount of
pollution. A variety of systems for controlling emissions from all these sources proper amount of power is transmitted to the wheels. Like a car's gearbox, the heat. Hence, the clutch should ensure sufficient heat dissipation.
have been developed. transmission takes the power from the engine and adjusts it according to driving 4. Dynamically balanced – It must be dynamically balanced, especially in
conditions, ultimately transferring it to the wheels. high-speed vehicles.
In the crankcase—the portion of the engine block below the cylinders where 5. Damping of vibrations – It must have a suitable mechanism for
the crankshaft is located—leaked combustion gases are combined with Driveshaft: A driveshaft is a component that transfers the torque from the damping the vibrations and eliminating noise during transmission.
ventilating air and returned to the intake manifold for reburning in the transmission to the wheels. To perform this task, it has to work through various 6. Compact size – It must be of the smallest size and occupy a minimum
combustion chamber. The device that performs this function is known as the angles and change its length to adjust to movement in the suspension. amount of space.
positive crankcase ventilation valve, or PCV valve. 7. Free pedal play – It must have provision for the pedal play to reduce
the effective clamping load on the thrust bearing and also its wear &
tear.
Components: Transmission 2. Gearbox:
Typically, the basic clutch mechanism consists of a driven plate (or clutch plate), It consists of some pairs of gear wheels. These transmit the motion available from
Requirements of Transmission System.
which has a splined hub at the center. It slides onto the gearbox’s driveshaft and the crankshaft, through the clutch, at different speeds.
presses against the engine’s flywheel. The clutch pedal performs the clutch operation The transmission system, therefore, should fulfill the following requirements:
with the help of a set of levers. First, it releases the driven plate, which gets pushed What is Automobile Transmission System? This provides required leverage between the engine and the road wheels. This
away from the flywheel. It occurs when the engine connects to the wheels. On the The internal combustion engine generates power which is transmitted to the road 1. Enable the engine to keep disconnected from the road wheels. These should be
leverage is variable to cope up the different conditions encountered during the
other hand, the pressure plate presses the driven plate against the flywheel. It wheels. connected only ‘when desired.’
movement of the vehicle.
consists of either several coil springs or a cone-shaped single diaphragm spring. 2. Enable the engine, when running, to be connected smoothly and gradually without
The output from the engine is available in the form of rotation of the crankshaft. This jerk to the road wheels. 3. Propeller shaft:
rotary motion is transmitted to the road wheels. 3. Enable the leverage between the engine and the road wheels. This leverage should The third component of the automobile transmission system, which transfers motion
Types of automotive clutch: The friction between the road and the surface of the wheel makes possible the be variable to cope with the different conditions such as starting from the rest, from the gearbox end to the differential end. The distance between the two can be
There are different types of clutches depending upon their application. However, the movement of the automobile. Transmission system performs this function. moving at uniform speed or climbing a hill. large, and therefore, it is a shaft which is thin and long to connect the two.
manufacturers use the following types in the automotive drive transmission: 4. Enable the reduction in the engine speed.
The automobile transmission system consists of several components. These 5. Turn the drive through 90 degrees. 4. Differential:
1. Friction – Most common type and basic clutch. It uses friction to components work together to transmit the rotary motion at the crankshaft smoothly 6. It should enable the running of inner and outer road wheels at different speeds One of the requirements of the transmission system is to turn the motion through 90
synchronize the speeds and/or to transmit power. and efficiently to the road wheels. when the vehicle moves on a curved path. degrees as the axis of the propeller shaft and live axle are at a right angle to each
2. Mechanically operated – Operates using mechanical linkages, typically 7. It should provide the relative motion between the engine and the road wheels other. This is performed by the differential through wheel and pinion arrangement.
used in old trucks. However, it needs more force to operate. A sudden change of state, from rest to motion or vice versa is not desirable. It may
when they move up and down due to the uneven road surface.
3. Hydraulically operated – Operates using hydraulic cylinders, typically be uncomfortable, or even dangerous, to the occupants of the automobile. Another function performed by the differential is the variation in the speeds of inner
used in cars. Thus, very light to operate. and outer wheels when the vehicle is taking a turn.
4. Dry-type – This is the most common type of automotive clutch which Therefore, the rotary motion of crankshaft should be transmitted gradually and not
most vehicles employ. The dry clutch system uses only friction to suddenly. Another aspect of transmission is that the motion from the crankshaft Components of Transmission System 5. Live axle:
engage. should not be transmitted as soon as the engine starts. The transmission system consists of the following components: The axle where motion from the crankshaft of the engine is transferred is known as a
5. Wet type – This clutch is immersed in the lubricating oil, typically used live axle. The other axle takes up only the load of the vehicle and therefore is termed
in motorcycles. 1. Clutch. as dead axle or simply the axle.
6. Pull type – The pressing of the pedal pulls the release bearing, pulls the 2. Gearbox.
diaphragm spring, and disengages the drive. 3. Propeller shaft. The motion is generally transferred to the rear axle, but it can be transferred to the
7. Push type – The pedal pressing pushes the thrust bearing on the clutch 4. Differential. front axle or both the axles. When the motion is transferred to both the axles, it is
and disengages the drive. 5. Live Axle. known as four-wheel drive.
8. Single plate – Uses only one friction plate.
9. Dual-clutch – It uses two separate clutches – one for odd and the other Finally, motion is transferred to the road wheels at the two ends of the live axle.
for even gears.
10. Multi-plate – Uses multiple friction plates. 1. Clutch: The wheels rotate, and friction between their surface and road surface makes
11. Slipper clutch – Used to eliminate the effects of engine braking. This component enables the engine to keep disconnected from road wheels. possible the movements of the vehicle on the road.
12. Overrunning clutch – It automatically disengages if the driven member
rotates faster than the driving member. The rotary motion available at the crankshaft is not transferred to road wheels. It
13. Lock-up clutch – Above a certain speed, it locks up the torque allows the transfer of motion when desired by the driver of the automobile.
converter. This minimizes the power loss and improves fuel efficiency.
Clutch also allows the transfer of motion gradually so that the vehicle starts moving
gradually. It works on the principle of friction.

