Chapter 8

The Cellular Basis of

Reproduction and Inheritance
Introduction – 8.11
Connections between cell division and reproduction and The
eukaryotic cell cycle and mitosis
Introduction: How to make a sea star
with and without sex
Asexual reproduction:
reproduction of some
organisms involving a
single parent and only
a single set of DNA

Sexual reproduction: reproduction of some

organisms involving two parents, occurring when a
sperm cell and egg cell unite to form a single
fertilized egg cell, containing a mixture of DNA from
both parents.
8.1 Like Begets, Like More or Less
One species can only make more organisms of the same
species, they do not produce offspring of different species.
Strictly speaking, “Like begets like” only applies to asexual
reproduction because only then are offspring completely
identical to the parent.
Sexually reproducing organisms produce offspring that are
similar to the parents (the same species) but may have
slightly different versions of some traits.
Chromosomes are copied in each parent, half the chromosomes
end up in each of the sex cells of each parent. Fertilization
results in a complete set of chromosomes in the fertilized egg.
8.2 Cells arise only from preexisting cells

All cells come from other cells.

Cell division = Cellular reproduction
Cell Division allows for development, growth,
and repair of multicellular organisms.
Can be a form of asexual reproduction in some
simple organisms
Cell division ensures continuity of genetic
information among the cells of a multicellular
organism and from one generation to the next.
8.3 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary
fission
In prokaryotes genes
are located on a single,
simple, circular
chromosome
This chromosome is
precisely copied and
divided during binary
fission.
8.4 The complex chromosomes of eukaryotes
duplicate with each cell division
Complex eukaryotic cells have many genes
arranged on multiple pieces of DNA.
Prior to dividing DNA molecules
(chromatin) are copied and then coil and
condense into chromosomes.
Each duplicated chromosome now consists of
2 sister chromatids joined at a centromere.

Sister chromatids are divided during cell

division, ensuring daughter cells with
identical sets of chromosomes.
8.5 The cell cycle multiplies cells.
Cell division allows multicellular
organisms to grow, develop and
replace damaged and dead cells.
In humans, millions of cells
divide every second to maintain a
total cell count of about 60
trillion.
A cells life cycle is called the cell cycle and involves the
doubling of everything in the cell and then dividing it
into separate cells when the cell divides.
Each of the resulting cells then undergo their own cell
cycle.
8.5 The cell cycle multiplies cells
Interphase consists of 3 substages and accounts for
about 90% of the time required for the cell cycle.
Gap 1: Increases protein supply, duplicates organelles, and
grows in size.
Synthesis: DNA is replicated (copied).
Gap 2: Prepares the cell to divide, synthesizes proteins required
for cell division.

Mitotic Phase follows interphase:

First mitosis divides the nucleus and separates each pair of sister
chromatids in the duplicated chromosomes.
Cytokinesis completes the mitotic phase (and the cell cycle) and
divides the cytoplasm and organelles of the cell into 2 separate
daughter cells.
8.5 The cell cycle multiplies cells
8.6 Cell division is a continuum of
dynamic changes
Mitosis is divided into 4 stages (PMAT):
Prophase: chromatin coils into chromosomes, the nucleus
begins to break up, and the mitotic spindle begins to form and
attach to the kinetochores of chromatids at the centromere of
each chromosome.
Metaphase: spindle microtubules arrange chromosomes along
the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: protein motors of the microtubules, powered by
ATP, pull the sister chromatids in each chromosome toward
the poles of the cell.
Telophase: cell continues to elongate, new nuclei form around
each group of chromosomes at the poles of the cell, and the
chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. Cytokinesis begins
simultaneously.
Mitosis
8.7 Cytokinesis differs for plant and
animal cells
Cytokinesis in animal cells Cytokinesis in plant cells
is referred to as cleavage involves the formation of
and involves the formation cell plate.
of a cleavage furrow.
8.7 Cytokinesis differs for plant and
animal cells
Animal Cell Cytokinesis Plant Cell Cytokinesis
(Cleavage)
8.8 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical
growth factors affect cell division
Normal growth and development in multicellular
organisms requires an organism to carefully regulate the
timing of cell division.
Anchorage dependence: cells must be anchored to one
another or a solid surface to begin dividing.
Density-dependent inhibition: groups of cells will divide
until they come in contact with each other and then stop.
Cells require growth factors to begin dividing. As cell
density increases the supply of growth factor becomes
inadequate to keep cells dividing.
8.8 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical
growth factors affect cell division
Density-Dependent inhibition

