RUNOFF  It is a stream without any baseflow contribution.

 The annual hydrograph shows short-duration spikes, marked as flash

RUNOFF means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a flows in response to storms, then the stream becomes dry after the end
catchment area through a surface channel. It thus represents the output from of the storm flow.
the catchment area in a given unit of time.  It does not have any well-defined, channel, and most rivers in arid
zones are of ephemeral kind.
Based on the time delay between the precipitaion and the runoff, the runoff
is classified into two categories; as Flow characteristics of a stream are dependent upon:
1. Direct runoff
 The rainfall characteristics, such as magnitude intensity, distribution
2. Base flow
according to time and space, and its variability.
Direct Runoff – It is the part of the runoff which enters the stream  Catchment characteristics such as soil, land use/cover, slope, geology,
immediately after the rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow, shape, and drainage density.
and rainfall on the surface of the stream.  Climatic factors which influence evapotranspiration.

Base Flow – The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially flow is The following points can be noted:
called base flow. Many times, delayed interflow is also included under this
category.  The seasonal variation of rainfall is reflected in the runoff. High stream
discharges occur during the monsoon months and low flow is
Natural Flow essentially due to the base flow being maintained during the rest of the
year.
Stream flow unaffected by works of man, such as reservoir and diversion  The shape of the stream hydrograph and hence the peak flow is
structures on a stream. Also called as Virgin Flow. essentially controlled by the storm and the physical characteristics of
the basin. Evapotranspiration plays a minor role in this.
HYDROGRAPH  The annual runoff volume of a stream is mainly controlled by the
amount of rainfall and evapotranspiration. The basin ' s geology is
A plot of discharge in a stream plotted against time chronologically is called
significant to the extent of deep percolation losses. The land use/cover
a Hydrograph.
plays an important role in creating infiltration and evapotranspiration
Depending upon the unit of time involved we have: opportunities and retarding of runoff.

 Annual hydrographs show the variation of daily, weekly, or 10 daily RUNOFF VOLUME
mean flows over a year.
YIELD OF THE CATCHMENT – The yield of a catchment refers to the
 Monthly hydrographs show the variation of daily mean flows over a total amount of surface water that can be expected from a stream at the
month. outlet of its catchment area over a given period. This can be measured over
 Seasonal hydrographs depicting the discharge variation in a particular different periods, typically:
season such as monsoon or dry season.
 Flood Hydrographs or hydrographs of a storm representing stream flow  Annual Yield: The amount of water expected in a year.
due to a storm over a catchment.  Seasonal Yield: The amount of water expected during a specific
season.
Hydrograph Applications
PROCESSES INFLUENCING YIELD – The annual yield from a
Annual and Seasonal Hydrographs catchment is the result of several natural processes:
1.Calculating the surface water potential of stream;
 Precipitation: Rainfall or any form of water falling from the sky.
2.Reservoir Studies, and;
 Infiltration: The process by which water seeps into the soil.
3.Drought Studies
 Evapotranspiration: The combined process of water evaporation
Flood Hydrographs from soil and water bodies and transpiration from plants.

1.Essential in analyzing stream characteristics associated with floods. YIELD AS A RANDOM VARIABLE – The yield varies from year to year
due to the random nature of the processes involved (like precipitation
WATER YEAR patterns). This variability makes the yield a random variable. By analyzing
a time series of annual yields (historical data of yield over multiple years),
In annual runoff studies, it is advantageous to consider a water year we can determine the probability of different yield amounts occurring.
beginning from the time when the precipitation exceeds the average
evapotranspiration losses. In India, June 1st is the beginning of a water year DEPENDABILITY OF YIELD – To express the reliability of yield, we use
which ends on May 31st of the following calendar year In a water year a the concept of dependability:
complete cycle of climatic changes is expected and hence the water budget
will have the least amount of carryover.  75% Dependable Yield: This is the yield value that is expected to be
met or exceeded 75% of the time (on average, 15 out of 20 years).
RUNOFF CHARACTERISTICS OF STREAMS  50% Dependable Yield: This is the yield value expected to be met or
exceeded 50% of the time (on average, 10 out of 20 years).
Perennial Stream
ESTIMATING ANNUAL YIELD – The annual yield of a basin at a specific
 It is a stream that always carries some flow. site is calculated by adding the natural flow of the river at that site to the
 There is a considerable amount of groundwater flow throughout the return flow from upstream uses:
year.
 Even during dry seasons the water will be above the bed of the stream. Annual Yield = Natural Flow + Return Flow

