University of Halabja

College of Science
Department of Physics
second stage

Thermodynamics Lab.
First semester

Prepared by:
Lecturer: Karwan O. Ali

2022-2023

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 Some instructions about the laboratory:
1. Bring to Each Laboratory Session:
➢ A pocket calculator (with basic arithmetic and trigonometric operations).
➢ A graph paper, a sharp pencil. (You will write some parts of your reports on this paper,
including your graphs. Covers and staplers will be provided in the laboratory.)
➢ A ruler.
2. Graph Plotting: Frequently, a graph is the clearest way to represent the relationship between
the quantities of interest. There are a number of conventions, which we include below.
➢ A graph indicates a relationship between two quantities x and y when other variables or
parameters have fixed values. Before plotting points on a graph, it may be useful to arrange
the corresponding values of x and y in a table.
➢ Choose a convenient scale for each axis so that the plotted points will occupy a substantial
part of the graph paper, but do not choose a scale which is difficult to plot and read, such
as 3 or 3/4 units to a square. Graphs should usually be at least half a page in size.
➢ Label each axis to identify the variable being plotted and the units being used mark
prominent divisions on each axis with appropriate numbers.
➢ Identify plotted points with appropriate symbols, such as crosses, and when necessary draw
vertical or horizontal bars through the points to indicate the range of uncertainty involved
in these points.

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 Experiment NO. (4)
(Boyle-Mariotte’s law)
Pressure-dependency of the volume of a gas at a constant temperature and n.

Boyles Law: is an experimental gas law that describes how the gas volume increases as the gas's
pressure decrease at constant T and n.

Apparatus:
Gas thermometer, hand vacuum pressure pump, stand base V-shape, stand rod 47 cm, clamps
with jaw clamp.

Aim of the experiment:

1. Measuring the volume V of the air column as a function of the pressure p at a constant
temperature T and number of moles of gas n.

2. Confirming Boyle-Mariotte’s law.

Theory:
The state of n moles of an ideal gas is completely described by the measurable quantities p
(pressure), V (volume), and T (temperature). The relation between these three quantities is given
by the perfect gas laws:

P × V = n × R × T ……….. (I).
R = 8.31 J K–1 mol–1: gas constant. In the mid-1600s, Robert Boyle studied the relationship
between the pressure p and the volume V of a confined gas held at a constant temperature and
n. Boyle observed that the product of the pressure and volume are observed to be nearly
constant. The product of pressure and volume is exactly a constant for an ideal gas.

V/mm3

Fig.1 the pressure P of the enclosed air column as a function of the

If T remains volume V at a constant temperature and n.

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If T remains constant, then the other two quantities cannot be varied independently. At a
constant temperature, for example, Boyle-Mariotte’s law states

P × V = const. …………… (II).

This relationship between pressure and volume is called Boyle's Law in his honor. This law
is confirmed in the experiment by means of a gas thermometer. The gas thermometer consists
of a glass capillary open at one end. A certain quantity of air is enclosed by means of a mercury
seal. At an outside pressure p0, the enclosed air has a volume V0. By pumping off air at room
temperature with a hand pump, an under-pressure Δp with respect to the outside pressure p0 is
generated at the open end of the capillary so that the pressure there is p0 + Δp. The mercury seal
itself exerts a pressure,

pHg = ρHg × g × hHg ………… (III)

ρHg = 13.6 g cm–3 , 1.36 x 104 kg m-3: density of mercury

g = 9.81 m s–2: acceleration of free fall

hHg: height of the mercury seal on the enclosed air so that the pressure of the enclosed air is

p = pO + pHg + Δp ……………. (IV). and p-p0 = pHg + Δp

The volume V of the enclosed air column is determined by the pressure p. Volume can be
calculated from the height h of the air column and the cross- section of the capillary.

𝒅𝟐
𝑽 = 𝝅. . 𝒉 …... (V)
𝟒

d = 2.7mm: inside diameter of the capillary

P1 V1 = P2 V2
This relationship is useful for the determination of the volume of a gas at any pressure if its volume at
any other pressure is known.

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 Carrying out the experiment
1. Draw a table below to collect your experimental data:

∆p/hpa h cm h mm V mm3 1/v mm-3 P hpa P-po

-60 - - - - -

-100 - - - - -

Until - - - - -

-580

2- Read the height hHg (h0) as shown in (fig 2) of the mercury seal from the scale of the gas
thermometer as (h0) and put in Eq. (III).

Fig 2: Experimental setup for investigating the pressure-dependency

3- Generate an under-pressure Δp with the hand pump and increase it step by step. Each time
read the height h of the air column, and record it together with Δp.