Brake System Drum Brake

Components of the braking system
What is a brake system? Drum Brakes
A brake is a mechanical device designed to restrain motion by absorbing energy from Drum brakes have brake drums that rotate with the wheels.
Below are the components used in the braking system:
a moving system usually by the means of friction. It is used to slow or stop a moving
vehicle, wheels, axle, etc. The braking system is a complication device with a lot of
parts, but its working seems very easy. After all, pressing a single pedal will activate Brake pedal: the component of a brake system is used to activate the brake by Brake shoes fitted with brake linings (friction material) which press against the drums
all brakes on the four wheels. The slowing down is achieved by hydraulic fluid, which pressing it down by foot. It’s located in the middle of the accelerator and clutch from the inside to generate braking force (decelerate and stop) are set inside of the
is often bleed to get the best performance of the breaking. Air is not allowed in the pedal inside the vehicle.
drums.
system else the component won’t work well. Fluid reservoir: The fluid reservoir is the housing where the brake fluid or brake oil is With this system, friction is generated by pressing the brake linings against the inside
store.
Most brakes are designed to use friction between two surfaces, they’re pressed to surfaces of the drums. This friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy.
Fluid lines: The fluid lines are the pipes through which the brake fluid flows in the
convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat. Though several methods Drum rotation helps to press the shoes and the lining against the drum with more
vehicle.
of energy conversion are now employed. In an automobile, friction brakes store force, offering superior braking force in comparison with disc brakes. On the other
braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake which then gradually converts into the Brake pads: The brake pad is a steel backing plate employed on disc brakes. It’s often
air. made of ceramic, metal, or other hard-wearing composite materials. hand, it is very important to design the components so that the heat from the
thermal energy is dissipated efficiently into the atmosphere.
Brake shoes: Brake shoes are two pieces of sheet steel joined together so it can carry
On modern vehicles, the brake pedal is pushed against the master cylinder. There is a the brake lining. There are three types of drum brakes depending on how the brake shoes are pressed
piston that pushes the brake pad against the brake disc, which slows the wheel on to the drums
down. On the brake drum, the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum to Brake drum: The brake drum is a rotating drum-shaped component used in the drum
slow down the wheel. brake system.
1) leading/trailing shoe type
Rotor: The rotor is a cast-iron brake disc connected to a wheel or axle, sometimes
2) twin leading shoe type
Functions of the automotive braking system made of reinforced carbon-carbon, ceramic matric, or some other composite.
Below are the functions braking system used in the automotive engine: 3) duo-servo type
Brake lining: A brake lining is a heat-resistant, soft but also tough material with high
friction characteristics. It’s enclosed inside the brake shoe.
 A brake system helps to stop vehicles within the smallest possible Structure of drum brakes
distance. This is achieved by converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle Caliper: The caliper carries the brake pads and pistons.
Drum brakes are a brake system with brake drums (rotor) which rotate with the
into heat energy. Floating caliper or sliding caliper: the part moves relatively with the rotor as it uses a
wheels. Inside each drum are brake shoes fitted with brake linings (friction material).
 It also functions on a mechanical device where motion occurs, the brake piston on a single side of the disc to push the inner brake pad into the braking
surface. It then pulls the caliper body in to apply pressure on the opposite side of the Pistons (pressure mechanism) press against the drums from the inside to generate
is applied to stop it within a short period of time.
disc. braking force, thus making is possible to decelerate and stop the vehicle.
Characteristics of Brake System
Fixed calipers: the fixed caliper does not move in relative to the rotor, which works
The characteristic of a brake system includes peak force, continuous power
sensitive to imperfections. It uses one or more single pairs of opposing pistons to
dissipation, fade, smoothness, power, pedal feel, drag, durability, weight, and noise.
clamp from each side of the rotor.
Some other factors that are listed may be considered as the characteristic of a brake
system. Continue reading to get to know them. Master cylinder: the master cylinder converts the non-hydraulic pressure from the
driver’s foot into hydraulic pressure. it then controls the slave cylinders at the
opposite end of the hydraulic system.
Vacuum booster: this braking system component is used to improve the master
cylinder and increase pressure to which the driver foot supply through the use of a
vacuum in the engine intake. This is effective while the vehicle’s engine is running.
How drum brakes work Disc Brake How disc brakes work Hydraulic Brake System
When the driver steps on the brake pedal, the power is amplified by the brake Disc Brakes When the driver steps on the brake pedal, the power is amplified by the brake
What Is Hydraulic Braking System?
booster (servo system) and changed into hydraulic pressure (oil-pressure) by the booster (servo system) and changed into a hydraulic pressure (oil-pressure) by the A hydraulic brakes system is a braking mechanism that uses brake fluid to transmit
master cylinder. The pressure reaches the brakes on the wheels via tubing filled with Brake rotors of disc brakes rotate with the wheels, and brake pads, which are fitted master cylinder. The pressure reaches the brakes on the wheels via tubing filled with force into the system. The fluid transfers pressure from the control mechanism to
brake oil (brake fluid). The delivered pressure pushes the pistons on the brakes of the to the brake calipers, clamp on these rotors to stop or decelerate the wheels. The brake oil (brake fluid). The delivered pressure pushes the pistons on the brakes of the the braking mechanism. Hydraulic braking systems are widely used in low-speed
brake pads pushing against the rotors generate friction, which transforms kinetic four-wheelers such as the Tata Ace. It works with the drum type, while the disc type
four wheels. The pistons press the brake linings, which are friction materials, against four wheels. The pistons in turn press the brake pads, which are friction material, is used in almost all cars.
the inside surfaces of the brake drums which rotate with the wheels. The linings are energy into a thermal energy. against the brake rotors which rotate with the wheels. The pads clamp on the rotors
pressed on the rotating drums, which in turn decelerate the wheels, thereby slowing from both sides and decelerate the wheels, thereby slowing down and stopping the It is also used on some bikes. Single-acting hydraulic sacks are used in some Pulsar
Disc brakes are generally used in passenger cars, but due to their stable performance front-wheel brakes, while dual-acting hydraulic brakes are used in almost all
down and stopping the vehicle. at higher speeds and resistance to brake fade, they are gradually spreading into the vehicle.
situations described above.
commercial vehicle segment, where drum brakes were traditionally chosen for their
In thises type of braking system, the mechanical forces transmitted by the driver on
longer service life. There is increasing demand from customers for longer service life
the brake pedal are converted to hydraulic pressure by a device known as a master
and higher quality, and Akebono is committed to meeting them through further cylinder (see article on the master cylinder), and then this hydraulic pressure is sent
development of the disc brake’s reliability. There are two types of disc brakes. to the final drum or disc. It goes to stop or accelerate the caliper vehicle.