Affect of growth factors

8.9 Growth factors signal the cell
cycle control system
Proteins of the cell
cycle control system
stop the cell cycle at
checkpoints.
Cells must receive
molecular signals to
proceed. (signals may
come from within
the cell or outside of
the cell)
Cell cycle control system has checkpoints in the
middle of G1, end of G2 and during metaphase of
mitosis.
8.9 Growth factors signal the cell cycle
control system
G1 Checkpoint: requires the cell
to have produced adequate
amounts of certain proteins and
to have grown to a large enough
size before it will allow the cell to
continue.
G2 checkpoint: Ensures the cell has correctly duplicated all
DNA during the S phase and has continued to grow and
prepare for division.
M checkpoint: Ensures that all sister chromatids are
connected to the mitotic spindle and are ready to be separated
from each other.
8.10 Growing out of control, cancer
cells produce malignant tumors
Cancer is a disease of the cell cycle, the cell cycle control
system does not function properly and cells divide out
of control.
The clump of uncontrollable dividing cells form a
tumor.
Benign tumors: do not spread to other sites in the body.
Malignant tumors: displaces normal tissue cells and can
metastasize (spread).
Cancer cells can synthesize their own growth factors in
order to by-pass checkpoints and do not respond to
density-dependent inhibition and often are not
anchorage dependent.
8.11 Review of the function of mitosis, growth,
cell replacement, and asexual reproduction
Mitosis allows multilcellular organisms to grow and
develop by adding more cells.
Onion meristem, embryonic development

Mitosis allows multicellular organisms to replace dead

and damaged cells.
Outer layer of skin replaced by cells produced at the base of
the epidermis

Mitosis allows simple organisms to reproduce asexually.

A starfish reproducing from a damaged arm
Budding of hydra
Similar to Binary fission among bacteria
8.12 Chromosomes are matched in
homologous pairs
Somatic cells are typical body cells.
Human somatic cells contain 46
chromosomes in 23 homologous pairs.
Chromosomes exist as homologous pairs
Homologous pairs each contain genes that control the same trait
at identical loci on the chromosome.
One chromosomes in each pair is inherited from the father and
one from the mother.
Same length, centromere position, and staining pattern
Chromosomes are either:
Autosomes: contain most genes that are common in both
genders.
Sex chromosomes: contain genes that determine gender.
8.13 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes
Somatic cells, containing pairs of Homologous
chromosomes, are diploid cells
Chromosome number = 2n (46 for humans)

Gametes or sex cells contain one chromosome from each

homologous pair and are haploid cells.
Egg cell chromosome number = n (23 in human females)
Sperm cell chromosome number = n (23 in human males)

Sexual intercourse combines a haploid sperm cell and a

haploid egg cell in a process called fertilization, resulting
in a diploid zygote (1st cell of embryo).
Gametes are produced in sex organs (ovaries or testes in
humans) by a process called meiosis.
8.14 Meiosis reduces the chromosome
number from diploid to haploid
Meiosis involves 2 rounds of cell division
Meiosis I
Homologous PAIRS of chromosomes line up at
metaphase I and and are pulled apart in anaphase I.
New nuclei may or may not form in telophase I.
Sister chromatids remain joined together.
Meiosis I results in 2 haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis II
Begins after meiosis WITHOUT further replication of
chromosomes.
Essentially identical to mitosis, sister chromatids are
divided in each of the daughter cells created during
meiosis I.
 Meiosis I
Homologous chromosomes are separated.
 Meiosis II
Sister chromatids are divided.
8.15 A comparison of mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis is necessary for growth, development, repair
and asexual reproduction.
Meiosis produces haploid gametes necessary for
sexual reproduction.
Meiosis and mitosis differ in 3 important ways:
Meiosis involves 2 consecutive rounds of cell division,
mitosis only involves 1.
Meiosis produces 4 daughter cells, mitosis produces only
2.
Meiosis results in daughter cells with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell, mitosis produces
daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as
the parent cells.
8.16 Independent orientation of chromosomes in
meiosis and random fertilization lead to
varied offspring
Homologous pairs of chromosomes align with each other
at metaphase I, independent of other homologous pairs.
For an organism where n = 2, there are four possible
chromosome combinations in the gametes they produce. (22 = 4)
For humans (n = 23), there are 223 = 8,388,608 possible
chromosome combinations in the gametes they produce because
of independent orientation of homologous chromosomes

