New English Notes Class 10 ME English Center

Chapter 1: Chemical Equilibrium

Equilibrium: The state in which forward reaction rate and reverse reaction rate are
equal known as equilibrium.

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Chemical reaction: A chemical reaction is a chemical change which involves
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reactants and products.

Example 1: Formation of water from hydrogen gas and Oxygen gas.

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En

2H2 + O2 —-> 2H2O

Example 2: Decomposition of sodium bicarbonate into sodium carbonate, water, and

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carbon dioxide.
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Types of chemical reaction: There are two types of chemical reaction.

1. Irreversible reaction.
2. Reversible reaction.

Irreversible reaction: A reaction which goes to completion is called irreversible

reaction.

Example 1: Combustion

Example 2: Rusting

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Reversible reaction: A reaction which never completes and exists in forward and
reverse direction is called reversible reaction.

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Example: Conversion of ice into water by melting and conversion of water into ice by
freezing.
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En
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Example 2: When one mole of nitrogen gas reacts with three moles of hydrogen it
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produces two moles of ammonia gas. This is known as forward reaction.

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On contrast, two moles of ammonia gas may also be converted into one mole of
nitrogen and three moles of hydrogen. This is known as reversible reaction.

When both of these reactions are written together as a reversible reaction they are
represented as:

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Dynamic equilibrium: When the concentrations of reactants and products become

equal, this state is called dynamic equilibrium.

Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction

Explanation: In a reversible reaction, dynamic equilibrium is established before the

completion of reaction. The rate of both forward and reverse reaction becomes equal
upon reaching the equilibrium point. The following graph which is of concentration vs.
time, shows that the concentrations of both reactants and products becomes constant at
equilibrium.

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Example:

An example of a reaction at equilibrium is a reaction of hydrogen and iodine in a close

container to produce hydrogen iodide. At the start of the reaction there is a high
concentration of hydrogen and iodine and, after that the concentration decreases as
hydrogen iodide.
The concentration of hydrogen iodide increases as the forward reaction proceeds. As
hydrogen iodide is formed, the reverse reaction is then able to occur.

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Microscopic characteristics of forward and reverse reaction

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Forward reaction:
1. It is always directed from left to right in a chemical reaction.
2. Reactants produce products (Reactants —> Products).
3. Initially rate is fast but gradually slows down.
Reverse reaction:
1. It is always directed from right to left in a chemical reaction.
2. Products produce reactants (Reactants ← Products).
3. Initially rate is slow but gradually speeds up.

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Macroscopic characteristics of forward and reverse reaction in

dynamic equilibrium:
1. A dynamic equilibrium can only exist in a close system - neither reactants not
products can enter or leave the system.
2. At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
3. At equilibrium, the forward and reverse reactions are taking place at equal and
opposite rates.
4. Equilibrium can be approached from either side of the reaction equation.
5. An equilibrium state can be disturbed and again achieved under the given
condition of concentration, pressure, and temperature.

Active Mass

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Definition: The concentration of reacting substance is called active mass.
Unit: mol.dm-3

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Value: It's value is expressed in square brackets.

Law of Mass Action

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Statement:
The rate at which a substance reacts is directly proportional to its active mass and the
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rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the product of the active masses of the
reacting substances. The law of mass action also suggests that the ratio of the reactant
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concentration and the product concentration is constant at a state of chemical

equilibrium.
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Derivation of expression for equilibrium constant:

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Let us apply law of mass action on a hypothetical reversible reaction.

First let us discussed forward reaction, where A and B are reactants where as 'a' and 'b'
are number of moles needed to balance a chemical equation. The rate of forward
reaction according to law of mass action is:

Where kf is the rate constant for forward reaction.

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Likewise, rate of reverse reaction is directly proportional to product of molar

concentrations of C and D whereas 'c' and 'd' are number of moles needed to balance a
chemical reaction.

Where kr is the rate constant for reverse reaction. You know it equilibrium rate of
forward and reverse reaction becomes equal. So,

Putting the values of Rf and Rr, we have

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By taking constants on L.H.S and variables on R.H.S, we have

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Where Kc is called equilibrium constant.

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Hence proven that the law of mass action describes the relation between active
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masses of reactants and products with rate of reaction. All the reversible reactions can
be expressed in this form.

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Equilibrium constant

Characteristics:
Important characteristics of equilibrium constant expression are as follows:
1. Kc only works in equilibrium.
2. It represents the equilibrium concentration of the reactant and product in
mol.dm-3.
3. Kc is independent of reactant and product concentrations.
4. Kc varies with temperature.
5. Kc is a balanced chemical equation coefficient. In a balanced chemical equation,
each reactant and product has a concentration equal to its coefficient.
6. Kc represents equilibrium position. If Kc is larger than 1, the reaction is forward. If

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Kc is less than 1, the reaction is a reverse reaction.
7. Remember that equilibrium constant Kc is a ratio of reactant to product that is

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utilized to define chemical behaviour.

Units: Ce
No unit: An equal number of moles on both sides of the equation has no unit in KC.
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Having unit:
For reactions when number of moles of reactants and products are not equal, Kc has a
unit. Let us consider the following reaction:

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Importance of equilibrium constant: it affects both the direction and the extent

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of a chemical reaction.

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1.Direction of a chemical reaction: The reaction quotient, Qc, can help make such
predictions. It has the same mathematical structure as Kc, but Qc is a ratio of real
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concentrations computed at a given moment (not a ratio of equilibrium concentrations)
Comparing Kc and Qc values predicts response direction. We have three categories.
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1.If Qc = Kc, the actual product and reactant concentrations are equal to equilibrium
concentrations, and the system is stable.
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2 If Qc < KC then there is increase in product concentration for equilibrium. So the

forward reaction occurs, forming additional products.
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3. If Qc > Kc, there is decrease in product concentration and to achieve equilibrium. As,
the process reverses, forming more reactants.

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2.Extent of chemical reaction: At a certain temperature, the extent of a reaction is

measured. The magnitude of an equilibrium constant can predict the scope of a
chemical reaction. As magnitude may be very high, very low or moderate, so can be
extent of chemical reaction.

i. Kc is very small
Reactions with low Kc never finish. That is, maximum reactant concentration and
minimum product concentration. These are called reverse or backward responses.

ii. Kc is very large

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Reactions with high Kc values are virtually complete. That is, maximum product

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concentration and minimum reactant concentration. This type of reaction is known as
'Forward reaction'.

iii. Kc is neither very small nor very large

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Reactions which have moderate value of Kc are considered to be at equilibrium. The
concentration of reactants and products is almost the same. For example:
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SECTION-A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Tick the correct answer from the following.

1. Which one of the following statements is false about dynamic equilibrium?

a. It takes place in a close container
b. Concentrations of reactants and products are not changed
c. Rate of Forward reaction is equal to rate of reverse reaction
d. Equilibrium cannot be disturbed by any external stress

2. Consider the following reaction and indicate which of the following best described
equilibrium constant expression Kc.

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3. A reaction which is never goes to completion is known as reversible reaction.

Reversible reaction is represented by:
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a. Dotted lines
b. Single arrow
c. Double arrow
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d. Double straight line

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4. When the magnitude of Kc is a small, indicates

a. Reaction mixture contains most of the reactant
b. Reaction mixture contains most of the product
c. Reaction mixture contains almost equal amount of reactant and product
d. Reaction goes to completion

5. For which system does the equilibrium constant, Kc has units of concentration

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6. The unit of Kc for reaction

a. mol dm-3
b. mol-2 dm6
c. mol-1 dm3
d. no unit

7.The system is stable in equilibrium when:

a. Qc = Kc
b. Qc > Kc
c. Qc < Kc
d. None of these

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8. Qc can be defined as
a. ratio products and reactants

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b. ratio of molar concentration of product and reactant specific time.

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c. ratio of molar concentration of product and molar volume of reactor
d. ratio of molar concentration of product and reactant raised to the power of coefficient.
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9.Which of the following represent backward reaction?
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a. (i) and (ii)

b. (ii) and (iii)
c. (ii) only
d. (iii) only

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10.The value of Kc increases when:

a. [Product] is less
b. [Product] is more
c. [Reactant] is more
d. [Reactant = Product]

Ans:

1.Equilibrium 2. 3.Double arrow 4.Reaction 5.

cannot be mixture
disturbed by contains most

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any external of the reactant
stress

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6.no unit 7.Qc = Kc 8.ratio of molar 9.(ii) only 10.[Product] is

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concentration
of product and
reactant raised
to the power of
more
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coefficient
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Chapter 2: Acid,Base and Salt

Acid: The compounds that have sour flavour are called acids.

Uses:
1. Acids are used in the production of homeopathic and allopathic medications.
2. They are used in batteries, paints and paper.
3. Fertilizers employ H2SO4.
4. In our stomach, HCL is utilized to break down food.

Base: The compounds that have bitter taste are called bases.

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Uses:

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1. In the soap and paper industries, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used.
2. Cement and plaster of paris are both made from calcium hydroxide (CaOH2).

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3. Ammonia is used in the production of fertilizers.

Salts: The compounds that have salty taste are called salts.
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Uses:
1. Ammonium nitrate is used in fertilizers.
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2. Silver bromide is used in photography.

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3. Chloride is utilized as a drying agent.

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Arrhenius theory of acids and bases (1880s)

Introduction: This Svante Arrhenius put forward this theory related to acids and bases.

Statement: According to this theory, the acids are those substances that produce
Hydrogen (H+) ions when dissolved in water (e.g.HCl, HNO3, CH3COOH, HCN) and
bases are those substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water
(e.g. NaOH, NH4OH, Ca(OH)2)

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Example 1:
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Example 2:

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Limitations of arrhenius theory:

● Hydrogen ions do not exist in water solution and they react with water to form
hydronium ions (H3O+)
● The arrhenius theory does not explain the basicity of ammonia (NH3), acidity of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and other similar compounds.
● It is only applicable in aqueous solutions.

Roasted Lori theory of acids and bases (1923)

Introduction: This theory was presented by a Danish chemist Bronsted and an English
chemist Lowry in 1923.

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Statement: According to this theory any substance behaves as an acid when it donates
a proton (H+) to a base and any substance which accepts a proton, it behaves like a

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base, so acids are proton donor and bases are proton acceptors they both react with
water to produce hydronium ions (H3O+).

Example 1:
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Let us consider the dissolution of hydrogen chloride in water. In this reaction HCl
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donates its one proton to water (H2O) and water (H2O) accepts one proton to become
(H3O+).
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Thus HCl is a Bronsted acid and H2O is Bronsted base. H3O+ is conjugated acid and Cl-
is a conjugated base.
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Example 2:
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Let us consider another following reaction

It is a reversible reaction. In the forward reaction acetic acid is an acid which is donating
proton while water is a base and accepting proton.
Conjugated acid base pairs are given below.

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Limitations of Bronsted-lowry concept:
● It could not explain the acidic nature of compounds having no tendency to lose
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H+ ions. Example CO2, AlCl 3, SO3.

Conjugated acid: It is a specie which is produced by accepting a proton by a base.
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Conjugated base: It is a specie which is produced by donating proton from an acid.

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Lewis theory of Acid-Base(1923)

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Introduction: This theory was proposed by Gilbert and Lewis in 1923.

Statement: An acid is a substance that is capable of accepting an electron pair, and

base is a substance that is capable of donating an electron pair." Thus, a Lewis acid is
an electron pair acceptor, and a Lewis base is an electron pair donor.

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Example 1: The proton H+ is capable of accepting a pair of electrons while H2O is

capable of donating a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond. So, according to the
Lewis concept, H+ is a Lewis acid and H2O is a Lewis base. In the Lewis sense, it is the
formation of a coordinate covalent or "donor acceptor" bond.

Example 2:

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Consider the reaction,

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:NH3 is a donor of electron pair and BF3 is acceptor of a pair of electrons. So, according

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to the Lewis concept, NH3 is a Lewis base, and BF3 is Lewis acid.

Limitations of Lewis acid and base concept:

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● It could not explicate the release of energy during the formation of a covalent
bond.
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● It could not clarify the shapes of molecules and amount of energy released
during covalent bond.
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● It could not explain the nature of attractive forces between the constituent atoms
of a molecule.
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Balancing of neutralization reaction:

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● A neutralization reaction takes place by the reaction of an acid and a base in

aqueous solution producing a salt and water.
● A neutralization reaction shown by a balanced chemical equation which have
equal number of atoms as well as positive and negative charges on reactants
and product sides.
● The balancing of a neutralization involves the equal consumption of H+ and OH-
in aqueous solution due to this we have to look the acidity of base and basicity of
acid in balancing equation.

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● For example, in chemical equation of neutralization of sodium hydroxide and

hydrochloric acid is as follows.

NaOH and HCl are neutralizing each other in ratio 1:1, because one mole of
NaOH releases 1 mole of OH- and one mole of HCl releases one mole of H+.
● Similarly, NaOH or KOH when reacted with HBr, HI,HNO3 shows ratio of 1:1.

Water ionization:
The water is a neutral liquid which possesses equal number of hydrogen (H+) and
hydroxide ion OH- due to this pure water is considered as a weak electrolyte. It ionize

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according to the following reaction.