The "opposed piston type disc brake" has pistons on both sides of the disc rotor, The hydraulic brakes are a type of braking system widely used in automobiles with
while the "floating type disc brake" has a piston on only one side. Floating caliper the application of hydraulic fluid. The working principle of hydraulic braking systems
is based entirely on Pascal’s law, which states that the intensity of pressure inside a
type disc brakes are also called sliding pin type disc brakes. system closed by a liquid is always the same in all directions.

Disc brake construction

Main components of Drum brake The brake rotor (disc) which rotates with the wheel, is clamped by brake pads
(friction material) fitted to the caliper from both sides with pressure from the Main components of floating type disc brakes
piston(s) (pressure mechanism) and decelerates the disc rotation, thereby slowing
down and stopping the vehicle.

Construction of Hydraulic Braking System: 4. Hydraulic Lines The following process occurs when the driver applies a brake in a vehicle equipped The process involved is similar to that of a drum drum when the driver brakes a
The construction of hydraulic braking systems involves the following part Hydraulic lines are the relationships between the various components of a braking with hydraulic brakes mounted on the drum. The speed or activation of the brake vehicle equipped with a disc-type hydraulic brake when the high-pressure brake fluid
arrangement. Brake pedal or level, a wreath, also known as an actuating rod, a system. Braking fluid passes through these lines from the master cylinder to the pedal causes a master cylinder to move a rod connected between the pedal and the enters the brake lines but is slightly different thereafter – High-pressure brake fluid
master cylinder assembly is carrying a piston assembly. It is composed of one or two brake. piston, which in turn pushes the piston of the master cylinder inside the master from the brake lines enters the disc caliper cylinder of the disc brake system.
pistons, a return spring, a series of gasket or O rings, and a fluid reservoir. These are small diameter pipes that replace various types of mechanical linkage in cylinder like a medical syringe.
The construction of hydraulic braking systems consists of reinforced hydraulic lines, the case of mechanical brakes. This high-pressure brake fluid causes motion in the piston of the caliper cylinder,
& the brake caliper assembly consists of one or two hollows aluminum or chrome- This movement of the pistons inside the master cylinders causes compression of the which in turn causes the speed of the brake pads attached to the piston inside the
plated steels piston. This is known as the caliper piston. 5. Brake Calipers brake fluid inside the master cylinder, which in turn converts mechanical energy to caliper
In the case of brake brakes, brake calipers are parts of the braking system that hydraulic pressure. Thises highly compressed brake fluid from the master cylinders
A thermally conductive brake is a set of pads and rotors, also known as a brake disc performs the brakes. Inside the brake calipers, pistons are placed, which are moves inside the brake, and this hydraulic pressure transfers from the master Single Acting Disc Type Braking – The function of single-acting disc type hydraulic
or drum attached to an axle. A glycol-ether-based brake fluid filled the system to responsible for braking. Brake pads are also attached to pistons. cylinder to the brake drum. braking is exactly the same as mentioned above; this type of braking provides a
force the four wheels. However, other liquids may also be employed. Suddenly, Calipers are placed on the circumference of the disc. The disc brake is an externally single braking force in the single wheel or single pair wheels.
manufacturers start designing passenger vehicles with drum brakes on four wheels. applied braking system. A disc is placed between the calipers. When this high-pressure brake fluid o enters the wheel cylinder or drum cylinder due
Traditionally, disc brakes are used in the front wheel, while drum brakes are to its high pressure, there is movement in the cylinder piston, which in turn expands Double-acting disc type braking – In a double-acting disc type hydraulic brake, high-
employed for the rear wheel. Disc brakes have better heat dissipation & greater 6. Drum Cylinder the static brake shoe attached to it. pressure brake fluid is delivered in 2 directions from the master cylinder, that is, due
resistance to fading and are safer than drum brakes. This is why four-wheel disc A drum cylinder is a type of small cylinder that is used in drum brakes, and the brake to the use of tandem master cylinders in both wheels and bikes in all wheels.