Intermittent Stream NATURAL FLOW AND RETURN FLOW

 Has limited contribution from groundwater. Natural Flow: The flow of water in a river from natural sources without
 In wet seasons the water table is above the stream bed with the human intervention.
contribution of the base flow to the stream flow.
Return Flow: When water is diverted for uses such as irrigation, domestic
 In dry seasons, the stream dries up except of the occasional storms in
use, or industry, some of it returns to the river system. This nonconsumptive
which can produce a short duration flow.
part of the diverted water is termed return flow.
Ephemeral Stream
YIELD CALCULATION IMPORTANCE – Calculating the natural runoff
volume (and hence the yield) is crucial for developing water resources.
Understanding the yield helps in planning and managing water supply for BINNIE’S PERCENTAGE
various uses, ensuring sustainable use of water resources.
Sir Alexander Binnie measured the runoff from a small catchment near
LACK OF SUFFICIENT DATA – In many catchments, long-term observed Nagpur (Area of 16 km ^2) during 1869 and 1872 and developed curves of
discharge data may not be available. In such cases, empirical equations and cumulative runoff against cumulative rainfall. The two curves were found
watershed simulations are used as alternative methods to estimate yield. to be similar. From theses he established the percentages of runoff from
rainfall. These percentages have been used in Madhya Pradesh and
RETURN FLOW CONSIDERATION – For small catchments or those with Vidarbha region of Maharashtra for the estimation of yield.
minimal water resource developments, the return flow is often negligible.
Therefore, in such cases, the terms " annual runoff volume " and " annual BARLOW’S TABLES
yield" can be used interchangeably, assuming the return flow doesn 't
significantly impact the total runoff. Barlo, the first Chief Engineer of the Hydro-Electric Survey of India (1915)
on the basis of his study in small catchment (area - 130 km ^2) in Uttar
However, when return flow is not negligible, it' s essential to use the natural Pradesh expressed runoff (R) as:
flow volume (Rn) in hydrological studies and correlations with rainfall data
to accurately assess the water balance and yield of the catchment. R = KbP

RAINFALL-ROUNOFF CORRELATION where Kb = runoff coefficient which depends upon the the of catchment
and nature of monsoon rainfall
LINEAR REGRESSION METHOD – One common approach is to
establish a linear regression relationship between seasonal or annual runoff BARLOW’S RUNOFF COEFFICIENT Kb IN PERCENTAGE
(R) and corresponding rainfall (P). The linear regression equation is given (DEVELOPED FOR USE IN UP)
by:

CALCULATING COEFFICIENTS A AND B – The coefficients a and b

can be determined using the following formulas:

THE RATIONAL METHOD

 One of the most commonly used procedures for calculating peak flows
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT R – The correlation coefficient (r)
from small drainages less than 200 acres is the Rational Method.
measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between
rainfall and runoff. It is calculated as:  This method is most accurate for runoff estimates from small drainages
with large amounts of impervious area.

EXPONENTIAL RELATIONSHIP – For larger catchments, an exponential

relationship might provide a better fit:

STRANGE TABLES

Strange (1892) studied the available rainfall and runoff in the border areas
Here, m and ln b can be determined using linear regression methods on the of present-day Maharashtra and Karnataka and has obtained yield ratios as
transformed data. functions of indicators representing catchment characteristics.

ANTECEDENT PRECIPITATION INDEX (PA) – Antecedent rainfall Two methods using tables for estimating the runoff volume in a season are:
affects soil moisture, which influences runoff. An antecedent precipitation
index Pa accounts for this effect: (a) Runoff volume from total monsoon season rainfall.
(b) Estimating the runoff volume from daily rainfall.