The sperm and egg that unite during fertilization are

selected at random, further increasing the variation in
offspring.
8.16 Independent orientation of chromosomes in
meiosis and random fertilization lead to
varied offspring
8.17 Homologous chromosomes carry
different versions of genes
Homologous chromosomes
carry genes that control the
same trait, BUT they may carry
a different version of the gene,
resulting in a different form of
the trait.
All diploid organisms carry two
versions of every gene, one
from their mother one from
their father.
 8.18 Crossing over further increases
genetic variability
Crossing over is the exchange of corresponding segments
between homologous chromosomes.
Crossing over occurs during synapsis of prophase I in meiosis I.
Sites of crossing over on the homologous chromosomes are
chiasma.

Crossing over leads to genetic recombination and creates

recombinant chromosomes that were not seen in either
parental organism.
o A single cross over
event affects numerous
genes.
8.18
Crossing over
further increases
genetic
variability
Review: Genetic variability in sexual
reproduction
Crossing over
Occurs during synapsis of prophase I
Independent Assortment of homologous chromosomes
Occurs during metaphase I
Random Fertilization
Occurs at fertilization
Mutation
Changes in nucleotide sequences within the DNA
molecule that may develop during DNA replication
Occurs during in S phase of interphase
8.19 A karyotype is a photographic inventory
of an individuals chromosomes
Errors during meiosis produce gametes with with
abnormal chromosomes number or structure.
Fertilization involving such gametes leads to offspring
with abnormal chromosome number or structure.
Karyotypes make it possible to easily detect such
abnormalities.
Karyotypes are produced from white blood cells that
were chemically arrested in metaphase of mitosis.
Chromosomes are duplicated and extremely condensed
at this time.
8.20 An extra copy of chromosome 21
causes down syndrome
Down Syndrome is caused by an extra 21st
chromosome (3 copies).
Most alterations of the normal chromosome number
result in miscarriages.
Chromosome 21 is one of the smallest of our
chromosomes, an extra copy is survivable, but causes a
severe set of symptoms including a shorter life span.
Trisomony 21, which causes Down syndrome, is the
most common autososme number abnormality,
especially among children of older mothers.
8.20 Chromosome Disorders
8.21 Accidents during meiosis can
alter chromosome number
Meiosis occurs continuously throughout the life of
sexually mature individuals and almost always works
flawlessly.
Sometimes nondisjunction occurs and spindle fibers do
not separate chromosomes correctly.
Nondisjunction during meiosis I fails to separate one or
more pairs of homologous pairs of chromosomes.
Results in 4 out of 4 gametes with abnormal chromosome #.

Nondisjunction in meiosis II fails to separate the sister

chromatids in one or more duplicated chromosomes.
Results in 2 out of 4 gametes with abnormal chromosome #.
8.21 Accidents during meiosis can
alter chromosome number
8.22 Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes
do not usually affect survival
Usually:
XX = female and XY = male

Nondisjunction during egg or sperm production can

produce gametes with additional or missing sex
chromosomes.
Even in individuals with multiple X chromosomes,
only the genes of one chromosome are active.
The presence of a Y chromosome is usually enough
to cause “maleness”
8.22 Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes
do not usually affect survival
8.23 Alteration of chromosome structure
can cause birth defects and cancer
As chromosomes are pulled apart during cell division, parts
of chromosomes may break, leading to:
Deletion: The broken fragment is lost and does not reattach. The
genes from this piece are “deleted”
Duplication: The broken fragment is attached to the homolog of
the chromosome that broke, leading to 2 copies of some genes.
Inversion: The broken fragment reattaches to the chromosome,
but the piece has been flipped in the reverse direction.
Translocation: The broken fragment is reattached to another non-
homologous chromosome.

Deletions are usually the most serious, inversions the least

serious. Translocations have varying effects.
8.23 Alteration of chromosome structure
can cause birth defects and cancer