brakes have increased significantly over the year. In addition, hydraulic brake pedals is located inside the drum and is connected to both brake shoes. The drum brake is Due to the expansion of the brake shoe, a friction contact is formed between the
provide faster and more consistent pad return upon release. an internally applied brake brake shoes and the drum lining (rotating drum part), which in turn converts the Application of Hydraulic Braking System:
kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat energy & finally braking.
Parts of Hydraulic Braking System: Working of Hydraulic Braking System: Single-acting drum-type braking – Single-acting drum type hydraulic brakes work  Drum type hydraulic brakes – They are used in some low-speed four-
The work of the hydraulic braking system is very simple. To execute the brakes, we exactly as stated above; this type of braking provides braking force in the single wheel vehicles such as Tata Ace.
have two types of components: a disc brake and a drum brake. The initial work is the wheel or single pair.  Disc Type Hydraulic Brakes – They are used in almost all cars like Maruti
1. Master Cylinder Suzuki Swift, Hyundai i20, etc., & also in bikes like Bajaj Pulsar 180, KTM
It is the main part of the entire assembly. It acts as a hydraulic actuator with a piston- same for both types, but the execution technique is different. Disc brakes are
externally applied brakes through the brake calipers and discs, while drum brakes are Double Acting Drum Type Braking – High-pressure brake fluid from the master Duke 390, etc.
cylinder arrangement. It is responsible for converting mechanical force into hydraulic cylinder in double-acting hydraulic brakes is divided into two directions, i.e., all  Single-acting hydraulic brake – Pulsar 180 front brakes are of single-
force. applied internally through brake shoes and brake drums.
wheels of bikes and all wheels of cars, due to the use of tandems master cylinders acting type.
Fluid is compressed and pressurized into the master cylinder as a brake pedal that is (article on master cylinder).  Dual Acting Hydraulic Brakes – All of the above cars.
transmitted to the brake assembly via hydraulic lines. The working of both the types is as follows:-
1. Drum Hydraulic Brake
2. Disc Hydraulic Brakes Advantages of Hydraulic Braking System :
2. Brake Pedal and Mechanical Linkage
The brake pedal acts as the input of the master cylinder, or we can say that the o Equal braking action on all wheels.
entire assembly will start working when the brake pedal is pressed. It is manually o Increased braking force.
pressed when we have to stop or slow down the running body. o Simple in construction.
It is connected with a small mechanical contact such as a spring that helps retract the o The low wear rate of brake linings.
pedal and further connects to the master cylinder. After the execution of the brake o The flexibility of brake linings.
pedal, the master cylinder comes in handy. o Increased mechanical advantage.

3. Hydraulic/Brake Fluid Reservoir

Disadvantages of Hydraulic Braking System :
It is like a small tank for braking fluid. It is directly connected to the master cylinder
o The whole braking system fails due to leakage of fluid from brake
for proper handling of hydraulic braking. It is necessary to maintain the exact amount
linings.
of braking fluid throughout the assembly.
o The presence of air inside the tubings ruins the whole system
o Maintenance is more than other braking systems.
o Construction is complex.
 Air Brake System Part of Air Brake Systems: 5. Safety Valve Construction of Air Brakes Systems:
The safety valve is a safety component that attaches to the air storage tank. This
prevents the bursting of the tank due to excessive pressure because the air
What Is Air Brake Systems? compressor works continuously and supplies the compressed air in the tank. Air is
Air brake systems are commonly used in heavy commercial vehicles and trucks. They released by the safety valves when the air pressure reaches certain values.
require a heavy braking effort that can be applied by the driver’s leg alone. You apply
compressed air pressure to operate the air brake instead of just the foot pressure 6. Dirt Collector
acting against the flexible diaphragm in the brake chamber. A dirt collector is a small device used before the triplet valve. It is used to collect dirt
particles separated by air filters.
Today we will learn about the air brake system. The air braking system is a high-
power braking system. It is commonly used on heavy vehicles, such as trucks, buses, 7. Brake Drum
etc. In my previous posts, we have discussed several types of brakes, and we know The brake drum is the part that performs the brake. This is the last part of the brake
that there are only two types of braking systems. assembly. It is mounted on automobile tires.