Runoff Volume from Total Monsoon Season Rainfall

EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
A table giving the runoff volumes for the monsoon period (i.e. yield during
The importance of estimating the water availability from the available monsoon season) for different total monsoon rainfall values and for the
hydrologic data for purposes of planning water-resource projects was three classes of catchments (good, average and bad) is given in Table.
recognised by engineers even in the last century. Engineers keen sense of
Estimating the Runoff Volume from Daily Rainfall
observation in a region in the past developed emperical runoff estimation
formulae, which are applicable only to the region they were derived. In this method, strange is a most intuitive way recognizes the role of
antecedent moisture in modifying the runoff volume due to rainfall event in
RUNOFF COEFFICIENT (C)
a given catchment. Daily rainfall event are considered and three states of
A dimensionless coefficient relating the amount of runoff to the amount of antecedent moisture conditions prior to the rainfall vent as are dry, damp,
precipitation received. It is a larger value for areas with low infiltration and and wet recognized. The classification of these three states are as follows:
high runoff (pavement, steep gradient), and lower for permeable, well
vegetated areas (forest, flat land).

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

It is important for flood control channel construction and for possible flood
zone hazard delineation. A high runoff coefficient (C) value may indicate
flash flooding areas during storms as water moves fast overland on its way
to a river channel or a valley floor.
  Environmental / Impact Studies

FLOW-MASS CURVE

a.k.a Rippl’s mass curve, is a plot of the cumulative discharge volume

against time plotted in chronological order. The ordinate of the mass curve,
V at any time t is

INFILTRATION METHOD

 Infiltration is the process of water entering into the ground whereas

runoff is the process of water flowing over the ground.
 Runoff can only occur when the rate of precipitation exceeds the soil
infiltration rate.

TYPES OF COMPUTING RUNOFF BY INFILTRATION METHOD

 Infiltration capacity curve

 Infiltration indices

INFILTRATION CAPACITY CURVE

This infiltration capacity curve for a given soil and moisture condition is
subtracted from the curve of rainfall pattern to derive the excess rainfall
which represent the runoff.

INFILTRATION INDICES

Infiltration indices method is used to calculate runoff, when the catchment

area is greater.

Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of rainfall
in excess of that rate will be equal to direct runoff.

TYPES OF INFILTRATION INDEX

Ф – Index

Portion of average rate of rainfall during any storm which gets lost by the
processes of interception, depression storage and infiltration taken together
CALCULATION OF STORAGE VOLUME
W – Index
If it is assumed that the reservoir is full at the beginning of a dry period, i.e.
It is the average infiltration rate during the time when rainfall intensity when the inflow rate is less than the withdrawal (demand) rate, the
exceeds the infiltration capacity rate. maximum amount of water drawn from the storage is the cumulative diff.
between supply and demand volumes from the beginning of the dry season.
INGLIS AND DESOUZA FORMULA Thus the storage required S is

Inglis and Desouza (1929) evolved two reginonal formula Between annual
runoff (R) in cm and annual rainfall (P) in cm as follows:

1. For Ghat regions of western India

2. For Deccan plateau

KHOSLA’S FORMULA

Developed for time period of the month.

FLOW-DURATION CURVE

One of the popular methods of studying streamflow variability is through DEMAND MASS CURVE
flow-duration curves. A flow duration curve of a stream is a plot of
discharge against of percent time the flow was equalled or exceeded. This  plot between the accumulated demand & time
curve is also known as discharge-frequency curve. The stream-flow data is  can also be used to determine the maximum demand rate that can be
arrange in descending order of discharges, using class intervals if the maintained by a given storage volume
number of individual values is very large.  can be plotted with the help of demand curve

APPLICATIONS: TYPES OF DEMAND MASS CURVE

 Water Resource Planning  Uniform

 Hydro-power Design  Variable
 Flood Frequency Analysis
SEQUENT PEAK ALGORITHM  Short-term strategies - include early warning, monitoring and
asessment of droughts.
 The mass curve method of estimating the minimum storage capacity to  Long-term strategies - aim at providing drought mitigating measures
meet a specified demand pattern. through proper soil and water conservation, irrigation scheduling and
 Derives the largest deficit volume of a discharge series with respect to cropping patterns.
certain threshold level.

Finding the Net-Flow Volume

Residual Mass Curve – a mass curve of cumulative net-flow volume against

chronological time

DROUGHTS

Drought is a climatic anomaly characterized by deficit supply of moisture.