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The equilibrium constant Kc of water is given by,

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As we know that ionization of water is very small so the concentration is approximately

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unchanged and considered as constant (Kw) so, equation will be

Where Kw is ionic product constant of water and its value is 1×10-14 (mol dm-3)2

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pH
Definition: A measurement of the concentration of Hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.

Mathematical form:

pOH
Definition: A measurement of the concentration of hydroxyl ions OH- in a solution.

Mathematical form:

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pH Scale: The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a substance. The scale
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has values ranging from zero (the most acidic) to 14 (the most basic).

Table 2.3 Relationship between [H+], the [OH-] and pH of solutions

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Salts

Definition: Salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation (from base) and an anion
(from acid).

Importance:
1. Salt is important for animal life.
2. Saltiness is one of the basic human tastes.

Examples: NaCl,CuCl2 etc

Preparation of salts:

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1. Salts are produced by the action of acids on metals, metal oxides, metal
carbonates and metal bi carbonates.

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2. Salts are produced by the action of a base with an acid or a metal with the base.

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Types of salts

(i) Acidic salt

Definition: Acidic salts are those salts which are distinctly acidic in nature they produce
acidic solution when dissolved in water.

Having pH: Such salt solutions have pH less than 7.

Example: NH4Cl, Ca(NO3)2, NaHSO4,

NH2 PO4.

(ii) Basic salt

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Definition: Basic salts are those salts which are distinctly basic in nature they produce
alkaline solution when dissolved in water.

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Having pH: Such salt solutions have pH more than 7.

Example: CH3COONa, K2CO3, Na2CO3- KCN.

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(iii) Neutral salt
Definition: Neutral salts are those salts which are formed by the complete
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neutralization of a strong base and strong acid.

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Having pH: Such salts are neutral with pH 7.

Example: NaCl,KCl, K2SO4,NaNO3

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Uses of some salts:

1. Most of the chemical fertilizers used in agriculture by farmers are salts. For example:
ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, potassium chloride and
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) fertilizers.

2. Certain salts are used as pesticides to kill or destroy insects, pests, weeds and fungi.
For example: Copper (II) sulphate, Iron (II) sulphate and mercury chloride.

3.In:medical field hydrated calcium sulphate, CaSO4.2H2O is found in plaster of Paris. It

is used to make plaster casts for supporting broken bones.

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4. Patients suffering from anemia use iron (II) sulphate heptahydrate, FeSO4.7H2O is an
ingredient in 'iron pills' as food supplement.

5. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is an ingredient in anti-acids. This salt can neutralize the
excess acid secreted by the stomach.

6. Barium sulphate is used to make barium meals for patients who need to take an
X-ray of their stomach . The salt helps to make internal soft organs like intestines
appear on X-Ray films.

7. Potassium per manganate (VII) can kill bacteria and hence is suitable for use as a
disinfectant.

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Buffer

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Definition: A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of acidic or
basic components. It is able to neutralize all amounts of added acid or base, thus

Characteristics:
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maintaining the pH of the solution relatively stable.

1. The pH of a buffer is independent of ionic strength.

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2. The pH of a buffer is dependent on temperature.
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Harmful effects of acid rain:

1. It creates water pollution by changing the chemical composition of the water to a
state that is damaging to the aquatic ecosystem's ability to exist.
2. Acid rain also causes water pipelines to corrode, resulting in heavy metals such
as iron, lead, and copper seeping into drinking water.
3. It causes damage to stone and metal structures and monuments.

SECTION-A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Encircle the correct answer in each case.

1. Corrosive effect on skin is caused by:

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(a) acid
(b) base

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(c) salt
(d) both a and b

2.Preservatives are used to preserve:

(a) acids
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(b) bases
(c) food
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(d) water
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3. Which of the following is not an Arrhenius acid:

(a) HCl
(b) CO2
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(c) HNO3
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(d) H2SO4

4. NH3 can be a base according to:

(a) Arrhenius theory
(b) Bronsted-lowery theory
(c) Lewis theory
(d) both b and c

5. Which of the following is a Lewis base?

(a) HNO3
(b) CN-
(c) HCl
(d) AlCl 3
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6.A substance that can donate appear of electron to form coordinate covalent bond:
(a) Lewis acid
(b) Lewis base
(c) Bronsted-Lowery acid
(d) Bronsted-Lowery base

7. If pH value is greater than 7, then solution is:

(a) acidic
(b) basic
(c) amphoteric
(d) neutral

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8. Salt among following is:

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(a) HCl
(b) KCl
(c) HNO3
(d) H2SO4 Ce
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9. Substances that react with both acids and bases are called:
(a) conjugate acids
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(b) conjugate bases

(c) amphoteric substances
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(d) buffers

10. The reaction of acid and base to form salt and water is called:
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(a) hydration
(b) neutralization
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(c) hydrolysis
(d) both a and c

Ans:

1.acid 2.food 3.CO2 4.both b and c 5.CN-

6.Lewis base 7.basic 8.KCl 9.amphoteric 10.Neutralizati

on

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Chapter 3: Organic Chemistry

Vital force theory
Introduction: This tool was introduced by Berzelius in 1815.

Statement: It states "Organic compounds can only be formed in the tissues of living
organisms (plants and animals) and cannot be synthesized from inorganic substances
in the laboratory".

Organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is branch of chemistry which deals with the
study of compounds of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.

Organic compounds

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Definition: Organic compounds are those that include one or more compounds that are

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covalently linked to atoms of other elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc.

Example:
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Ethane, Alcohol, Amine, Polystyrene, Chloroform.
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General characteristics of organic compounds
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Some general characteristics of organic compounds are given below:

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(i) Source: Organic compounds are obtained from living things (animals and plants)
and minerals.
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(ii) Composition: Carbon is the key element in all organic compound. After carbon, the
most frequently used element is hydrogen. Organic compounds may also contain
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halogens, oxygen, sulphur,nitrogen, and phosphorus elements. Organic compounds

contain both types of covalent bonds-polar and non polar bonds.

(iii) Solubility: According to like dissolve like rule, organic compounds are insoluble in
water but soluble in inorganic solvents. Non-polar organic compounds are soluble in
benzene, carbon disulphide, ether etc and polar compounds are soluble in alcohols.

(iv) Melting and boiling points: As covalent bond is weaker than ionic bond, so
organic compounds have lower melting and boiling points.

(v) Rate of Reactivity: The rate of reactivity of organic compound is very slow and
need specific conditions.
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(vi) Electrical Conductivity: Generally, organic compounds are non conductors of

electricity because they consist of covalent molecules.

(vii) Combustion: All organic compounds are more combustible and burn in air due to
high percentage of carbon. The common product produced in all cases is carbon
dioxide.

(viii) Stability: Organic compounds are less stable on a high temperature as compared
to inorganic compounds.

Representation of organic compound:

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Organic compounds have four different sorts of formulae:
● Molecular formula

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● Structural formula
● Condensed formula
● Dot and cross formula
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Molecular Formula: The molecular formula is the formula that indicates the exact
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number of atoms in one molecule of an organic compound.
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Example: The molecular formula of butane is C4H10.

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Structural Formula: The exact arrangement of the individual atoms of various

elements contained in a molecule of a substance is represented by the structural
formula of a compound.
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● Between the bonded atoms, a single bond is represented by a single line (–), a
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double bond by two lines (=) and triple Bond by three lines.
● Organic compounds can have the same molecular formula but various structural
formulae, such as butane C4H10 which has two structural formulae:

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Condensed formula: Condensed formula is the formula in which bond line to each
carbon are omitted and each distinct structure unit is written with subscript numbers for
multiple substitutes including hydrogen.

Example 1:

Example 2:

Dot and Cross Formula (electronic): The dot and cross formula, also known as

er
electronic formula, depicts the sharing of electrons between distinct atoms in a single

nt
molecule of an organic compound.

Example 1:
Ce
ish
gl

Example 2:
En
E
M

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Table 3.1
Compound, Molecular, Structural and Condensed Formulae of first ten
hydrocarbons

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

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Classification of organic compounds

There are two types of organic compounds.

1. Open chain compounds
2. Cyclic compounds

Open chain compounds: The compounds which contain atoms linked in open chain
are called open chain compounds.

Example: n-pentane, isopentane.

Classification of open chain compounds:

er
Open chain compounds are further divided into two types.
1. Straight chain compounds

nt
2. Branched chain compounds

Ce
Straight chain compounds: The open chain compounds with substituents linked in the
straight chain are called straight chain compounds.
ish
Example: n-butane
gl

Branched chain compounds: The open chain compounds that contain branches are
called branched chain compounds.
En

Example: Isobutane
E

Cyclic compounds: The organic compounds having a basic non linear structure are
M

called cyclic compounds.

Example: Benzene and Phenol cyclobutane.

Classification of cyclic compounds:

Cyclic compounds are further classified into two types.
1. Heterocyclic compounds
2. Homocyclic compounds

Heterocyclic compounds: Organic compounds with the carbon ring structure that
contains at least one other electronegative element are called heterocyclic compounds.

Example: N,O and S.

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Homocyclic compounds: cyclic compounds having atoms of the same elements in

ring are called homocyclic compounds.

Example: Benzene, Cyclobutane.

Classification of homocyclic compounds:

homocyclic compounds are further classified into two types.
1. Alicyclic compounds.
2. Aromatic compounds.

Alicyclic compounds: The compounds which have no benzene ring are called alicyclic

er
compounds.

nt
Example: Cyclobutane.

Ce
Aromatic compounds: The compounds which have benzene ring with six carbon
atoms are called aromatic compounds.
ish
Example: Benzene Naphthalene
gl

Diversity and magnitude of organic compound

More than 10 million organic compounds exist. This amount is significantly more than
En

the total number of compounds formed by other elements. The following factors
contribute to the existence of such a great number of organic compounds:
E

1.Catenation: Catenation is the capacity of atoms to build long chains and huge rings
M

by linking with other similar atoms.

There are two main criteria for an element to show catenation.

1.The element should have a valency of two or more.
2.An element's bonds with its own atoms should be stronger than the element's bonds
with other atoms, particularly oxygen. Although both silicon and carbon have
comparable electronic structures, carbon exhibits more catenation where as silicon
exhibits very less. The reason for this is that C-C bonds are substantially stronger (355
kJ mol-1) than Si-Si bonds (200 kJ mol-1). Si-O bonds, on the other hand, a more
stronger (452 kJ mol-1) than C-O bonds (351 kJ mol-1).

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2. Isomerism: Isomerism is the existence of molecules that have the same numbers of
the same kinds of atoms and hence the same molecular formula but different structural
formula.
● Isomerism increases the number of structures that may be expressed; for
example, the chemical formula of pentane (C5H12) can be represented by three
distinct structures.

The number of isomers increase as the number of carbon atoms in a chemical

er
formula increases.

nt
3. Carbon's covalent bond strength: Because of its tiny size, carbon can make

Ce
extremely strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and halogens. This allows it to make a vast number of different compounds.
ish
4. Multiple bonding: Carbon may form multiple bonds in order to meet its tetravalency
(i.e., double and triple bonds). This increases the number of structures that can be built.
A single covalent bond connects two carbons in ethane, a double covalent bond
gl

connects two carbons in ethylene, and a triple covalent bond connects two carbons in
acetylene. By multiple bonding we have three different compounds.
En

Source of organic compounds

There are two main sources of organic compounds namely living things and minerals.
E

These sources are described as under.

M

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Coal: Coal is made up of a variety of hydrocarbons. It is an important source of solid

fossil fuels for us. Coal is said to have developed in nature 500 million years ago from
the remains of trees buried deep inside the soil. It was turned to peat as a result of
bacterial and chemical processes on the wood. Peat was then converted into coal as a
result of high temperature and pressure within the Earth's crust. Natural carbonization is
the process of converting wood into coal. Wood has a carbon content of 40%. Four
varieties of coal are created depending on the degree of carbonization.

er
nt
Ce
ish
Petroleum: Petroleum is a thick dark brownish or greenish black liquid. It's a
complicated combination of solid, liquid, and gaseous hydrocarbons, together with
water, salts and earth particles.
gl

Organic compounds are mostly derived from petroleum. It is made up of a variety of

En

substances, the majority of which are hydrocarbons. Fractional distillation is used to

separate these chemicals. Each fraction contains single chemical compound, rather
than multiple components.
E
M

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Natural gas: It's a mixture of hydrocarbons with low molecular weight. Methane,
together with other gases such as ethane, propane, and butane, makes up around 85%
of the mixture. It has a similar origin to coal and petroleum. As a result, it is discovered
with their deposits. Natural gas is utilized as a fuel in both household and industries.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is utilized as a fuel in cars. Carbon black and fertilizers
are also made from natural gas.

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En

Plants: Macromolecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins, are

synthesized by living plants. Glucose is the fundamental unit of all carbohydrates, and it
is produced by plants through photosynthesis. Starch, and cellulose are formed as
E

glucose polymerizes further. Pulses and beans are high in protein. Proteins are made
by nitrogen fixing bacteria that live on the roots of plants. Seeds from plants including
M

sunflower, rapeseed, palm, coconut, and groundnut contain oils. Apple and citrus fruits
are high in vitamins. Plants provide us with gums, rubber, medications, and other
products in addition to these primary food staples.