The first one is known as the disc brake, and the second one is the drum brake. These 8. Braking Lines
brakes are driven by humans or some other power source. According to the power Braking lines are also known as supply lines. The transfers of compressed air from
source, these brakes can be classified into other types such as hydraulic brakes, air the reservoir to the brake drum are done by simply breaking the lines.
brakes, vacuum brakes, etc. When driving a heavy load vehicle, it is impossible for Air brake systems consist of a two-stage air compressor powered by a crankshaft or
humans to generate braking force. 9. Triple Valve gearbox shafts. It takes air from the atmosphere, compressed it, & sends it to the air
The triple brake is responsible for the entire operation of the air brake. Applying and reservoir through an un-loader valve. Where the reservoir pressure reaches the
1. Air Compressor maximum degree, the unloader valve opens.
Working of Air Brake Systems: releasing the brakes requires a continuously applied and releasing mechanism that is
The air compressor is the main part of any air brake system that is driven by the performed by the triple valve. When the brake pedals are pressed, it applies pressure
When the brake pedals are pressed, the exhaust passage closes, and the air intake
engine using a belt drive. It compresses atmospheric air to the desired pressure and The compressed air is then directed directly into the atmosphere. Each of the four
route opens, and the compressed air moves back into the chamber. During the while it releases the pressure immediately when the pedal is released.
transfers it to the storage tank. wheels fitted with brake chambers has a diaphragm, and air pressure is applied and
return stroke, the exhaust passage opens while the intake is closed and the air used
10. Air Filter and Dryer pushed. This force operates the cam actuating lever and applies the brakes.
goes into the atmosphere. 2. Storage Tank
Air filters and dryers are the two major components that are used before entering Each of the brake chambers is attached to the brake pedal, and the air filter is also
It stores compressed atmospheric air at high pressure. Also, an essential part of the fitted between the brake valve and the reservoir.
The system is equipped with an emergency mechanical brake, which can be used the air compressor. As the name suggests, air filters are used to remove dust mites
air brake systems as compressed air is responsible for the entire operation. The from atmospheric air, while a dryer inlet removes moisture and humidity from the
when the air supply fails the air brake system, known as the air-assisted hydraulic brakes can be applied several times while the automobile is running, so the
air. Working Principle of Air Brakes Systems:
braking system. compressor is not capable of performing these tasks alone, which requires aerial
It is necessary that only dry air enter the air compressor because the moisture As shown in the figure, compressed air (about 700 kPa) is used in the air brake to
storage. activate the brake mechanism. The figure shows the complete layout of the air brake
When the driver of the vehicle presses the brake pedal to stop or stop the vehicle, content will cause the failure of the braking system due to the condensation of water
particles. systems. It consists of an air filter, unloading valve, air compressor, air reservoir,
the following procedures take place – When the driver starts the engine, the brake 3. Brake Pedal brake valve, and 4 number brake chamber.
compressor starts because it is powered by the engine, which in turn starts The brake pedal is an input to the brake mechanisms. It is operated by the drivers
compressing atmospheric air and the compressed air is sent to the compressed air inside the automobiles. The brake pedal is a type of mechanical linkage that transfers The compressors take atmospheric air through the air filter & compress the air. This
reservoir with this optimal air through the compressor governor Which always the input motion to the forward mechanism and initiates the brake application. air is stored under pressure in air reservoirs. From this reservoir, air travels to the
contains some amount of air stored from the previous cycle.
various goods of the vehicle, which operate on compressed air.
4. Brake Actuator
With this friction contact between the brake pads and the rotation, drum line brakes A brake actuator is a piston-cylinder arrangement that is directly connected with the A portion of the air goes into the brake valve. The brake valve is controlled by a
are applied to the wheels to stop or stop the vehicle. When the driver presses the brake pedal. When the brake pedals are pressed, it creates pressure throughout the driver who controls the intensities of braking according to an emergency.
brake pedals, the outlet valve of the triple valves closes, and the inlet valve opens, assembly.
which in turn passes the compressed air from the reservoir to pass through the brake
lines of the system.