This may result from subnormal rainfall over large regions causing below POSSIBLE MEASURES FOR MAKING DROUGHT PRONE AREAS
normal natural availability of water over long periods of time. LESS VULNERABLE TO DROUGHT ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS:

CLASSIFICATIONS OF DROUGHTS  Creation of water storages through appropriate water resources

development
1. Meteorological Drought  Inter-basin transfer of surface waters from surplus water areas to
2. Hydrological Drought drought prone areas
3. Agricultural Drought  Development and management of ground water potential
 Development of appropriate water harvesting practices
Meteorological Drought
 In situ soil moisture conservation measures
It is a situation where there is more than 25% decrease in precipitation from  Economic use of water in irrigation through practices such as drip
normal over an area. irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, etc.
 Reduction of evaporation from soil and water surfaces
 Moderate - if the seasonal deficiency is between 26% and 50%  Development of afforestation, agro-forestry and agro-horticulture
 Severe - if the deficiency is above 50% of the normal value practices
 Development of fuelwood and fodder
Hydrological Drought  Sand dune stabilization
Meteorological drought, if prolonged, results in hydrological drought with WATER HARVESTING
marked depletion of surface water and groudwater. The consequences are
the drying up tanks, reservoirs, streams and rivers, cessation of springs and Is a general term to include all systems that concentrate, collect and store
fall in the groundwater level. runoff from small catchments for later use in smaller area.

4 COMPONENTS: As FAO defines that “Water Harvesting’’ is the process of collecting and
concentrating runoff water from a run-on-area.
 Magnitude (= amount of deficiency)
 Duration General rule the catchment area from which the water is drawn is larger
 Severity (= cumulative amount of deficiency) than the command area, where it is collected and used. The ratio of
 Frequency of occurrence catchment to command is inversely related to the amount and intensity of
rainfall, the impermeability of soil, and the slope of the land on which it
falls.

Water harvesting is essentially a traditional system used since many

centuries, now being made over to meet present-day needs. Depending
TECHNIQUES FOR SURFACE WATER DEFICIT AND upon the nature of collecting surface and type of storages water harvesting
GROUNDWATER DEFICIT: is classified into several categories.
a. Low-flow duration curve ROOF TOP WATER HARVESTING (RTWH) – The productive utilization
b. Low-flow frequency analysis and of rain water falling on roof-tops of structures. In such situations, collection
c. Stream flow modelling of runoff from roof tops of individual structures and storing them for later
use has been found to be very attractive and economical proposition in
Agricultural Drought
many cases.
This occurs when the soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate during the
Factors like water quality, methods for efficient and economical collection
growing season to support healthy crop growth to maturity. There will be
and storage are some factors that have to be worked out in designing an
extreme crop stress and wilt conditions.
efficient system to meet specific needs. The cost of adequate size storage is,
generally, a constraint in economical RTWH design. In many cases, water
collected from roof top is used for recharging the ground water.

Characteristics of the rainfall at the place, such as intensity, duration, nature

of the rainfall season, average number of rainy days, determine the design
of the RTWH design.

Based on Aridity Index anomaly, the intensity of agricultural drought is

classified as follows:

DROUGHT MANAGEMENT
MICRO CATCHMENT SYSTEM (WITHIN THE FIELD) OF
RAINWATER HARVESTING SPREADING OF WATER

In this system the catchment is a small area which is not put for any In this method a diversion across the drainage would cause the runoff to
productive purpose. The catchment length is usually between 1 and 30 flow on to the adjacent land. Appropriate bunds either of rock or of earth
metres and the overland flow from this during a storm is harvested by would cause spreading the water over the command. The spread water
collecting and delivering it to a small cultivated plot. The ratio of catchment infiltrates into the soil and is retained as soil moisture and this is used for
to the cultivated area is usually 1:1 to 3:1 and the runoff is stored in soil growing crops. Provision for overflow spillway at the diversion structure, to
profile. Normally there will be no provision for overflow. Rainwater pass excess water onto the downstream side of the diversion structure, is an
harvesting in Micro catchments is sometimes referred to as Within- Field important component of the diversion structure
Catchment System.