Synthesis in laboratory: Only plants and animals, it was thought just over two
centuries ago, could synthesize organic compounds because they possessed 'Vital
Force,' which is required for organic compound synthesis. However, F.M. Wohler's
laboratory synthesis of urea NH2CONH2 in 1828 established the area of laboratory
synthesis of organic molecules. More than 10 million organic molecules have been
synthesized in laboratories till today. Drugs and medications, flavourings and scents,
and other products include them.

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Uses of organic compounds

1. Uses as food: The foods we eat on a daily basis, such as milk, eggs, meat,
vegetables, and so on, are all organic and contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and so on.

2. Uses as clothing: Natural (cotton, silk, wool, etc) and synthetic (polyester, nylon,
etc) fibres are used in all forms of clothing (we wear, we use as bed sheets, etc).
(nylon,Dacron and acrylic, etc). All of these substances are made up of organic
components.

3. Uses as a house: Wood is made mostly of cellulose (naturally synthesized organic

compound). It's used to build anything from buildings to furnishings.

er
4. Uses as fuel: Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are the fuels we use in our cars and

nt
in our homes.These are referred to as fossil fuels. These are all organic compounds.

Ce
5. Medical Applications: We employ a significant variety of organic compounds
(naturally generated by plants) as medications. Antibiotics (which suppress or kill
bacteria that cause infectious illness) and other life-saving medications and treatments
ish
are manufactured in laboratories.
gl

6. As a row material: Organic compounds are used to make a wide variety of products,
including rubber, paper, ink, pharmaceuticals, dyes, paints, varnishes, insecticides, and
En

more.

Alkanes:
E

Definition: Saturated hydrocarbons or paraffins are alkanes.

M

General formula: CnH2n+2 is their general formula, where 'n' is the number of carbon
atoms. When it comes to alkanes, 'n' can range from 1 to 40.

Homologous series: A homologous series is the name given to each group. Organic
molecules belonging to the same homologous series have the following characteristics:
1. A general formula can be used to describe all members of a series. For example,
the general formulas for alkanes,alkenes, and alkynes CnH2n+2,CnH2n and CnH2n-2
are respectively.
2. The relative molecular masses of successive members of the sequence differ by
one unit of CH2 and 14 a.m.u.
3. They have chemical properties that are comparable (because they contain the
same functional group).
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4. Their physical properties evolve in a predictable pattern; melting and boiling

points rise in lockstep with increasing molecular masses.
5. They can be prepared in a similar manner.

Formation of Alkyl Radical: Alkyl radicals are alkane derivatives. They are created by
removing one of an alkanes hydrogen atoms and are symbolised by the letter 'R'. Their
name is formed by substituting the letter 'ane' in alkane with the letter 'yl'. CnH2n+1 is their
general formula.

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En

Propane has a chain structure that is straight. It's termed as n-propyl when terminal H is
E

removed. Isopropyl is formed when hydrogen from the middle carbon is removed, as
M

stated below:

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Different structures of butyl radicals are similarly explained:

er
nt
Saturated hydrocarbon Unsaturated hydrocarbon

Saturated hydrocarbons contain carbon

carbon single bond. Ce
Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain carbon
carbon double and triple bonds.
ish
The valencies of all carbon atoms are The valencies of all carbon atoms are
fully satisfied through single bond. fully satisfied through double and triple
bond.
gl

Saturated hydrocarbons have a less Unsaturated hydrocarbons have a less

amount of carbon and high amount of amount of hydrogen and high amount of
En

hydrogen. carbon as compared to saturated

hydrocarbons.
E

Saturated hydrocarbons are less reactive. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are more

reactive.
M

They burn with blue and non sooty flame They burn with yellow and sooty flame in
in air. air.

The compounds of saturated hydrocarbon The compounds of unsaturated

are alkanes. hydrocarbon are alkenes and alkynes.

Alkenes are represented by general The general formula of alkenes and

formula CnH2n+2. alkynes are CnH2n and CnH2n-2.

Examples of alkanes are Examples of alkenes are ethene (CH3 =

ethane (CH3 - CH3) CH3) and ethyne (CH≡CH)
propane (CH3 - CH2 - CH3)

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Nomenclature

Rules for naming Alkanes:

1. Consider the parent alkane and select the longest possible continuous chain of
carbon atoms, whether straight or branched.

er
nt
Ce
2. Assign numbering on C-atoms of chain from that end to which branch or radical is
nearer.
ish
gl
En
E

3. Name the alkyl radical with its position.

M

4.If the same radical appears more than once in the chain, the number of alkyl radicals
is expressed by prefixing the name of the alkyl radical with di, trip, tetra, panta, and so
on.

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5.When there are two or more separate alkyl radicals in a chain, they are designated in
alphabetic order, ethyl before methyl, methyl before propyl, and so on.

er
nt
Ce
ish

6. When separate alkyl radicals occur at the same location on a carbon atom from either
gl

end of the chain, the carbon chain is numbered from that end to which larger radical is
nearer.
En
E
M

7. In the end name of parent chain is named as alkane w.r.t number of C-atoms.

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Rules for naming alkanes:

1. Choose the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms, which must include both
double-bonded carbon atoms.

2. Regardless of alkyl radicals, the longest chain is numbered from the end closest to
the carbon-carbon double bond.

er
nt
3. The presence of a double bond in a compound is indicated by replacing the suffix
"ane" of the corresponding alkane with "ene", as well as the location of the double bond
in the chain.
Ce
ish
gl
En

4.If there are two or more double bonds in the chain, the prefixes di, tr, tetra, and so are
added before the suffix "ene" with its position.
E
M

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Rules for naming alkynes:

1. Choose the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms, which must include both triple
bonded carbon atoms.

2. Regardless of alkyl radical, the longest chain of carbon atoms is numbered from the
end closest to the carbon-carbon triple bond.

er
nt
3.The number of the carbon atom with the lowest value indicates the position of the
triple bond.

Ce
4. By changing the suffix "ane" of the matching alkane to "yne", the triple bond in the
compound is indicated.
ish
gl
En

5.When there are two or more triple bonds in the chain, the prefixes di,tri and so on are
added before the suffix "yne" with its position.
E
M

6.When both double and triple bonds are present at same locations in a chain of
molecule, the double bond is given priority in the numbering.

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7. When there are both double and triple bonds at various places in a chain, the
numbering begins at the end where the double or triple bond is closest.

Functional group
Definition: A functional group is defined as an atom or group of atoms whose existence
in an organic compound gives distinctive qualities to that compound.

Example 1: The functional group in alkyl halide (R-X) is the halogen atom (-X).

er
Example 2: The functional group of alcohol (R-OH) is the hydroxyl group (-OH).

nt
Characteristics:

Ce
The functional group governs an organic compound's fundamental chemistry, whereas
the alkyl group affects its physical properties. The polar hydroxyl group (-OH) in
alcohols, for example, improves solubility. The non-polar alkyl group resists it in water.
ish
This opposing action is sufficiently higher for any alkyl groups larger than C4H9 (Butyl) to
restrict a compound's solubility in water.
gl
En
E
M

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er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

Functional groups containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen: The

organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as functional groups are
alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and esters.

(i) Alcoholic group: The functional group of alcohol is -OH. Their general formula is
ROH. Where R is any alkyl group.

Example 1:

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Example 2:

Example 3:

(iii) Ether linkage: The functional group of ether is C-O-C. Their general formula is
R-O-R' where R and R' are alkyl groups and they may be same or different.

er
Example 1:

nt
Example 2: Ce
ish

(iii) Aldehydic group: Aldehyde family consists of carbonyl functional group. Their
gl

general formula is RCHO. Where R stands for H or some alcohol groups.

En

Example 1:
E
M

Example 2:

(iv) Ketonic group: Compounds containing following functional group are called
ketones.

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They have the following general formula

Where R and R' are alkyl groups.They may be same or different.

Example 1:

Example 2:

er
nt
Ce
(v) Carboxyl Group: Compounds containing following functional group are called
carboxylic acids.
ish
gl

Their general formula is

En
E

Where R stands for - H or some alkyl groups.

M

Example 1:

Example 2:

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(vi) Easter linkage: Organic compounds consisting of RCOR' functional group are
called easters.
Their general formula is

Where R and R' are alkyl groups.They may be same or different.

Example 1:

er
nt
Example 2:

Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

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er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E

Functional Group containing Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen: The

M

organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen as functional group are
called as amines. Their functional group is -NH2 and their general formula is R-NH2.

Example 1:

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Example 2:

Example 3:

Functional Group Containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Halogens: The

er
organic compounds having functional group containing carbon, hydrogen and halogens

nt
are called alkyl halides. Their functional group is R-X. 'X' maybe F, Cl,Br or I.

Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

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Double and triple Bond: Hydrocarbon consisting of double bonds between two
carbon atoms in their molecules are called as alkenes

Example 1:

Example 2:

Hydrocarbon consisting of triple bonds between two carbon atoms in their molecules

er
are called as alkynes.

nt
Example 1:

Ce
ish
Example 2:
gl
En
E
M

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SECTION-A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1.Encircle the correct answer:

(i) The branch of chemistry which deals with the hydrocarbons and their derivatives is
known as:
(a) Organic chemistry
(b) Inorganic chemistry
c) Biochemistry
(d) Physical chemistry

(ii) the general Formula for alkanes is:

(a) CnH2n

er
(b) CnH2n+1
c) CnH2n+2

nt
(d) CnH2n-2

(iii) Which of the following is an alcohol?

(a) CH3CHO
(b) CH3-CH2-O-CH3
Ce
ish
c) CH3-OH
(d) HCOOH
gl

(iv)Which of the following is saturated hydrocarbon?

En

(a) CH3-CH=CH2
(b) CH3-CH2-O-CH3
c) CH3-C≡CH
E

(d) CH2=CH-C≡CH
M

(v)The prefix 'hept' stands for — carbon atoms.

(a) 2
(b) 5
c) 7
(d) 9

(vi) the functional group -COOH is used for:

(a) Alkynes
(b) Alcohols
c) Phenols
(d) Carboxylic acid

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(vii) Polythene is:

(a) oil
(b) paper
c) plastic
(d) wood

(viii) Acetic acid is obtained from:

(a) Banana
(b) Dates
c) Garlic
(d) Vinegar

er
(ix) Alkenes:
(a) show same general formula as alkynes

nt
(b) have carbon carbon triple Bond
c) have carbon carbon double bond
(d) are saturated hydrocarbons

(x) CH3-CH2- is —- radical.

Ce
ish
(a) Methyl
(b) Ethyl
gl

c) n-propyl
(d) Isopropyl
En

Ans:
E
M

i.Organic ii.CnH2n+2 iii.CH3-OH iv.CH3-CH2-O-CH3 v.7

chemistry

vi.Carboxylic vii.plastic viii.Vinegar ix.have carbon x.Ethyl

acid carbon double
bond

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Chapter 4: Biochemistry

Biochemistry: The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of chemical
substances and processes that occur in living organisms (plants and animals) is known
as biochemistry.

Carbohydrates
Definition: Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living
tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose.

Composition: They contain elements like carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

er
General formula: Mostly carbohydrates are represented by general formula

nt
Cx(H2O)y because in these compounds hydrogen and oxygen are in the ratio as in H2O.

aldehyde group (-CHO), ketone group Ce

Functional group: The structural analysis shows that these compounds contain

(>C =O) along with alcoholic hydroxyl groups (-OH).

ish
Properties:
1. They are sweet in taste.
gl

2. Carbohydrates also have property to rotate the plane polarized light.

En

Dextrorotatory: Those carbohydrates which rotate plane polarized light to clockwise

are dextrorotatory.
E

Indication: It is indicated by D or +.
M

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Classification of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides
Definition: These are also called simple sugar. These carbohydrates cannot be further
simplified on hydrolysis.

Composition: Monosaccharides contain 3 to 10 carbon atoms and may be subdivided

er
into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses etc depending upon the number of carbon
atoms they possess.

nt
Existence:

foods, such as grapes (20-30percent).

2. It can also be found in honey.
Ce
1. Glucose is obtained naturally as dextrorotatory and is present in most delicious
ish
3. It may be found in the combined state in can sugar, cellulose and starch.
4. Because glucose is a necessary component of human blood, it is also known as
gl

blood sugar. The normal range for blood glucose is 65-110 mg (0.06-0.1%) per
100 mL.
En

5. Fructose occurs in ripe fruits, honey, can sugar etc.

Formation: Photosynthesis is how plants synthesize glucose. Glucose is generated

E

when carbon dioxide reacts with water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll
M

(catalyst).

Properties:
1. Monosaccharides are crystalline solids, sweet in taste and are soluble in water.
2. Glucose is commonly thought to be a rapid source of energy for patients.