Pedal Depressed:- When the brake pedals are depressed, compressed air from a Antilock Brake System Wheel speed sensors continuously monitor the speed of each wheel. As long as all
reservoir is transmitted uniformly in all directions to the brake chambers through the the wheels have comparable speed, the system does not interfere with their
brake valve through a pipe that applies the brake. operation. However, if the speed sensors find that any of the wheels’ speed is
reducing drastically, it means that the particular wheel is going to lock.
Pedal Released:- When the drivers release the brake pedals, the master cylinder Antilock Braking System (ABS): Construction And Working
returns to its original position due to the piston return spring, and the pressure is Antilock Braking System (ABS) is a type of vehicle’s active safety system. It is also However, the locked wheel hampers vehicle stability. Thus, the vehicle stops
dropped. It releases brake shoes from the brake drum: the original position and the known as the anti-skid braking system. This system comes into action when the responding to the steering input given by the driver. At this moment, the vehicle also
brakes are released. driver suddenly applies the brakes during an emergency. Employing the antilock starts to skid, thereby causing a fatal accident. To avoid such a mishap, the ABS
braking system on cars and bikes is now mandatory in most parts of the world. comes into action.
Advantages of Air Braking Systems:
The need for Anti-lock Brakes:
 It is more effective than other brakes. Whenever the driver suddenly applies the brakes to a high-speed vehicle, there is
 The air brake parts are conveniently located where the chassis design is always a chance of the ‘wheel-lock.’ The wheel-lock means that the respective wheel
simple to make. stops suddenly instead of slowly coming to a halt. Due to the wheel-lock, the driver
 Compressed air can be used for tire inflation wipers, horns, and other loses control over the vehicle, and the vehicle skids off the road. Thus, a fatal
accessories. accident takes place. In order to avoid such situations, the manufacturers employ the
 It employs only air as a working medium that is readily available. ABS.
This is how ABS takes corrective action.
 It is used in railways.
 Today, all the trucks and buses on the road, some of them use air brake Components:
systems. The ABS has the following components:
1. Wheel speed sensors Advantages of Antilock braking system:
 It is easy to store air at highs pressures.
 It provides heavy braking effects used in heavy vehicles & trucks. 2. ABS control module
3. Brake control unit 1. ABS maintains the vehicle’s steerability and stability during panic
 This provides better control. braking.
 This reduces the stopping distance. 4. Valves
5. Pump 2. It reduces the braking distance by up to 10% or more, especially on wet
 This mainly allows for less wear and tear of parts. surfaces.
 It has a flexible hose connection.

Disadvantages of Air Braking Systems: This is how the ABS detects a problem.

 Air brakes generally cost more.