MACRO CATCHMENT SYSTEM (WITHIN THE FIELD) OF

RAINWATER HARVESTING

This system is designed for slightly larger catchment areas wherein

overland flow and rill flow is collected behind a bund and allowed to be
stored in the soil profile through infiltration. The catchment is usually 30 to
200 m long and the ratio of catchment to cultivated area is in the range 2:1
to 10:1.

Contour bunds made of piled up stones is also used in this system. It is

usual to provide overflow arrangements for disposing of the excess runoff
water. Infiltration area behind the bunds is used to grow crops.

FLOODWATER FARMING (FLOODWATER HARVESTING)

This system is used for larger catchments and the flow in the drainage is
harvested. The catchment areas are several kilometres long and the ratio of
catchment to command is larger than 10:1.

Two sub-systems mentioned below are in common use:

1. Water Harvesting using Storage Structures

2. Water Harvesting through Spreading of Water over Command

STORAGE STRUCTURES SYSTEMS

Small storage structures are built across the drainage to store a part of the
runoff. While the stored surface water would serve as a source of utilizable
water to the community for some time the infiltration from this water body
would provide valuable recharge to the ground water.

The commonly used structures are Check dams and Nalabunds. These
structures have the additional advantage of arresting erosion products from
the catchment. They are constructed on lower order streams (up to 3) with
median slopes. Generally check dams are proposed where water table
fluctuations are high and the stream is influent.

Nalabunds are structures constructed across nalas (streams) for impounding

runoff flow to cause a small storage. Increased water percolation and
improving of soil moisture regime are its main objective.

Nalabunds are of small dimension and are constructed by locally available

material, usually an earthen embankment. In a Nalabund the spillway is
normally a stone lined or rock cut steep channel taking off from one of the
ends of the bund at appropriate level. Structures similar to a nalabund but of
larger dimension are known as percolation tanks. Nalabunds and
percolation tanks are constructed in flat reach of a stream with slopes less
than 2%.

The irrigation tanks of south India are also sometimes termed as water
harvesting structures. These are small storage structures formed by earthen
bunds to store runoff, of a small stream. The embankment, surplus weir and
a sluice outlet form the essential component of a tank. The tank system in a
region, which can be a group of independent tanks or a set of tanks in
cascade, form an important source of surface water for domestic use,
drinking water for life stock, agriculture for growing food and fodder and
recharge of subsurface aquifers.
HYDROGRAPH  Intensity: High-intensity rainfall can lead to rapid surface runoff,
producing a steep rising limb and a high peak discharge on the
A hydrograph is a way of displaying water level information over time. A hydrograph.
hydrograph plot may display stage, streamflow, and sometimes both.  Duration: Prolonged rainfall can result in a more sustained period of
Hydrographs can be a helpful way to show water level observations and elevated flow, often leading to a broader and potentially higher peak on
forecasts visually on a single graphic. the hydrograph.
COMPONENTS OF A HYDROGRAPH Precipitation Distribution

 The spatial distribution of rainfall across a watershed affects how

quickly different areas contribute to runoff. Uniform rainfall results in a
smoother hydrograph.

Storms and Extreme Weather Events

 Severe storms, hurricanes, and other extreme weather events can

deliver large amounts of rainfall in short periods, leading to rapid and
significant increases in discharge reflected in the hydrograph.

BASEFLOW RECESSION Climate Change and Variability

It is the lower part of the rising and falling limb of a hydrograph and  Long-term changes in climate patterns, including shifts in precipitation
expresses the relation between baseflow and time. intensity, frequency of extreme weather events, and changes in
temperature, can alter flood hydrograph characteristics. Climate change
RISING LIMB can lead to more intense and frequent flooding events.

The rising limb of a hydrograph, also known as concentration curve Antecedent Moisture Conditions
represents the increase in discharge due to the gradual building up of
storage in channels and over the catchment surface.  Wet antecedent conditions, where the soil is already saturated from
previous rainfall, reduce infiltration and increase surface runoff,
CREST SEGMENT leading to a higher and quicker peak in the hydrograph.

The crest segment is one of the most important parts of a hydrograph as it BASEFLOW SEPARATION
contains the peak flow. The peak flow occurs when the runoff from various
parts of the catchment simultaneously contribute amounts to achieve the Surface runoff hydrograph derived by separating baseflow from
maximum amount of flow at the basin outlet. hydrograph.