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Example: Glucose (grape sugar) belongs to aldoses and fructose (honey) to ketoses
are examples of monosaccharides.

er
nt
Oligosaccharides
Definition: These carbohydrates produce 2 to 10 monosaccharides on hydrolysis. The

Ce
oligosaccharides which contain two monosaccharides are called disaccharides and
those which contain three are known as trisaccharides and so on.
ish
gl
En

Bond: In oligosaccharides, monosaccharides are connected with each other by

E

glycosidic Bond/linkage.
M

Properties: Like monosaccharides, oligosaccharides are crystalline solids, sweet in

taste and soluble in water.

Example: Sucrose, maltose, lactose (milk sugar) etc

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Polysaccharides
Definition: These carbohydrates produce more than 10 monosaccharides on
hydrolysis, these are also called polymeric carbohydrates.

Bond: In these carbohydrates, monosaccharides are connected by glycosidic linkage.

Existence: Cellulose is found in the cell walls, wood, linen, paper, cotton etc. Starch

er
occurs in cereals like wheat, rice burnley etc and roots of potatoes. Glycogen is also
called animal starch, found in muscles and liver of animals.

nt
Ce
Example: Cellulose, starch, glycogen, amylose etc are common polysaccharides.

Sources of carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are important food factor and obtained

ish
from various sources like fruits, vegetables and dairy products.
gl
En
E
M

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Uses of carbohydrates:

1. They are required as an energy source for the survival of both plants and animals.

er
nt
2. They sustain the structure of plants.

Ce
3. Carbohydrates, in the form of starch in plants and glucose in mammals, serve as
energy storage.
ish
4. They keep our blood sugar levels in check.

5. Sucrose is a food additive. It's found in confectionaries, condensed milk, canned

gl

fruits, jams and jellies, among other things.

En

6. Carbohydrate fibre helps in cholesterol reduction and blood pressure regulation.

E

7. Carbohydrates coexist with a variety of proteins and lipids in biosystems.

M

8. Celluloses provide food its bulk and fibre. It promotes peristalsis in the intestine.

9. Cellulose is used as a raw material in a variety of industries, including textiles and

paper.

10. Starch is used to improve the writing characteristics of paper by coating and sizing
it.

11. Starch is utilized in the production of ethanol and in laundries.

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Proteins
Definition: The polymers of amino acids are called proteins.

Composition: They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and very
rarely sulphur and phosphorus.

Amino acids as a monomers or building blocks of proteins:

Amino acids are building blocks of proteins. They are bi-functional compounds and
contain basic amino (-NH2) and acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) groups. Upto twenty
amino acids have been found in nature, ten are essential and remaining ten are
non-essential. Body can only synthesize non-essential ten amino acids.

er
General formula: The general formula for amino acids is:

nt
Ce
ish
Where 'R' is the chain of carbon atoms.
gl

Formation of proteins: During the condensation of amino acids, -OH (from carboxyl
group) of one amino acid and H (from amino group) of another amino acid are
En

combined and eliminated as water as (H2O) molecule. Thus a new linkage is formed
between two amino acid units known as peptide linkage/bond. Due to this linkage
protein is formed.
E
M

Proteins may contain 60 to 6,000 amino acid molecules. A protein molecule is formed
with two amino acids is termed as dipeptide, with three tripeptide and so on. Generally
the molecular weight of proteins ranges from 43, 000-50,000,000 deltons.
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Sources of proteins: The important souces of proteins are eggs, meat, pulses, nuts
edible seeds, beans, peas, cheese etc.

Uses of proteins:

1. Animal proteins can be found in meat, mutton, fish, and eggs. Humans consume
them as food since they are required for protoplasm production.

2. Enzymes are proteins generated by living organisms. They help to stimulate chemical
processes in our body. They are highly specialized and extremely efficient. Many
enzymes are utilized in pharmaceuticals. They cure blood cancer as well as decrease

er
bleeding.

nt
3. Proteins are hides. These are used in the tanning process to create leather. Leather
is used to produce shoes, coats and sports equipmen,t among other things.

Ce
4. Bones are rich in proteins. When bones are cooked, gelatin is produced. Bakery
goods are made with gelatin.
ish

5. Plants, such as pulses, beans, and other legumes, manufacture proteins as well.
gl

These are utilized as a source of food.

En

Lipids
Definition: A group of naturally occurring heterogeneous organic compounds which
E

includes fats, oils,waxes and are soluble in water but easily soluble in Bloor's reagent
M

(mixture of diethyl and ethyl alcohol in the ratio of 2:1) and organic solvents like ether,
benzene,acetone, carbon tetra chloride and chloroform.

Composition: Generally lipids are composed of elements like carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen but there are some lipids which contain nitrogen and phosphorus too.

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Fatty Acids: Fatty acids are lipids' building components. They are carboxylic acids with
a lengthy chain, either saturated or unsaturated.

Example:

Reaction: In the presence of mineral acids, these acids produce esters (oils or fat) with
glycerol.

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En

Sources of lipids
E
M

Animals: Marine animals like Salmon and whales are rich sources of lipids. Butter,
ghee,cheese are obtained from animals.

Plants: Sunflower, coconut, ground nuts, cotton seed, olive are important plant sources
of lipids.

Uses of lipids:
(i) They act as transporter of fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D,E, and K)
in body.

(ii) some lipids reduce cholesterol level in body.

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(iii) Fats and oils are used for cooking and crying of food.

(iv) Fats and oils are used in detergents, soaps, cosmetic, polishes and paints.

(v) They activate the enzymes.

(vi) Animal fats are found in adipose tissue cells. Animals secrete milk from which butter
and ghee is obtained. Butter and ghee are used for cooking and frying of food, for
preparing bakery products and sweets.

Nucleic acids
Definition: The macromolecules which are formed by the polymerization of nucleotides

er
(monomers) are called nucleic acid.

nt
Composition: They contain elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
really phosphorus etc.

Ce
Existence: They generally occur in nuclei of the cells. But some nucleic acids are also
present in cytoplasm.
ish

Properties: They are most important of all biomolecules because they store and
gl

transmit hereditary information from parents to children. In living organisms, even single
fertilized egg carries the information for making the different organs like heart, liver,
En

eyes, kidneys, hands, legs, heads etc.

Nucleotide: It is the monomer of nucleic acid.

E
M

Each nucleotide is composed of:

(i) Pentose sugar
(ii) Phosphate group
(iii) Nitrogenous base (purines and pyrimidines)

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Types of nucleic acids: There are two types of nucleic acids.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Composition: It is made up of deoxyribose sugar.

Structure: It's a two-chained double-stranded molecule with a considerable length.

Sugar, phosphate, and a base make up each chain. The background of the chains is
made up of sugar and phosphate groups, and two chains are joined by bases.

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl

Function:
1. In the nucleus of a cell, DNA is the permanent storage side for genetic information. It
En

transports and stores all of the cell's genetic information.

2. It conveys these instructions on how to build certain proteins from amino acids from
E

generation to generation. These instructions are referred to as the "genetic code of life".
M

They decide whether a cell is a nerve cell or a muscle cell, and if an organism is a man,
a tree, or a buffalo.

3. Protein formation in new cells is determined by the sequence of nitrogenous bases in

DNA.

4. The purpose of DNA's double helix construction is to ensure that there is no disorder.

5. DNA contains genes that regulate RNA production.

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Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Composition: It is made up of ribose sugar.

Structure: It's a molecule with only one strain

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl

Function: DNA produces RNA in order to convey genetic information. The information
sent to RNA is received, read, decoded, and used to build new proteins. As a result,
En

RNA is in charge of guiding the production of new proteins.

Importance of Nucleic Acid:

E

1. Nucleic acid are the most vital, material for cell functioning.
M

2. Nucleic acids are the storage of genetic information.

3. Nucleic acid work for mutation to save the cells and body from threatening diseases.

4. Nucleic acids transfer heredity characters from one generation to another generation.

5. Nucleic acids serve as source of energy in the form of ATP.

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Vitamins
Definition: Any of a group of organic compounds which are essential for normal growth
and nutrition and are required in small quantities in the diet. Because they cannot be
synthesized by the body.

Types of vitamins: On the basis of solubility, there are two types of vitamins.

1. Water soluble vitamins

2. Fat soluble vitamins

Water soluble vitamins

Definition: Those vitamins which are soluble in water are called water soluble vitamins.

er
Example: Generally, vitamin B (complex) and vitamin C are water soluble vitamins.

nt
Ce
Source: These vitamins are obtained from cereals and fruits.

Properties:
ish
1. These vitamins are not stored in body.

2. If we take these vitamins in excess, they cannot harm us.

gl

3. These vitamins are easily excreted from our body.

En

Fat soluble vitamins

E

Definition: Those vitamins which are soluble in fats and organic solvents are called fat
soluble vitamins.
M

Example: Vitamins A, D (sunshine vitamin), E and K are fat soluble vitamins.

Source: These vitamins are obtained from lipids.

Properties:
1. They are stored in the body for long period of time.

2. If we take over doses of vitamins, they may harm us and cause diseases. For
example, excess of vitamin A causes irritation and headache, vitamin D calcification and
pain in bones, vitamin E fatigue and headache and vitamin K liver and kidney diseases.

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er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

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Commercial uses of enzymes:

1. Commercially, yeast enzymes are utilized in the fermentation of molasses and starch
to make alcohol (Ethanol). Diastase, invertase, and zymase are the enzymes in
question.

2. Detergents include microbial enzymes (powder or liquid). Lipases are enzymes that
break down fats into more water-soluble molecules. Amylase is a starch-based stain
remover. Cellulase breaks down cellulose into glucose, which is a water soluble
substance.

3. Fruit juices are purified with the help of enzymes. It also helps to enhance the colour

er
of the fruit skins.

nt
4. Amylase enzymes are utilized in the production of bread because they can increase
the amount of starch in the flour.

Ce
5. The Lactose enzyme is used to make ice cream sweeter. Lactose is broken down in
milk to galactose and glucose, both of which are sweeter than lactose.
ish

6. Enzymes are used in the dairy sector to make cheeses, yogurt, and other dairy
gl

products, while others are employed to improve the texture or flavour of the product.
En
E
M

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SECTION A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

(i) Glucose is:

(a) vitamin
(b) protein
c) carbohydrate
(d) lipid

(ii) the deficiency of vitamin D causes:

(a) berberi
(b) rickets
c)scurvy

er
(d)haemorhage

nt
(iii) —- encodes a genetic information.
(a) R.N.A
(b) D.N.A
c) progesterone
(d) cholesterol
Ce
ish

(iv) The carbohydrates which contain aldehyde group are called:

gl

(a) saccharides
(b) ketoses
En

c) pentoses
(d) aldoses
E

(v) Amino acids are building blocks of

M

(a) nucleic acids

(b) protein
c) vitamins
(d) lipid

(vi) Which of the following is polysaccharide.

(a) Fructose
(b) maltose
c) starch
(d) None of these

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(vii) Lactose is:

(a) Grape sugar
(b) honey sugar
c) milk sugar
(d) cane sugar

(viii) What is true about a peptide?

(a) It is a protein
(b) It is an anhydride of a carboxylic acid
c) It is an anhydride of an amine
(d) It is a polyamide

er
(ix) Fats are solids at:
(a) ordinary room temperature

nt
(b) high temperature
c) higher than 50°C temperature
(d) None of these

(x) Cotton contains —-- cellulose

Ce
ish
(a) 30%
(b) 65%
gl

c) 85%
(d) 95%
En

Ans:
E
M

i.carbohydrate ii.rickets iii.D.N.A iv.aldoses v.protein

vi.starch vii.milk sugar viii.It is a ix.ordinary x.95%

polyamide room
temperature

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Chapter 5: Environmental Chemistry-1

The Atmosphere

Environmental chemistry: It is the study of chemical species' origins, interactions,

movement, impacts, and destinies in the air, soil, and water environments, as well as
the impact of human and biological activities on these.

Atmosphere
Definition: The earth is surrounded by a layer of gases called the atmosphere.

Importance of atmosphere:

er
1. The atmosphere protects Earth like a big blanket of insulation.

nt
2. It absorbs the heat from the Sun and keeps the heat inside the atmosphere helping
the Earth to stay warm.

Ce
3. The big blanket also helps to form our weather patterns and climate.
ish
Properties: The atmosphere does not end at a specific place. The higher above the
earth something is, the thinner the atmosphere around it is. There is no clear border
gl

between the atmosphere and outer space.

En
E
M

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Composition of atmosphere: It is made up of nitrogen (78.09%) and oxygen

(20.95%), with small amounts of argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), water vapour,
and other gases. There are lots of other gases like neon, helium, hydrogen that are part
of the atmosphere, but in much smaller amounts. Solid particulates including ash, dust,
volcanic ash, etc are also small parts of the atmosphere.

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

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Layers of atmosphere: The Earth's atmosphere is divided up into 5 major layers.

These layers are classified on the basis of temperature and density with respect to earth
surface; following are the layers of the atmosphere, starting from the ground to upward:

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

Troposphere:
● The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.
● It extends from earth surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this
altitude varies from about 9 to 17 km (9 km at the poles, 17 km at the Equator)
above earth's surface.
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● This is where we live and even where planes fly mostly.

● Around 80% of the mass of the atmosphere is in the troposphere.