 Air-brake systems compress air, which results in moisture that requires air How does the ABS work?
dryers to remove, which also increases the price for air-brake systems and
can contribute to higher maintenance and repair costs, particularly in the After receiving the signal of very low speed from the wheel speed sensor, the ABS
first five years. module orders the brake control unit to reduce that wheel’s braking force. Reducing
 Noise pollution the braking force means reducing the hydraulic pressure in the brake line acting on
that wheel. The Brake Control Unit reduces the line pressure with the help of valves Disadvantages:
in the system. The wheel starts rotating faster when the braking force reduces,
thereby avoiding the wheel-lock. As the wheel doesn’t lock, the vehicle’s steerability Perhaps the only disadvantage of the Antilock Braking System is its higher cost. In
remains intact. Thus, it means that the vehicle moves according to the driver’s input recent times, purchasing the Antilock Braking System installed bike or car costs
without skidding. Once the Brake Control Unit restores the regular operation, it also significantly to the customer. However, this higher cost entirely offsets the
restores the brake line’s hydraulic pressure with the help of a pump. improved safety this system provides. Also, the auto industry is working on
developing a low-cost version of the antilock braking system.
 Power Steering Manual Steering
Steering System Automobiles are always equipped with front-wheel steering. A simple sketch of a car Definition Power steering is a system that helps
in steering the wheels using some
Manual steering is a system in which manual
force is used for steering.
Wheel Alignment
steering system is shown in the figure.
source of power.
Steering System, in automobiles, steering wheel, gears, linkages, and other
What is a Wheel Alignment?
components used to control the direction of a vehicle's motion. The Basic of Steering System
Wheel alignment refers to the angle of your wheels in comparison to each other and
Steering a vehicle is pretty easy stuff right, but do you know how it works it seems so Mechanism Hydraulic : rack and pinion, A manual steering rack uses a rack and
simple but it’s really not. Let’s take a look at what your vehicle’s moving parts are recirculating ball and nut, worm and pinion, worm and roller and recirculation ball the body of your vehicle. Wheel alignment is adjusted by altering the vehicle’s
The car steering system or just steering system is the most important part in
actually doing. roller, hydrostatic and nut. suspension. Using state of the art technology, Tyre Specialists at Tyres and More are
automobile vehicle steering control, respond so well to the driver while driving.
able to accurately determine exactly how much adjustment is required and apply
Steering control makes you feel safe while driving. Electrical: Rack and pinion, column
As you turn the steering wheel the steering shaft rotates the pinion gear. The teeth accordingly. We recommend that you get your wheel alignment checked at least
driven EPS, pinion driven EPS, Rack
The car steering system in the automobile is the process of running the vehicle in the of the pinion gear and the steering rack interlock as the pinion rotate. This rotation driven EPS every 10000km as well as any time you experience a change in the driving or
desired direction by turning, usually the front wheels. For effective control of the will push the rack when the rack moves the attached rods and steering knuckles act handling of your vehicle.
vehicle throughout its speed range with safety, proper steering is necessary. as pivot points and turn the front tyres. Response Comparatively quick Comparatively slow
Wheel alignment refers to the angle of your wheels in comparison to each other and
The system allows a driver to use only light forces to steer a heavy car. For example, rotating the steering wheel to the left will push the rack to the right the body of your vehicle. Wheel alignment is adjusted by altering the vehicle's
pivoting the front tyres to the left. Resistance to Less More suspension.
Steering is also possible by the turning of the rear wheels, which is used generally in wheel
The more you turn the steering wheel the more rack is pushed and the sharper the movement
low-speed slow-floor vehicles, for lifting and transporting heavy parts to a short What are the Warning Signs of Misaligned Wheels?
distance for example forklift. turn will be a little confusing well don’t worry you don’t have to be a mechanic to
Preferred Comparatively heavy weight vehicles Low weight vehicles The angle of your wheels can become skewed over time causing various
steer a vehicle but we wanted you to have a visual of exactly that is occurring when
changes to your driving experience. Warning signs that it is time to get
If you’d like to know all about the car steering system. Like how it works, What are you make that turn of the wheel.
Elements A hydraulic pump, fluid reservoir, Steering wheel and column, a manual your wheel alignment checked:
the types of the steering system, How it supports handling, and road holding and hoses, lines; and either a power gearbox and pitman arm or a rack and pinion ● Uneven tread wear
driveability, then please continue reading. Although there are many moving parts and words you have never heard of with little assist unit mounted on, or integral assembly, linkages; steering knuckles and ball
effort and the help of your steering system it’s easy to steer your vehicle. ● A steering wheel that is off-centre when driving straight
with, a power steering gear assembly joints, and the wheel spindle assemblies
● Vehicle pulling off to the left or right
Advantages Absorbs road shocks, minimum mechanical connection between the steering
efforts, greater safety and wheel and the wheel and all the components Why is Wheel Alignment Important?
The Purpose of a Steering System
controllability under critical situations continues to be maintained without the help of Maintaining proper wheel alignment is essential to avoid unnecessary
For effective control of the vehicle throughout its speed range with safety and
the auxiliary power and preferred in race cars wear on your tyres, steering, suspension and brakes. Accurate wheel
without much effort to the driver on different types of road surfaces, proper steering
alignment optimises driving stability, maximises tyre life and improves
is necessary.
your vehicle's overall handling performance.
For proper performance and useful service of the automobile, it is necessary that the
moving vehicle should be under the perfect control of the driver. Thus the control of
the automobile is done by means of a steering system that provides directional
changes to the moving automobile.

Function of Steering System

The important function of the steering system is as follows:
1. With the help of the steering system, the driver can control the vehicle
however he wants
2. The steering provides stability to the vehicle on the road.
3. It minimizes tyre wear and tear.
4. It prevents road shocks from reaching to the driver.
5. The steering provides self-rightening effect after taking a turn.

Wheel balancing—also known as tire balancing—is the process of Functions of suspension system: Independent suspension system in automobile Dependent suspension system disadvantages:
equalizing the weight of the combined tire and wheel assembly so that it 1. It prevents the vehicle body and frame from road shocks.
spins smoothly at high speed. Balancing involves putting the wheel/tire 2. It gives stability of the vehicle. Independent suspension is any automobile suspension system that allows each Left and right wheels bounce mutually implicated, and reduce ride comfort and
assembly on a balancer, which centers the wheel and spins it to determine 3. It safeguards the passengers and goods from road shocks. wheel on the same axle to move vertically (i.e. reacting to a bump on the road) control stability.
where the weights should go. 4. It gives the good road holding while driving, cornering and braking. independently of the others. Simple structure design freedom, manipulation of the stability is poor
5. It gives cushioning effect.
6. It provides comfort.

Requirements of suspension system:

Introduction of Suspension System 1. There should be minimum deflection.
2. It should be of low initial cost.
Introduction to Suspension System:
3. It should be of minimum weight.
Basically, suspension refers to the use of front and rear springs to suspend a vehicles 4. It should have low maintenance and low operating cost.
frame, body, engine and power train above the wheels. These relatively heavy 5. It should have minimum tyre wear.
assemblies constitute what is known as Sprung weight. Unsprung weight, on the other
hand, includes wheels and tire, break assemblies and other structural members not
Components of Suspension system:
supported by the springs.
Coil springs, Leaf springs, shock absorbers, Spring shackles, stabilizer
The springs used in today’s cars and trucks are engineered in a wide variety of types,
shapes, sizes, rates and capacities. Types include leaf springs, coil springs, air springs
and torsion bars.
Shock Absorbers
These are used in sets of four per vehicle, or they are paired off in various
combinations and are attached to the vehicle by a number of different mounting Dependent suspension system in automobile
techniques.
A shock absorber or damper is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb
A dependent suspension system connotes that there is a beam or axle that connects
and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the kinetic energy of the shock
The automobile frame and body are mounted on the front and rear axle not directly the left wheel to the right so they work in tandem with each other. This classification
but through the springs and shock absorbent. The assembly of parts, which perform into another form of energy (typically heat) which is then dissipated. Most shock
of suspension can be sprung by either a combination of leaf springs and shock
the isolation of parts from the road shocks, may be in the forms of bounce, pitch and absorbers are a form of dashpot (a damper which resists motion via viscous friction).
absorbers or coil springs and shock absorbers.
roll is called suspension system.
Dependent suspension system advantages:
Suspension system of an automobile separates the wheel and axle assembly of the
automobile from its body. Main function of the suspension system is to isolate the
body of the vehicle from shocks and vibrations generated due to irregularities on the The left and right wheels bounce mutually implicated, the tire angle changes in the
surface of roads. Shock absorbers are provided in the vehicles for this purpose. It is in amount of small tire wear.
the form of spring and damper. The suspension system is provided both on front end
and rear end of the vehicle.
The decrease of the body height is not easy to change the angle of the wheel, so that
A suspension system also maintains the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling steering feeling is consistent.
when vehicle is in motion. Simple structure, low manufacturing cost, and easy maintenance.
Take up less space, can reduce the height of the car floor.
 Introduction to Electric and Hybrid Powertrain 

manual handling risks associated with battery replacement.
the potential for the release of explosive gases and harmful liquids if
Tyres
batteries are damaged or incorrectly modified. A tyre (or tire) is a circular and ring-like part of a vehicle that comes in contact with
 the possibility of people being unaware of vehicles moving as when
Introduction the ground. Tyres are fitted on rims and filled with compressed air. Since their
electrically driven they are silent in operation.
With the growth in environmental awareness, the use of electric and hybrid vehicles invention, natural rubber has been the most widely used material in the
 the potential for the electrical systems on the vehicle to affect medical
(E&HVs) is increasing. The recovery, repair, and maintenance of these vehicles devices such as pacemakers. manufacturing of tyres. However, modern tyres also employ materials like synthetic
outside the manufacturers and franchised dealership networks is increasing. This rubber, fabric, steel wires, carbon black, and some more compounds. As a result,
webpage is aimed at people working with these vehicles in the motor vehicle repair tyres find a place in a wide range of locomotives, from bicycles to aeroplanes.
and roadside recovery industries and also the emergency services. Safe Working with E&HVs Classification of tyres:
Additional skills and training will be necessary to allow people to work safely with
Types of vehicle E&HVs. The levels of competency required will vary greatly and are dependent on
the type of work that people are expected to do. For example, an awareness of the
Electric vehicles additional risks is likely to be all that is required for people who undertake vehicle
Electric vehicles use a large capacity battery and electric motor(s) to drive the sales or valeting. People involved in vehicle repair and maintenance however, are
vehicle. The battery needs to be charged from the electricity supply network when likely to need a much greater level of competence in order to work on these types of
the vehicle is not in use although some energy may be recovered during braking. vehicle safely. Specific training with qualifications awarded by organisations such as
IMI Awards is available.
Hybrid vehicles
Hybrid vehicles typically have two sources of energy, an internal combustion engine Four categories of work have been identified. These are:
using either diesel or petrol for fuel and a battery. Hybrid vehicles will use the two
sources of power automatically and may use both simultaneously. The internal  Valeting, sales and other lower risk activities
 Incident response including emergency services and vehicle recovery Radial tyre construction (Courtesy: Bridgestone)
combustion engine and energy recovered from the vehicle braking systems are used
to charge the battery.  Maintenance and repair excluding high voltage electrical systems
In general, there are two major classes of tyres, according to the presence or
 Working on high voltage electrical systems
absence of tubes in them. Thus, they are called ‘tubed tyres’ and ‘tubeless tyres,’
A plug-in hybrid vehicle can have its battery charged directly from the electrical respectively. Furthermore, based on the construction or skeleton of tyres known as
supply network. carcass, tyres are classified into the following main types:

1. Cross-ply or bias-ply: In these tyres, ply cords are at an angle of 30°-40° to the tire
Risks of working with E&HVs axis.
E&HVs introduce hazards into the workplace in addition to those normally associated 2. Radial ply: Ply cords run in the radial direction in these tires.
with the repair and maintenance of vehicles, roadside recovery and other vehicle 3. Belted-bias ply: This is a combination of the aforementioned types.
related activities. However, most of the tyres used nowadays belong to the class of radial tubeless
These include: tyres.

 the presence of high voltage components and cabling capable of

delivering a fatal electric shock. Functions of a tyre:
 the storage of electrical energy with the potential to cause explosion or
fire. 1. To maintain contact between vehicle and ground by providing the desired traction.
 components that may retain a dangerous voltage even when a vehicle is 2. To support the load of the vehicle.
switched off. 3. Dealing with various forces acting on the vehicle during its motion.
 electric motors or the vehicle itself that may move unexpectedly due to 4. Providing cushions against shocks and damping them.
magnetic forces within the motors.