FALLING LIMB Methods of Baseflow Separation

The falling limb, which extends from the point of inflection at the end of 1. Straight Line Method
the crest segment to the commencement of the natural groundwater flow
represents the withdrawal of water from the storage build up in the basin This method is the simplest one and is more suitable for ephemeral or
during the earlier phases of the hydrograph. intermittent streams which have very little contribution from baseflow. This
method may be modified, if required
FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD HYDROGRAPH
2. Fixed Based Method
PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS
In this method the base flow curve existing prior to the commencement of
SHAPE OF BASIN the surface runoff is extended till it intersects the ordinate drawn at the
 Broad shaped - peak flow occur soon because of less time of peak. This is probably the most widely used base-flow separation method.
concentration.
 Fan shaped - flow occur at longer time interval because of longer time 3. Variable Base Method
of concentration.
In this method the base flow curve existing prior to the commencement of
SIZE OF BASIN the surface runoff is extended till it intersects the ordinate drawn at the
peak.
 Small basin - flow dominated by overland flow that joins channel
quickly, peak flow occur quickly. This method of baseflow separation is realistic in situations where the
 Larger Basin - it has a longer lag time as water has a longer distance to groundwater contributions are significant and reach the stream quickly.
travel to reach the main river.
EFFECTIVE RAINFALL (ER)
STREAM SLOPE
 More the stream slope higher the slope of recession limb. Effective rainfall also known as excess rainfall, is the portion of total
 Small slope make recession limb flatter. rainfall that is not lost to evapotranspiration or runoff and can contribute to
water supply for various needs like agriculture or replenishing groundwater.
DRAINAGE DENSITY
 Higher the drainage density, quicker the peak flow, recession limb is EFFECTIVE RAINFALL HYETOGRAPH
steeper with narrow hydrograph
 Lesser the drainage density, slow moving rising limb and wide base Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH) is a graph that represents the portion
width of rainfall that produces overland flow, resulting in direct runoff from a
catchment area. It excludes the rainfall retained on the land surface.
LAND USE
 Vegetation increases loss of water
 Higher the vegetation density, lesser the peak flow
 ERH shows effective rainfall and initial loss
CLIMATIC FACTORS  ERH provide information on
– Effective rainfall depth and duration
Precipitation Intensity and Duration – Direct runoff volume
– Amount of initial loss
 ERH can be used to determine effective rainfall
 Flood hydrographs used in the analysis should be selected so as to meet the
following desirable features with respect to the storms responsible for them:

1. The storms should be isolated storms occurring individually.

2. The rainfall should be fairly uniform during the duration and should
cover the entire catchment area
3. The duration of rainfall should be 1/5 to 1/3 of the basin lag.
4. The rainfall excess of the selected storm should be high (A range of ER
values of 1.0 to 4.0 cm is preferred)
Fig. shows the effective rainfall hyetograph. It is also known as hyetograph
UNIT HYDROGRAPH OF DIFFERENT DURATIONS
of rainfall excess or supra rainfall.
The choice duration if the unit hydrograph depends on the rainfall records.
If the recording rain gauge data are available any convenient time
depending on the size of the basin can be used.

The choice is not much if only daily rainfall records are available. A rough
guide for the choice of duration D is that it should not exceed he least of i
the time rise, ii the basin lag, and iii the time of concentration.

A value of D equal to about 1/4 of the basin lag is about the best choice.
Generally, for basins with areas more than 1200 square km a duration D=12
hours is preferred.

DIRECT RUNOFF HYDROGRAPH USE AND LIMITATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH

 Plot of direct runoff and time USE OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH

 Area of hydrograph gives the volume of direct runoff which is response
effective rainfall I. The development of flood hydrographs for extreme rainfall magnitudes
 No base flow included to direct runoff hydrograph for use in the design of hydraulic structures
 Relationship between DRH and ERH II. Extension of flood-flow records based on rainfall records
III. Development of flood forecasting and warning systems based on
Both ERH and DRH represent the same total quantity but in different units. rainfall
Since ERH is usually in cm/h plotted against time, the area of ERH
multiplied by the catchment area gives the total volume of direct runoff LIMITATIONS OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
which is the same as area of DRH.
1. Size of catchment: 2 sq.km to 5000 sq. km
UNIT HYDROGRAPH
2. Precipitation must be from rainfall only
 Hydrograph of surface runoff of a catchment resulting from unit depth
3. The catchment should not have unusually large storage
(usually 1 cm) of rainfall excess (effective rainfall) occurring
uniformly over the watershed and at uniform rate for a specified 4. The precipitation is decidedly non-uniform
duration.
 A constant for the watershed. DISTRIBUTION GRAPH
 Can be used to determine volume of direct runoff of any storm
occurring in the catchment. The distribution graph is a variation of the unit hydrograph that is basically
a D-h unit hydrograph with ordinates showing the percentage of the surface
ASSUMPTIONS IN DERIVING UNIT HYDROGRAPH run-off occurring in successive periods of equal time intervals of D-h.

 Uniform intensity of rainfall within a specified duration. SYNTHETIC UNIT GRAPH

 Effective rainfall is uniformly distributed in the watershed.
A synthetic unit hydrograph (SUH) is a way to represent the flow of water
 Base of time duration of the direct runoff hydrograph is constant.
in a stream or river as a single point. It is used to calculate runoff and other
 Direct runoff due to effective rainfall over the watershed is always
hydraulic functions by using watershed characteristics for similar
same, not vary with time.
watershed.
 Relationship between direct runoff and effective rainfall is linear
(Example: if ER of x cm generate y m³ of direct runoff, 3x will SNYDER’S METHOD
generate 3y m³)
Snyder collected rainfall and runoff data from gaged watersheds, derived
ASSUMPTIONS IN UNIT HYDROGRAPH THEORY the unit hydrograph For the unit hydrograph lag, he proposed:
1. Time Invariance: This implies that the direct runoff hydrograph for a DIMENSIONLESS UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD
given effective rainfall (ER) in a catchment is time-invariant i.e. it is always
the same irrespective of when it occurs. The SCS dimensionless unit hydrograph, graphically descried below, is
widely used in practice. To generate a tr-hour unit hydrograph for a
2. Linear Response: The direct runoff response to rainfall excess is assumed watershed, time to peak (Tp).
to be linear i.e. any change in the input value is linearly reflected in the
output value. SCS TRIANGULAR UNIT HYDROGRAPH

DERIVATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH

A number of isolated storm hydrographs caused by short spells of rainfall A theoretical hydrological concept used to model the response of a
excess, each of approximately the same duration (0.9 to 1.1D h) are watershed to a unit impulse of rainfall.
selected from a study of continuously gauged runoff of the stream.
IUH is a fictitious, conceptual unit hydrograph which represents the surface
For each of these surface runoff hydrographs, the base flow is separated runoff from the catchment due to an instantaneous precipitation of the
rainfall excess volume of one centimeter.
The area under DRH is evaluated and the volume of direct runoff obtained
is divided by the catchment area to obtain the depth of ER. The main advantage of IUH is that it is independent of the duration of ERH
and thus has one parameter less than a D-h unit hydrograph.
The ordinates of the various DRHs are divided by the respective ER values
to obtain the ordinates of the unit hydrograph
This fact and the definition of IUH make it eminently suitable for
theoretical analysis of rainfall excess-runoff relationship of a catchment.

Intantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) is designated as u(t) or sometimes as

u(0,t). It is a single-peaked hydrograph with a finite base width and its
important properties can be listed as below:

Consider an effective rainfall I(τ) of duration. Each infinitesimal element of

ERH will operate on the IUH to produce a DRH whose discharge at time t
is given by:

CONVOLUTION INTEGRAL

The convolution integral is a mathematical tool used to determine the

output of a linear time-invariant (LTI) system based on its input and its
impulse response.

In hydrology, it's applied to predict the streamflow response of a watershed

to any given rainfall event using the unit hydrograph concept.

DERIVATION OF IUH

Typically involves transforming a traditional unit hydrograph (UH) using

mathematical techniques

1. Define the Unit Hydrograph (UH)

2. Discretize the Rainfall-Runoff Data
3. Determine Effective Rainfall
4. Apply the Convolution Integral:
5. Compute the Resulting Hydrographic