Stratosphere:
● The stratosphere is the second lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.
● It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause.
● This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km above
Earth's surface to the stratosphere at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km.
● The higher the altitude the hotter is the atmosphere. Unlike the troposphere the
stratosphere gets its heat by the ozone layer absorbing radiation from the sun.
As a result, it gets warmer the further away you get from the Earth.
● There are less water vapours and other substances in this layer. Weather

er
balloons go as high as the stratosphere.

nt
Distinguish between troposphere and stratosphere

S.No.

1.
Troposphere

It is the lowest point on the earth's

Ce Stratosphere

It is the uppermost layer of the

ish
surface. atmosphere after the troposphere.

2. It stands at a height of around 11 km It rises up to 50 km above sea level.

gl

above sea level.

En

3. The troposphere makes up around The stratosphere has a far less

75% of the mass of the atmosphere. amount of atmosphere then the
troposphere.
E

4. As you climb higher in this phere the The temperature fluctuates somewhat
M

temperature drops steadily. It ranges with height and usually the higher the
in temperature from 15 °C to -56 °C. altitude the hotter it gets.

5. Ozone, which is found here, is a The presence of ozone hair shields

polluting gas. the planet from ultraviolet radiation.

6. There is a lot of movement of the air, There is a lack of air movement in this
and this area is part of an active area.
weather system.

7. Almost all planes pass through this Airplanes are not permitted in this
layer. layer.

8. N2,O2,CO2 and water vapours are the In this layer water vapours and gases
most essential gases in this phere. are quite low in quantity.
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Pollutants
Definition: A material or energy which is present in excess of the natural concentration
and produces an adverse effect upon the environment is known as pollutant and the
phenomenon is known as pollution.

Causes: Human activities produce and release these contaminants into the
environment.

Effects:
1. They endanger human life by polluting the environment (air, water, and soil).

er
2. Pollutants in the air alter the weather, have a negative impact on human health, harm
vegetation, and cause the destruction of structures.

nt
Types of pollutants: There are seven types of pollutants.
●
●
Air pollutants
Water pollutants
Ce
ish
● Soil pollutants
● Thermal pollutants
● Radioactive pollutants
gl

● Noise pollutants
● Light pollutants
En

Major air pollutants

Types of major air pollutants: There are two types of major air pollutants, which are
E

following.
M

1. Primary air pollutants

2. Secondary air pollutants

Primary air pollutants: The waste or exhaust products produced by the burning of
fossil fuels and organic materials are referred to as primary pollutants. Sulphur oxides
(SO2), carbon oxide (CO2 and CO), nitrogen oxides (especially nitric oxide NO),
hydrocarbons (CH4), ammonia, and fluorine compounds are among them.

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Secondary air pollutants: Primary pollutants create secondary pollutants through a

variety of processes. Sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, ozone,
and peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN) are secondary pollutants.

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

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er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

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er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

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Acid rain: As you know, burning fossil fuels releases sulphur and nitrogen oxides into
the atmosphere. SO2 is converted to H2SO4 by rainwater, while NOx is converted to
HNO2 and HNO3 by rainwater. Rainwater is somewhat acidic because it contains
dissolved CO2 from the atmosphere. It has a pH of 5.6 to 6. Rainwater, on the other
hand, becomes increasingly acidic as a result of dissolving air pollutants (acids) and its
drops pH to 4. Acid rain is created when rainwater dissolves acidic air pollutants like
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.

er
nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

Effects of acid rain:

1. Acid rain leaches heavy metals (Al, Hg, Pb, Cr,etc) from soil and rocks and
discharges them into rivers and lakes. Humans consume this water as a source of
drinking water. These metals build up to hazardous levels in the human body. The
aquatic life in lakes, on the other hand, suffers as a result of the high concentration of
these metals. The fish gills become clogged when there is a high concentration of
aluminium ions. It causes fish to suffocate and die as a result.

2. Acid rain eats away the calcium carbonate in marble and limestone, which is found in
many structures and monuments. As a result, these structures are becoming
increasingly drab and degraded.
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3. Acid rain makes the soil more acidic. Many crops and plants are unable to thrive in
such conditions. It also raises the levels of hazardous metals in the soil, which damage
the plants. Because of the acidity of the soil, even elderly trees are impacted. Their
development is slowed. They wilt and perish as a result of the dryness.

4. Acid rain causes direct harm to tree and plant leaves, restricting their development.
Plant development may be impeded depending on the severity of the injury. Plants'
capacity to withstand cold or illnesses, and they eventually perish.

Ozone
Ozone formation: Three oxygen atoms make up ozone (O3), a highly reactive gas. It is

er
a natural and man-made substance.

nt
Formation of stratospheric ozone(O3): The interaction of solar ultraviolet (UV) light
with molecular oxygen produces stratospheric ozone (O3).

Ce
Formation of tropospheric or ground level ozone(O3): Photochemical interactions
between two primary groups of air pollutants, volatile organic compounds (VOC) and
ish
nitrogen oxides, produce tropospheric or ground level ozone, in which humans breathe.
gl

Ozone depletion: Ozone concentration in the atmosphere is essentially constant under

normal conditions due to a series of complicated atmospheric interactions.
En

However, different chemical interactions are depleting the ozone layer. Such as,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are utilized as refrigerants in air conditioners and
E

refrigerators, are a major contribution to ozone depletion. These substances leak in

M

some way and disperse into the stratosphere. The C-CL bond in CFCl 3 is broken by
ultraviolet light, resulting in chlorine free radicals.

These free radicals have a high level of reactivity. They react with ozone to produce
oxygen in the following way:

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A single chlorine free radical produced by the breakdown of CFCs has the potential to
damage millions of ozone molecules. The ozone hole is a location where the ozone
layer is depleted.

er
nt
Effect of ozone depletion:
Ce
ish
1. Ozone depletion allows UV light from the Sun to reach the Earth, which can cause
skin cancer in humans and other animals.
gl

2. As the Ozone layer gets thinner, infectious illnesses such as malaria become more
En

prevalent.

3. It has the potential to disrupt the food chain by altering plant life cycles.
E
M

4. It has the ability to alter wind patterns, resulting in global climate shifts. Asia and the
Pacific, in particular, would be the most impacted regions, as a result of the human
migration issue caused by climate change.

Advantages: This layer surrounds the Earth and acts as a screen against damaging
UV radiation. UV rays would induce skin cancer if the Ozone layer were not present.

Disadvantages: The ozone layer, which is located about 6 to 30 miles above the
Earth's surface, decreases the quantity of dangerous UV light that reaches the Earth
surface.

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Green House Effect (Global Warming): Despite the fact that CO2 is a harmful
gas, its rising concentration as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels in various
human activities is concerning. CO2 in the atmosphere works as a greenhouse's glass
wall. It permits UV and IR radiations to pass through, but not the other way
around.Some of the infrared light released by the Earth is trapped by it.

As a result, higher CO2 concentration absorbs infrared radiation generated by the

Earth's surface, preventing heat energy from existing the atmosphere. It aids in
preventing the surface from cooling down at night. As CO 2 concentrations in the
atmosphere rises, less thermal energy is lost from the Earth's surface. As a result, the
surface's average temperature progressively rises. This is known as greenhouse effect.
The quantity of CO2 in the air has a direct relation with this impact. The greater the

er
amount of CO2, the greater the heat trapping or warming. This phenomenon is also
known as global warming because of the increased temperature. Primary greenhouse

nt
gases in the earth atmosphere are water vapours, CO2,CH4,N2O and ozone.

Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

Effect of Global Warming:

1. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes an annual increase in
atmospheric temperature of roughly 0.05 degree Celsius.

2. It's producing significant shifts in weather patterns. Extreme weather events are
occurring more frequently and with more intensity than in the past.

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3. It melts glaciers and snow caps, increasing the danger of flooding and intensifying
tropical cyclones.

4. As the sea level rises, low-lying regions are more likely to be submerged, rendering
previously populous places uninhabitable.

SECTION-A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Second highest layer of Earth's atmosphere is

(a) stratosphere
(b) mesosphere
(c) troposphere

er
(d) thermosphere

nt
2. Aeroplanes fly in:
(a) Troposphere
(b) Stratosphere
(c) Mesosphere
(d) Thermosphere
Ce
ish

3. Atmospheric pressure decreases with the

gl

(a) increase in altitude

(b) decrease in altitude
En

(c) increase in altitude

(d) increase in latitude
E

4. Layer of atmosphere which separates stratosphere and troposphere is known as

M

(a) tropo-pause
(b) mesopause
(c) thermopause
(d) stratopause

5. Ozone layer is part of

(a) mesosphere
(b) stratosphere
(c) thermosphere
(d) troposphere

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6. Which is not part of greenhouse gases

(a) carbon dioxide
(b) methan
(c) nitrous oxide
(d) oxygen

7. Second most abundant constituent of dry air in terms of volume after nitrogen is
(a) nitrogen
(b) oxygen
(c) carbon dioxide
(d) helium

er
8. Which of the following is the reason of global warming
(a) Presence of sulphide

nt
(b) Rise in CO2 concentration
(c) Oxides of nitrogen
(d) Formation of ozone
Ce
9. The altitude on stratosphere is global warming
ish
(a) 40 to 45 km
(b) 50 to 55 km
gl

(c) 60 to 65 km
(d) 70 to 75 km
En

10. Ozone is a gas found in the —-- layer:

(a) Troposphere
E

(b) Mesosphere
(c) Stratosphere
M

(d) Exosphere

Ans:

1.thermospher 2.Stratosphere 3.increase in 4.tropo-pause 5.stratosphere

e altitude

6.oxygen 7.oxygen 8.Rise in CO2 9.50 to 55 km 10.Stratospher

concentration e

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Chapter 6 Environmental Chemistry II: Water

Water
Chemical formula: H2O

Properties: It doesn't have odour, colour, and smell.

Occurrence of water: Water makes up around one third of the Earth's surface.
Oceans, rivers, glaciers, lakes, wells, and groundwater are the primary sources of
water. Water covers around 70% of the Earth's surface, while land covers the remaining
30%. The majority of the water on Earth (about 97%) is salt water, largely found in the
seas, with only 3% being fresh water. Fresh water accessible for human needs
accounts for less than 1% of the total quantity on the planet. The issue is that fresh

er
water is not distributed equitably across the globe.

nt
Ce
ish
gl
En
E
M

Importance of water:
1. Our organs need water to work properly and toxins are removed from our body
through urine.

2. Fatigue is also caused by dehydration, therefore water prevents fatigue.

3. It is necessary for washing and sanitation.

4. It is used in cooking.

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5. It is used for growing food (Agriculture).

6. Thermal power plants use water for the production of energy (electricity).

7.In many medical procedures water act as an important component in e.g: In dialysis,
water containing fluid is used to remove waste from blood.

8. Fatal diseases are prevented by clean water e.g cholera, typhoid etc.

Properties of water: Pure water is a transparent, colourless, odorless, and

tasteless liquid possessing the attributes listed below:

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1. It is litmus-neutral.

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2. At sea level, it has a freezing point of 0°C and a boiling point of 100°C.

3. At 4°C, its maximum density is 1 g.cm -3.

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4. It's a great solvent for both ionic and molecular substances.
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5. It has a very high heat capacity of 4.2 J.Kg-1K-1 ,which is almost six times that of
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rocks.
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6. This feature of water is responsible for maintaining the Earth's temperature within
responsible bounds. Otherwise, the temperature during the day would have been too
hot to handle, and the temperature during the night would have been too cold to freeze
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everything.
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7. It has a lot of surface tension. Water's remarkable capillary strength is due to its
one-of-a-kind action. The mechanism by which the water rises from the roots of plants
to the leaves is known as capillary action. The survival of terrestrial plants depends on
this mechanism.

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Composition of water: Water molecule is made up of one atom of oxygen and two
atoms of hydrogen connected by covalent bond. Rainwater is considered the purest
form of water drinking. Drinking water contains ions necessary for our body i.e. Na+,
Cl-,K+,Mg2+ etc. Water is a polar molecule due to difference in electronegativity between
H and O.

Structure of water: Water is a simple molecule consisting of one oxygen atom

bonded to two different hydrogen atoms. Because of the higher electronegativity of the
oxygen atom, the bonds are polar covalent (polar bonds). The oxygen atom attracts the
shared electrons of the covalent bonds to a significantly greater extent than the
hydrogen atoms. As a result, the oxygen atom requires a partial negative charge
(δ−),while the hydrogen atoms each acquire a partial positive charge (δ+).

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Water as a solvent: Water can dissolve practically all minerals, water is known as
the universal solvent. Water's capacity to dissolve compounds is due to two distinct
qualities of the molecule:

1. Polar nature of water.

2. Extensive hydrogen bonding ability.

Polar nature of water: The water molecule has a polar structure because of the
electronegativity difference between oxygen and hydrogen atoms, which means one
end of the molecule is partially positive and the other is partially negative.

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Water dissolves all other polar compounds because the positive end of the substance is
drawn to the water's negative end (Oδ−) and the negative end is attracted to the water's

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positive end (Hδ+). The ion-dipole forces of attraction between ions and water molecules
overcome the electrostatic interactions among the ions. The positive and negative ions

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of the compounds are separated in this manner. These oppositely charged ions are
eventually enveloped by water molecules, which keeps them separated in solution.
Most salts, such as NaC, KCl, Na2SO4, and others, are soluble in water. Water
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molecules, on the other hand, are not attracted to numerous covalent compounds that
lack polar ends or links, such as benzene, ether, oil and petrol. Non-polar chemicals do
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not dissolve in water as a result.

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Extensive hydrogen bonding ability: The oxygen and hydrogen atoms make up the
water molecule. One H2O molecule can create hydrogen bonds with maximum 4
additional H2O molecules stacked tetrahedrally around the H2O molecule due to two
O-H bonds and two lone pairs. By establishing hydrogen bonds with various polar
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non-ionic molecules containing hydrogen groups (-OH), such as alcohols, organic acids,
glucose, sugar, and so on, water is able to dissolve them.

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Soft water: Soft water is water that generates an excellent leather when used with
soap. It contains dissolved impurities but in small quantity.
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Hard water: Hard water is defined as water that does not leather with soap. Hardness
in water is caused by a variety of factors. Rainwater collects carbon dioxide from the
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atmosphere as it falls. When water combined with carbon dioxide flows through the soil
layers, insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates are converted to soluble
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bicarbonates. The hardness of the water is caused by these minerals.

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It may also dissolve calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates.

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Types of hardness of water: There are two types of hardness of water.

1. Temporary hardness of water.

2. Permanent hardness of water.

Temporary hardness of water: Temporary hardness is caused by excessive amount of

dissolved salt of calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 and magnesium bicarbonate
Mg(HCO3)2 .

Permanent hardness of water: Permanent hardness of water is caused by the

excessive amount of dissolved salts of chlorides and sulphates of Magnesium, Calcium,

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and Aluminium, CaCl 2 ,MgCl2 , CaSO4 ,MgSO4 ,FeSO4 ,(Al2SO3)3 . Permanent hardness
of water cannot be removed by boiling.

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Methods of removing Hardness

1. Removal of temporary hardness:

(a) Boiling water: A temporary hardness can be readily eliminated by boiling it. When
calcium bicarbonate,Ca(HCO3)2, is heated, it decomposes into insoluble calcium
carbonate, which precipitates out of the solution.

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(b) Clark's method: The addition of slaked lime Ca(OH)2 is a chemical approach for
removing temporary hardness. Temporary hard water is treated using a determined
amount of lime water. As a result of the precipitation of magnesium and calcium ions,
water becomes soft.

2.Removal of permanent hardness:

Using washing soda: Adding washing soda to the calcium and magnesium ions results

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in the formation of insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates.

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Disadvantages of water hardness
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1.Leather formation: When you wash your clothing in hard water, the soap generates a
white precipitate instead of leather. The scum is the white precipitate. Without the
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development of leather, your garments will not be cleansed.

2. Stains: Hard water leaves stains on your clothes. They fade the colours of your
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garments. calcium scum also causes your garments to become rough.

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Both tiles, glass and fixtures are also stained by hard water. Calcium deposits on bath
fittings may build a very difficult to remove coating if not cleaned frequently. The
cloud-like watermarks on the kitchenware are caused only by hard water.

3. Effects on hair: If you continue to wash your hair with hard water, you will continue
to have awful hair days. Your hair becomes dry and scratchy when you wash it with hard
water. This is due to the extra minerals found in hard water, which turn into a curd-like
material that adheres to your hair. As a consequence, you may feel compelled to wash
your hair, but this will just make it frizzier.

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4. Effects on skin: Bathing with hard water causes your skin to become dry and
irritated. It's because the soap residue left behind adheres to your skin. Eczema-like
symptoms are caused by the remaining residue. Children are more likely to have such a
problem.

5. Reduces the life of Appliances: If you continue to use hard water with your
household equipment, the lifespan of the appliances will be dramatically reduced. The
appliances steadily deteriorate due to the hard water, and they finally fail. In addition,
the presence of minerals in hard water affects the machine's performance. A
dishwasher has a ten-year expectancy. If you run it with hard water, though, the life
expectancy drops to seven years. A faucet should also run for nine years. With hard
water, though, it will only last five years.

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6. Corrosion of pipes: Hard water deposits may corrode pipes as well as obstruct

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them. As a result, the amount of water that can flow through the pipe is limited. And all
that this does is slow down the flow of water. Pipe corrosion can also cause metals to
leak into the water, making it unsafe to drink.
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Water Pollutants: Pollutants are dumped directly or indirectly into water bodies
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without proper treatment to eliminate dangerous substances, resulting in water pollution.
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Industrial waste: Industrial units are erected to create the needed substances.
However, all industrial units, sadly, release their waste (chemicals and solid materials)
En

into the open land or into waterways. The term for this is industrial wastewater. Organic
compounds, inorganic salts, heavy metals, mineral acids, oil and greases, and other
very poisonous substances may be found in industrial waste.Water used as a cleaning
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agent in industries, on the other hand, is released immediately. This water is

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contaminated with a variety of harmful chemicals and detergents.

The effects of industrial waste:

1. They degrade the quality of water.

2. They lower the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water, which has an impact on
aquatic life and ecosystems.

3. They can also leak into the groundwater and influence the deposits. They pollute the
water reserves. When this water is used by humans, it causes significant illnesses such
as cancer and gastroenteritis. Soil, crops, plants and animals are all harmed by this
filthy water.

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4. Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and mercury are harmful to humans and pose
a health risk. Acute cadmium poisoning results in elevated blood pressure, renal
damage, and red blood cell disintegration. Kidney, liver, brain, central nervous system
and reproductive system malfunction are all symptoms of acute lead poisoning. Mercury
toxicity damages the nervous system.

Household waste: The usage of detergents for cleaning purposes in homes and
businesses is growing by the day. It's because detergents, even in hard water, have a
stronger cleaning activity than soap. However, they have a significant disadvantage
over soaps in that certain detergents are non-biodegradable. Water contamination
occurs when domestic water containing these detergents is dumped into streams,
ponds, lakes, and rivers.

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The detergent lingers in the water for an extended period of time, rendering it unsuitable

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for aquatic life. Detergents include phosphate salts, which allow algae to develop
quickly in water bodies and float on the surface. It is known as Eutrophication.

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A wide range of dissolved and suspended pollutants can be found in domestic sewage.
Food and vegetable waste, rubbish, cans, bottles, chemical soaps, washing powder,
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and other items are among them. It also has disease-causing bacteria in it. All of these
things pollute the water.
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Agricultural waste: Effects of water pollutants on life: the usage of fertilizers and
pesticides causes water contamination on two agriculture waste.

The effects of agriculture waste:

1. Chemicals from fertilizers and pesticides leak into groundwater as a result of rain and
intensive crop production, a process known as leaching. Irrigation run-off from
agricultural fields is the primary source of excessive nitrate levels in groundwater.

2. Runoff from agricultural land (which has been treated with fertilizers and pesticides)
reaches ponds, streams, and rivers. Nitrate NO3- and phosphate (PO43-) salts are
present in this water. These compounds cause algae to develop quickly and float on the

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water's surface. They block the passage of sunshine and oxygen to aquatic life. When
algae dies, microorganisms eat oxygen from the water to help the algae decompose. As

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a result, the water loses oxygen. Due to a lake of oxygen, aquatic creatures experience
asphyxia and eventually perish.

Effects of water pollutants on life:

Following are the effects of water pollutants.
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1. It is helpful to people's health. Chris, typhoid, and diarrhea can all be caused by
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drinking contaminated water.

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2. The use of dirty water is harmful not only to humans, but also to animals and birds.

3. It promotes algae to develop quickly. The death and breakdown of algae results in a
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lack of oxygen in the water, which impacts aquatic organisms.

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4. It harms aquatic life, causing a food chain link to be broken.

5. It degraded the appearance of lakes and rivers.

6. It is not suitable for cleaning or washing.

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Water Borne diseases: Waterborne infectious illnesses are diseases that spread
by drinking dirty water or eating food prepared with polluted water.Toxins or bacteria can
cause water contamination. Arsenic, mercury, calcium, lead, and a variety of organic
substances are examples of toxins. Viruses, bacteria protozoa, and warms are
examples of microorganisms.
The major reason of quickly spreading waterborne ilnesses is a lack of sufficient
sanitary facilities.

Following are of the most frequent illnesses:

1. Diarrheal diseases: Intestinal illnesses that can lead to serious dehydration, such as
cholera. Viruses, bacteria, and parasites all can cause diarrhea.

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2. Dysentery: Dysentery is a kind of gastrointestinal infection caused by bacteria or
parasites. It's characterized by severe diarrhea, which may include blood or mucus.

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3. Cholera: The bacteria Vibrios cholerae, which may be found in water tainted by

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human feces, causes cholera. Cholera is a disease that produces severe diarrhea and
is potential lethal.
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4. Cryptosporidium: Cryptosporidiosis is a gastrointestinal ailment caused by a
waterborne microbe (protozoa) that causes diarrhea and vomiting. Surface water
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sources such as reservoirs, lakes, and rivers contain these microscopic germs.
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5. Fluorosis: Fluorosis is a condition caused by too much fluoride in the body. Fluorosis
can harm your bones and teeth.
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6. Hepatitis: Hepatitis A,B,C,D, and E are the five viruses that often cause liver
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inflammation. Viruses like hepatitis A and E can be spread through polluted water.

7. Hookwarm: Hookworm is a parasitic warm that lives in the small intestine and
causes disease. Anemia and slowed development in children can occur in severe
situations. Hookwarm larvae enter the body via the skin, most commonly through the
feet. Hookwarms which are spread by unsanitary settings, infect nearly one billion
individuals each year throughout the world.

8. Jaundice: An excess of bile pigments in the blood causes jaundice. The liver stops
working, and the eyes turn yellow. The patient is weak and tied.

9. Typhoid: A severe bacterial illness spreads often through polluted water or food
cooked with contaminated water.
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SECTION-A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following water borne diseases is of viral origin.

(a) Typhoid fever
(b) Polio
(c) Dysentery
(d) Diarrhea

2.How much percentage (%) of the Earth's Surface is covered with water?
(a) 70%
(b) 60%

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(c) 90%
(d) 75%

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3. Which type of bond is formed between H2O molecules:
(a) Hydrogen bond
(b) ionic bond
(c) covalent bond
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(d) all of these
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4. The permanent hardness of water is due to presence of:

(a) MgSO4
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(b) Mg(HCO3)2
(c) Ca(HCO3)2
(d) all of these
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5.How much freshwater is present on earth:

(a) 0.3%
(b) 3%
(c) 0.2%
(d) 2%

6. Which salts are excessively dissolved to make temporary hard water:

(a) CaSO4 and CaCl2
(b) KNO3 and KOH
(c) CaCO3 and Ca(OH)2
(d) Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2

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7. Water is a:
(a) Polar solvent
(b) Non polar solvent
(c) Amphipathic solvent
(d) Non polar charged solvent

8. The taste of water is:

(a) Sour
(b) Bitter
(c) Sweet
(d) Tasteless

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9. Which of the following is helpful for removal of permanent hardness:
(a) Na2CO3

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(b) Ca(OH)2
(c) CaCO3
(d) Na2SO4

Ans:
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1.Diarrhea 2.70% 3.Hydrogen 4.MgSO4 5. 3%

bond
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6.Ca(HCO3)2 7.Polar solvent 8.Tasteless 9.Na2CO3

and Mg(HCO3)2
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M

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Chapter 7: Analytical Chemistry

Analytical chemistry: The analysis and separation of sample to detect and

estimate its components through various techniques and instruments is known as
analytical chemistry.

Objective: The main objective of analytical chemistry is to develop an understanding of

analysis of elements and compounds for measurement and problem solving with the
help of analytical methods.

Applications: The analytical chemistry is applied in all fields of chemistry such as

medicine, clinical laboratories, industries, agriculture, food contamination and

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environmental protection.

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Classification of Analytical Chemistry

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Analytical chemistry consist of two main types of analysis which are as follows:

(1) Qualitative analysis: The identification of elements, ions or compounds present in

sample is called quality analysis. The sample may be solid, liquid, gas or a mixture.
Qualitative analysis does not measure the quantity of substance but measure the quality

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of that material. Quantitative analysis is performed by selective chemical reactions or

with the use of instrumentation.

Example: Chemical test and flame test.

Types of qualitative analysis: Qualitative analysis further divided on the basis of

chemical test are as follows.

(i) Organic qualitative analysis: It deals with the identification of presence of different
classes of organic compounds or functional groups by producing colours in chemical
reactions.

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Example: Formation of white precipitate by adding silver nitrate (AgNO3) in dilute nitric
acid (HNO3) indicates the presence of halide (X=F,Cl,Br,I).

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(ii) Inorganic qualitative analysis: It deals with the identification of elements.

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Example: Flame test of copper halide which shows bluish-green colour due to presence
of copper. Some other flame test of halide are given in picture.
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Quantitative analysis: The determination of how much amount or quantity of one or

more substance present in compound or sample is called quantitative analysis. It deals
with large number of quantifying methods which are classified as physical or chemical.

Physical methods: It measures physical properties such as density, temperature,

absorption of light, magnetic influences, colour, and texture. The physical methods used
to measure these properties are Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), atomic
emission spectroscopy (AES), trace element analysis and energy dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDS).

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Chemical methods: They measure chemical reactions such as precipitation, oxidation

or neutralization and are measured by volumetric analysis, gravimetric analysis and
combustion analysis.

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Parameters
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Definition: The parameter is a measurable factor or boundary which defines

performance and quality of analytical methods.
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Important Parameters: The validation of any analytical method is observed by

parameters and various parameters of validation are selectivity, linearity, range,
accuracy, precision, and error.

Error

Definition: Error can be defined as numerical difference between observed value and
true value.
● These errors are due to 13% equipment failure, 13% human error, 16% sample
preparation and 10% wrong calibration. So we can say that factors which
produce the error are defect in instrument, lack in handling the apparatus or
improper functioning of the instrument.
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Classification of errors: Errors in analytical chemistry are classified as systematic and

random errors.
1. Systematic errors
2. Random errors

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Systematic errors or determinate errors: They are caused by defect in analytical

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method or improper functioning of instrument. Systematic error may be instrumental,

observational, environmental and theoretical. Systematic error is also known as
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determinate error.

Example 1: A thermometer, pepper, burette, analytical balance, and volumetric ware

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shows error in measurement.

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Example 2: In acid base titration if pH indicator is not properly prepared then colour
change will appear before equivalence point or if burette is not properly cleaned or
rinsed will cause of systematic error.

Removal: A systematic error can be estimated and eliminated but there is always some
uncertainty in every physical measurement and mostly avoided.

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Random errors or indeterminate errors: They are caused by variations of procedure,

environmental factors, and limitations of instrumentation. Random error is also known
as indeterminate error.

Example 1: Measuring a mass of a sample on analytical balance may produce different

readings due to effect of air or water on sample or analytical balance.

Example 2: In acid base titration we are using 50 cm3 burette we can read accurately
only to the nearest 0.1 cm3.

Non removable: Random error may be positive and negative and cannot be eliminated
from experiment due to this reason we take many readings and average them.

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Accuracy

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Definition: Accuracy is an agreement between a measured value and the accepted
true value.
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Example: If you obtain weight 2.5 mg of sample or substance but actual or known
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weight of sample is 10 mg then your measurement is not accurate.
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Not depend on precision: Accuracy is not dependent on precisions.

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Example: When measuring the density of copper and its true value is 8.99 g/ml and
results of measurement are 10.0,8.0 and 9.3 g/ml and their average is 9.1 g/ml which is
the nearest accepted value and considered as accurate value.
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Precision: The precision is defined as the degree of agreement between replicate

measurements of the same quantity.

Different aspects of precision and accuracy: A measurement can be precise but not
accurate, accurate but not precise, neither or both. A measurement system is valid if it
is both precise and accurate. For example 4 Students are performing an experiment to
measure the density of aluminium (2.7 g/ml) and note down the following data which
shows different aspects of precision and accuracy, such as measurement of student
number 1 is precise because 2.9 is repeating but not accurate because it is not closest
to true value. Measurement of student number 2 is not precise and not accurate
because values are not closest to true value and not repeatable. In the same manner
measurement of student number 3 is not precise but accurate due to the closeness of

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measurement with true value, while measurement of student number 4 is precise and
accurate which may consider a valid measurement system.

The above example shows that good precision does not assure good accuracy but a
valid measurement system needs good precision as well as accuracy.

Classical Method or Wet Chemical Method

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Definition: Classical methods are those analytical techniques which do not use any

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mechanical or electronic instrument rather than weighing balance. This method is

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basically related with the chemical reactions between analyte and reagents. It is also
known as wet chemical method.
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Classification of classical method:
1. Titrimetric Analysis
2. Volumetric Analysis
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Titrimetric Analysis or volumetric analysis: The titrimetric analysis is used to

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determine the volume of a solution with known concentration which reacts with the
measured volume of solution of a substance quantitatively. The titrimetric analysis is
also known as volumetric analysis.
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General rule: In this analysis general rule of titration is applied in which volumetric
measurement of a reagent takes place which is known as analyte and this analyte
completes its chemical reaction with titrant. The general chemical reaction for titrimetric
analysis is as follows

Where α is the number of moles of analyte A contained in the sample that reacts with t
moles of the titrant T in the titrant solution.

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Construction: This reaction is carried out in a flask containing dissolved analyte and
indicator while a burette contains titrant solution. An indicator is also added in flask to
show the end point of the whole reaction.

Working: Titrant is volumetrically delivered to the flask for reaction. The titration is
completed when a sufficient amount of titrant added with analyte for chemical reaction
and an equivalence point reached.

Titration: The comparison of volume of a solution of known concentration with the

volume of solution of unknown concentration is titration.

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Gravimetric Analysis

Definition: Gravimetric analysis is the oldest and important technique for quantitative
estimation in chemical analysis.

Working: In this analysis an amount of analyte is determined by converting the analyte

to some product and then weighing it. For example you want to determine the amount of
chlorine (Cl) present in solution of AgCl then you have to go through following 4 steps
for Gravimetric analysis.

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(1) Preparation of a solution with known weight of sample (AgCl).

(2) Separation of the desired constituent (CI).
(3) Weighing separated constituent.
(4) Computation of amount of separated constituent in the sample.

The gravimetric calculation based on gravimetric factor which converts the grams of the
compound into grams of the single element.

Types of gravimetric analysis: There are four types of gravimetric analysis which are
Physical, Thermo, Precompetitive and Electro gravimetric analysis.

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Advanced instrumental methods: These advanced methods involve usage of

instrument for analysis and separation of mixtures and compounds. The methods used
as quantitative and quantitative analysis.These analytical advanced instrumental
methods include spectroscopy,chromatography, electrochemical methods, ultraviolet
and visible spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, HPLC, gas chromatography,
potentiometry and conductometry.

Spectroscopic methods

Definition: Spectroscopy is the interaction of light with matter.

Application:

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1. Spectroscopy is used in physical and analytical chemistry for the identification of
substances through the emission or absorption spectrum.

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2. The spectroscopy is used to assess concentration or amount of given chemical
(atomic, molecular or ionic.
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Measuring device: The instruments used for measurement through spectroscopy are
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called spectrometer, spectrophotometer, and spectrograph.

Figure: Interaction of light with matter is shown in figure.

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Types of spectroscopic methods: Types of spectroscopic methods are given below.

1. Ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy.

2. Infrared spectroscopy.

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Ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy

Definition: It is a quantitative technique which measures how much a chemical

compound absorbs light. This is done by measuring the intensity of light passing
through the sample. It is also known as electronic spectroscopy.

Principle: The basic principle of this spectroscopy is interaction between light and
matter but here light wavelength is ultraviolet and the process is formation of spectrum
due to absorption of ultraviolet light to the chemical compound or sample.

Figure:

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Infrared spectroscopy or vibrational spectroscopy

Introduction: this technique was introduced in 1950.

E
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Definition: It qualifies and quantifies the information about samples using light whose
wavelength is Infrared. It is also known as vibrational spectroscopy.

Properties:
1. It qualifies and quantifies the information about samples in less time and cost
effective.
2. It is non hazardous because no any polluting chemical is required for this
analysis.
Uses:
1. It is basically used for specification of functional groups in food products,
polymers and industries now a days.
2. It is an effective tool for quality control in different industries.

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Infrared radiation

Definition: Electromagnetic radiations lower in energy than visible radiations are called
infra-red radiation.

Wavelength: The ordinary infra-red region extends from 2.5 μm (wavelength) to 15 μm

wavelength.

Wavenumber: Wavenumber of infra-red radiation is from 4000 to 625 cm-1

wavenumber.

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Chromatographic methods: Chromatography is the modern analytical technique
which is used for the separation of compounds. It also facilitates the purification,

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isolation and comparison of components of mixture.

Properties: Ce
1. It may be employed with all kinds of volatile and soluble substances, organic and
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inorganic, polar and nonpolar etc.
2. Chromatography process starts with the mobile phase in which solutes are
dissolved in substance and carry to the next stationary phase. The different
gl

components of mixture travel from mobile to stationary phase with different speed
and retention time.
En
E
M

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Ce
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gl
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Types of chromatography: The main types of chromatography are given below.

1. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
2. Gas chromatography.

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Definition: It is the technique to separate out the substances. It is also considered as

pressure liquid chromatography.

Construction: HPLC instrument consists of a reservoir of mobile phase, a pump, an

injector, a separation column, a detector and data acquisition computer.

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Working: The mobile phase is pumped through the column packed with the absorbent,
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hence separation becomes more rapid. The pressure mechanical pump ensures the
rapid solvent flow. The flow rate of solvent affects the resolution of sample components.
As each component passes through the column, the detector notes its elusion and gives
signal to the recorder.

Uses: These instruments are used in drug discovery, clinical analysis, cosmetic
analysis, pharmaceutical, environmental chemistry and biochemical genetics.

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Gas chromatography

Introduction: This method was introduced by John Potter Martin in 1950.

Definition: A gas chromatography is a technique used in analytical chemistry for the

separation of gases and volatile liquids.

Principle: This separation takes place by the exchange between a mobile gas phase
and a liquid or solid stationary phase.

Construction: The instruments of Gas chromatography consist of Gas cylinder, sample

injector, gas chromatograph detector, and data collection device.

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Working: Gas is mobile phase and gas cylinder controls the gas passage up to sample
injector, which proceeds toward two columned gas chromatograph it is a stationary
phase with uniform temperature. When the compound reaches the detector it detects
the elusion and sends signals to data collection device (computer).

Uses: The gas chromatography used in analysis of inorganic compounds,

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, pollutants like benzene, plastic minerals and
dairy products.

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Electrochemical methods
gl

Definition: The electrochemical method is an analytical technique which deals with

En

measurement of potential, charge, electrical quantity or property of a solution.

Construction: The electrochemical analytical method is carried out with the help of
E

electrochemical cell which is shown in the following figure, generally it consists of

electrodes named as anode and cathode. Anode possesses negative sign due to
M

liberation of electrons in oxidation reaction and cathode possesses positive sign due to
consumption of electrons in reduction reaction.

The electrochemical cells consist of two half cells, both are connected with an electrode
(anode and cathode) and each electrode is dipped in electrolytic solution which is
ZnSO4 at anode and CuSO4 at cathode.

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The half cells are connected by means of salt bridge (NaCl) which provides a platform
for ionic connectivity without mixing.

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Working: One of half cells loses electrons due to oxidation and other half gains
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electrons in reduction process. Always remember that when equilibrium phase comes in
both half cells the net voltage becomes zero and production of electricity by cell will
stop.
gl
En

Potentiometry

Definition: The potentiometry is a method used in electroanalytical chemistry to find the

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concentration of solute in solution in potentiometric measurement.

M

Measuring device: Potential between two electrodes is measured by voltmeter.

Uses: Potentiometric analysis is used in analysis of pollutants in water, pharmaceutical

and drugs, quality control in food industry and clinical chemistry.

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Conductometry

Definition: Conductometry is one of the important analytical techniques which is used

in physico -chemical analysis. It can be defined as a technique of analysis which is
based on the measurement of electrical conductance.

Measuring device: It is done by the help of conductivity meter.

Application:
1. Degree of dissociation constant can be determined.
2. Solubility of a sparingly soluble salt can be determined.
3. Rate constant of a reaction can be studied.

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4. End point of titration can be determined.

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S.No.

1.
Classical Method

Procedure is simple and accurate.

Ce Instrumental Method

Procedure is sensitive and technical.

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2. Equipment needed is cheap. Equipment needed is expensive.

3. Methods are based on absolute Methods are based on liable

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measurement. measurement.
En

4. Specialised training is not required. Specialised training is required.

5. Accuracy decreases by decreasing Accuracy depends upon instruments.

amount.
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6. Determination is slow. Determination is very fast.

M

7. Large amount of sample is needed. Small amount of samples can be

used.

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SECTION-A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Encircle the correct answer.

1. The analytical chemistry deals with instruments and methods to —-, identify and
qualify the matter.
(a) Mix
(b) Separate
(c) Differentiate
(d) Manipulate

2. The sample may be solid, liquid, gas or —- a in qualitative analysis.

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(a) Mixture
(b) Compound

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(c) Substance
(d) None of these

Ce
3. Analysis deals with the identification of presence of functional groups in compounds
is.
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(a) Physical qualitative analysis
(b) Analytical qualitative analysis
gl

(c) Organic qualitative analysis

(d) inorganic qualitative analysis
En

4.Flame test of Copper Halide with bluish-green colour identify the presence of.
(a) Halogen
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(b) Hydrogen
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(c) Copper
(d) b and c

5. The physical methods used to measure physical properties is called.

(a) Combustion analysis method
(b) Atomic emission spectroscopy method
(c) Volumetric analysis method
(d) Gravimetric analysis method

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6.The error caused by improper functioning of instrument is:

(a) Determinant Error
(b) In determinant Error
(c) Systematic Error
(d) Both a and c

7.An agreement between a measured value and the accepted true value.
(a) Error
(b) Accuracy
(c) Precision
(d) All of these

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8.Spectroscopy is the interaction of light with:
(a) Liquid

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(b) Solid
(c) Gas
(d) Matter

9. The gas is mobile phase in:

Ce
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(a) Liquid chromatography
(b) Solid chromatography
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(c) Gas chromatography

(d) None of these
En

10. It is used to assess concentration or amount of given atomic, molecular or ionic

chemical.
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(a) Chromatography
(b) Spectroscopy
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(c) Conductometry
(d) Potentiometry

Ans:
1.Separate 2.Mixture 3.Analytical 4.Halogen 5.Atomic emission
qualitative spectroscopy
analysis method

6.Both a and c 7.Accuracy 8.Matter 9.Gas 10.Potentiometry

chromatograp
hy

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Chapter 8: Industrial Chemistry

Industrial chemistry: Industrial chemistry is the manufacturing art concerned with

the transformation of matter into useful materials in useful amounts.

Chemical industry: The chemical industry is the one responsible industry for
converting raw materials like petroleum, water, air, minerals, crops, metals, and etc into
more valuable products.

Production: There are more than 70,000 different products that are manufactured
through chemical industries such as soaps, sugar, soft drinks, medicines and several
petroleum like Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), natural gas (stove gas) or compressed

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natural gas (CNG), polymers, petrol, diesel, lubricating oils and bitumen (damar).

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Saponification: Saponification is the reaction of triglycerides with sodium or

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potassium hydroxide to create glycerol and "soap",a fatty acid salt.
Heart and Soft soap: A hard soap is created when sodium hydroxide is used. The use of
potassium hydroxide produces a soft soap.
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Materials needed for soap preparation: The raw materials needed for preparation of
soap areas follows:
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● Animal Fat
En

● Plant Oil
● Caustic Soda
● Potassium Hydroxide
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● Additives (colour, texture, scent)

● Abrasives (silica, talc, marble)
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Animal Fat: Animal fat tallows from cows, such as lard, are often used for soap making.

Plant oil: Soybean oil, like canola, safflower, and sunflower, is often used as a potion of
a soap making recipe in combination with other "core" oils like coconut, olive, and palm.
It's pretty unremarkable, but if you have it on hand, use it 5-15% of your soap recipe. It
is mild, moisturizing, and gives a low creamy leather.

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Caustic soda/Potassium hydroxide (Alkali): Caustic soda (NaOH) causes

saponification and is an essential ingredient in soap making. When flakes or beads of
sodium hydroxide get added to a liquid, it forms a lye solution. This solution, when
mixed with oils or fats, will lead to the chemical reaction called saponification.

Sodium hydroxide is employed as alkali for the saponification of soap nowadays. Soap
may also be manufactured with potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) as the alkali.

Additives: The major raw materials for soap manufacture are fat and alkali. Other
substances, such as optical brighteners, colour, texture, scent, water softeners, are
known as additives.

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Abrasives: Water-insoluble minerals such as talc, diatomaceous earth, silica, marble,
volcanic ash (pumice), Chalk, feldspar, quartz, and sand are often powdered and added

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to soap or synthetic detergent formulations. Abrasives of an organic nature, such as
sawdust, are also used. Abrasives help in removing grease and dirt from skin.

Flow sheet diagram of soap preparation: Ce

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En
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Preparation of sugar from sugarcane: The preparation of sugar from

sugarcane composed of following steps.
● Harvesting and delivery
● Juice extraction
● Clarification
● Concentration
● Crystallization
● Crystal separation and drying

Harvesting and delivery of sugarcane: Sugarcane is generally harvested in the cooler

months of the year, although it is harvested year-round in all over the Sindh. As much
as two-thirds of the world's can crop is harvested by hands but in some countries this

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process is also done by machines. Harvested cane is transported to the factory by
many means and vehicles, such as oxcarts, trucks, railway cars, or barges.

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Juice extraction of sugarcane: After weighing, sugarcane is loaded by hand or crane

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onto a moving table. The table carries that cane into one or two sets of revolving knives,
which chop the cane into chips in order to expose the tissue and open the cell structure,
thus readying the material for efficient extraction of the juice.
ish

Clarification of extracted juice: Mixed juice from the extraction mills or diffuser is
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purified by addition of heat, lime, and flocculation aids. The lime is a suspension of
calcium hydroxide, often in a sucrose solution, which forms a calcium saccharate
En

compound. The heat and lime kill enzymes in the juice and increase pH from a natural
acid level of 5 – 6.5 to a neutral pH. Control of pH is important throughout sugarcane
manufacture.
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Concentration of clarified juice: Steam is used to heat the first of a series of

evaporators. The juice is boiled and drawn to the next evaporator, which is heated by
vapour from the first evaporator. The process continues through the series until the
clarified juice, which consists of 10-15% sucrose, is concentrated to evaporator syrup,
consisting of 55 – 59% sucrose and 60 – 65% by weight total solids.

Crystallization of concentrated juice: Syrup from the evaporators is sent to vacuum

pans, where it is further evaporated, under vacuum, to supersaturation. Fine seed
crystals are added, and the sugar "mother liquor" yields solid precipitate of about 50%
by weight crystalline sugar. Crystallization is a serial process and named as A
molasses, B molasses, C molasses, and final molasses which is 25% sucrose and 20%
(glucose and fructose).

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Crystal separation and drying: Crystals are separated in basket-type centrifuge

machines. These machines continuously break the crystals through continuous
centrifuge process and a fine jet of water is spread on the sugar pressed against the
wall of the centrifugal basket, reducing the syrup coating on each crystal. In modern
factories, the washing process is quite extensive in an effort to produce high-purity raw
sugar.

Materials needed for sugar preparation:

The raw materials needed for the preparation of sugar from sugarcane rs follows:
● Sugarcane beads
● Lime
● Water

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Flow sheet diagram of sugar preparation:

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Preparation of soft drinks: The basis of soft drinks, the syrup, is made up of
water, sugar, acid, colouring, and flavoring agents. This syrup is prepared by dissolving
these ingredients into water to 65° Brix.

Materials required for preparation of soft drink:

Following materials required for preparation of soft drink:

● Water
● Calcium and other minerals
● Colouring and flavoring agent
● Sugar for microbial growth
● Citric acid for sour taste

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Flow sheet diagram for soft drinks:

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Petroleum industry

Petroleum: Petroleum is a natural substance in rocks beneath the Earth's crust. The
term "petroleum'' refers to rock oil.

Property: It is a liquid that is lighter than water yet insoluble in it.

Formation of petroleum and natural gas: Oil and gas are made up of organic material
that is deposited on the seafloor as sediments, then broken down and altered over
millions of years. The presence of an appropriate mix of source rock, reservoir rock, cap
rock, and a trap in a given location may lead to the discovery of viable oil and gas
resources.

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The majority of the oil and gas resources on the Norwegian shelf are formed by a thick

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layer of black clay that lies thousands of metres beneath the seabed.

Ce
Composition of petroleum: Petroleum is mostly made up of hydrogen and carbon, but
it also includes trace amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and metals including
vanadium, cobalt, and nickel. Alkanes (paraffins), naphthenes, aromatics, and
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heterocompounds are some of the most prevalent organic substances.
gl

The exact molecular composition of crude oil varies widely from formation to formation
but the proportion of chemical elements varies over fairly narrow limits as follows:
En
E
M

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Fractional distillation of petroleum: This is done in oil refineries with the use of
massive fractionating columns (also known as fractionating towers). These are
frequently found near to the crude oil source. The industrial fractionating column is
intended to be cold at the top and hot at the bottom, allowing it to cool and condense
crude oil vapour at distinctively different temperature ranges defined by the column's
temperature gradient.

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Fraction distilled Boiling Carbon chain Hydrocarbons Uses
from crude oil point length present
range (°C)
gl

Refinery gas -160 to -5 1- 4 Methane CH4 Home heating

En

Ethane C2H6 and cooking,

Propane C3H8 camping fuel
Butane C4H10
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Gasoline (petrol) 40-110 5-8 Octane C8H18 Car fuel

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Naphtha 110-180 8-10 Decane C10H22 Plastics

Kerosene (paraffin) 180-260 10-16 Dodecane Jet aircraft fuel

C12H26

Diesel 260-320 16-20 Hexadecane Fuels for buses

C16H34 and lorries

Fuel Oil 320-400 20-50 Eicosane Industrial

C20H42 heating
systems

Bitumen/Residue 400-600 >50 Surfacing rods

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Pharmaceutical sectors: Companies authorised to study, manufacture, sell and

distribute drugs for the prevention, treatment, and cure of illnesses and other health
issues make up the pharmaceutical sector.

Importance of pharmaceutical industry: Here are some of the industry's most

important contributions, as well as why pharmaceutical firms are so vital to patients,
society, and the life sciences industry.

1.Treatments increase life expectancy: The pharmaceutical business has made a

significant contribution to the global increase in life expectancy for men and women.
Pharmaceutical improvements are said to have responsible for 73% of the entire
increase in life expectancy between 2000 and 2009 in 30 developing and high-income

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nations.

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2.The industry strives to eradicate and eliminate diseases: When it comes to create
remedies, the ultimate objective is disease elimination, as this helps ecosystems on a

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worldwide scale. Smallpox is the first - and so far only - human illnesses to be declared
eliminated globally, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO).
ish
3.Reduce pain and suffering: According to a research conducted by the World Health
Organisation, people who live with chronic pain are four times more likely to have
gl

melancholy, anxiety, and difficulties in work then those who do not.

En

4.Vaccines save money: Vaccines not only serve to save millions of lives, but they also
help to save money. Vaccines are commonly regarded as a cost-effective public health
intervention that reduces health care costs and prevents lost productivity, hence limiting
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the economy's overall impact.

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5.Hospital stays are shorter: Many illnesses that used to necessitate invansive
procedures and surgery can now be addressed with medications. Patients' ability to be
discharged more quickly has relieved pressure on the healthcare system and personnel.

6.The industry employees millions of people: Pharmaceutical forms employ millions

of people across the world. Who labor in fields as diverse as scientific research,
technological support, and manufacture. Pharmaceutical enterprises demand highly
trained and educated employees, with positions ranging from administrative to Ph.D.
scientists.

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7. Pharmaceutical companies boost the global economy: The pharmaceutical

business is a vital asset to the global economy. Pharmaceutical businesses, on the
whole, play an important role in assisting patients and communities. They supply more
than just possible cures and life-saving treatments; they also give rewarding jobs and
help to power the global economy.

Different types of fire require methods to extinguish: A self-sustaining

chemical chain reaction is a complicated reaction that necessitates the precise
combination of fuel, oxygen, and heat energy.

Any of the above-mentioned components can be removed to put out a fire. Various fuels
necessitate different strategies for extinguishment.

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Extinguishing of wood fire: Water can be thrown on a wood fire to put it out. Water

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absorbs a lot of heat during the evaporation process, therefore it absorbs a lot of heat
and deprives the wood fire of heat, making it impossible to keep the fire going on.

Ce
Extinguishing of oil fire: Oil and water do not mix, hence water will not put out on oil
fire. Because oil is lighter than water, it floats and spreads across it. Water aids in the
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propagation of the fire. To put out an oil fire, the oxygen supply must be shut off.
Throwing sand, table salt, or baking soda on the flames will help contain this.
gl

Extinguishing of electrical energy: Because its source of heat is electrical energy, an

En

electrical fire is far more powerful than ordinary flames. To put it out, the oxygen supply
must be shut off.
E
M

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SECTION-A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Soap is the term for a salt of a:

(a) Carboxylic acid
(b) Citric acid
(c) Sulfuric acid
(d) Fatty acid

2. Surfactants reduce the — of water.

(a) Viscosity
(b) Surface tension
(c) Boiling point

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(d) Melting point

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3. The carboxylate end of the soap molecule that is attracted to water is called —-.
(a) hydrophobic end
(b) end point
(c) hydrophilic end
(d) n.o.t
Ce
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4. The use of potassium hydroxide produced a:

gl

(a) Hard soap

(b) Soft soap
En

(c) Moderate soap

(d) All of these
E

5. The citric acid is used in preparation of cold drinks for:

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(a) Sweet taste

(b) Bitter taste
(c) Sour taste
(d) Salty test

6. This centrifuge machine used for separation of:

(a) Juice
(b) pH
(c) Mud
(d) Crystal

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7. The abrasives are:

(a) Water soluble minerals
(b) Water insoluble minerals
(c) Water semi soluble minerals
(d) Water absorbing minerals

8. The harvesting is most important step of:

(a) Preparation of soap
(b) Preparation of cold drinks
(c) Preparation of sugar
(d) Preparation of medicines

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9. Which of the following is used as jet fuel:
(a) Kerosene oil

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(b) Diesel oil
(c) Fuel oil
(d) Petrol
Ce
10. Which of the following is not a fraction of crude oil?
ish
(a) paraffin wax
(b) ammonia
gl

(c) fuel oil

(d) petroleum coke
En

Ans:
E
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1.Fatty acid 2.Surface 3.hydrophilic 4.Soft soap 5.Sour taste

tension end

6.Crystal 7.Water 8.Preparation 9.Kerosene oil 10.ammonia

insoluble of sugar
minerals

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