4- Calculate the (V) volume from eq. (V) for each time of h and converted to 1/V.
V = π ⋅ d2/4 .h…..eq. (V)

Where π= 3.14 d= 2.7 mm

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5- Calculate mercury pressure from eq. (III) pHg = PHg ⋅ g ⋅ hHg where
PHg= 13.6 g cm-3 density of mercury
g= 9.81 m s-2 acceleration of free fall
hHg: high of the mercury seal (h0)
6- Calculate p-po at each under pressure ∆P by this equation
P- p0 = pHg + ∆P
7- Plot a graph between the 1/v and p-po and determine the value of Po that equal to 0D.

8- Calculate Pressure (p) at each under pressure from eq. (IV)

P= p0 + pHg + ∆P
9- Draw graph between the pressure p of the enclosed air column as a function of the volume
V at a constant temperature T and n.

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 mm3

Fig.1 the pressure P of the enclosed air column as a function of the volume V at a constant
temperature and n.

Results
At a constant temperature and number of moles of gas, the pressure and the volume of an
ideal gas is inversely proportional to each other.

Questions:

1- Under what condition does the general gas law obey to Boyle’s law?
2- Why is gas easier to compress than a liquid or solid?
3- What is the effect of the density of the mercury seal on our result?
4- The height of mercury in a mercury gas thermometer was 1.1 cm on a certain day.
Given that the density of mercury is 1.36 x 104 kg m-3 and g=9.8 ms-2, what was the
Mercury pressure on that day in hpa?

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 Experiment NO. (5)
(Thermal expansion of solids)

Measuring the linear expansion of solids as a function of temperature.

Thermal Expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, area, and volume in response
to changes in temperature when a substance is heated the kinetic energy of its molecules
increases.

Aim of the experiment:

1. Measuring the linear thermal expansion of brass, steel and glass tubes as a function of
temperature.
2. Determining the linear expansion coefficients of brass, steel, and glass.

Apparatus:
Longitudinal expansion apparatus, Dial gauge, Holder for dial gauge, Thermometer -10 ...
+110°C, Circulation thermostat +25 +100 °C, Pump set, Silicone tubing, Distilled water.

Theory:

The length s of a solid body is linearly dependent on its temperature T:

S = S0 [1 + α (T)] ………… (I)

S0: length at room temperature.

T: temperature in °C

The linear expansion coefficient α is determined by the material of the solid body, in this
experiment a circulation thermostat is used to heat the water which flows through the various
tube samples. A dial gauge with 0.01 mm scale graduations is used to measure the change of
length ΔS =S − S0 as a function of temperature T.

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 Fig. 1: Schematic representation of the experimental setup to measure the linear thermal expansion
of tubes with the expansion apparatus as a function of temperature.

Setup:

The setup of the experiment is shown in Fig. 1 schematically.

➢ Screw on the holder for dial gauge 381 36 (e) (for details refer to instruction sheet 381
341 of expansion apparatus) and clamp the dial gauge in place 361 15 (d).
➢ Attach the fixed bearing (a) of the expansion apparatus at the 600 mark and slide the
open end of the brass tube into the fixed bearing.
➢ Slide the closed end of the brass tube into the guide fitting (b) so that the hose nipple (f)
is pointing laterally downwards.
➢ Tighten the screw to fix the brass tube in the fixed bearing (the screw must engage the
ring groove of the tube).
➢ Insert the extension piece (c) (see instruction sheet for dial gauge 361 15).
➢ Prepare the circulation thermostat and the pump set. For a detailed description refer to
instruction sheet.
➢ Fill the water bath of the circulation thermostat with distilled water.
➢ Connect the expansion apparatus to the circulation thermostat using the silicone tubing,
i.e. connect the open end of the brass tube and the hose nipple (f) to the hose nipples of
the pump set of circulation thermostats.
➢ Use the thermometer to measure the temperature T of the water bath.

Safety notes

▪ Check the seating of the silicone tubing every time before putting the apparatus into
operation, to ensure that no hot water can escape in an uncontrolled manner and cause
damage or injury.

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 ▪ Follow the safety hints of the circulation thermostat.
▪ When using the glass tube follow the instruction printed on the thermal expansion
apparatus.

Carrying out the experiment:

1. Draw a table as below to collect your experimental data

2. Turn the housing of the dial gauge to set the zero position.
3. Measure the initial temperature, i.e. room temperature TO.
4. Switch on the circulation thermostat and set the temperature at 25 .
5. Wait until a thermal equilibrium has been established.
6. Measure the temperature T.
7. Read off and write down the pointer deflection of the dial gauge as shown in the table.
8. Increase the temperature T in steps as shown in the table and read ∆S.
9. Repeat these above steps for Brass, steel and glass tube by allowing the tube to cool down
to room temperature and then replace with another tube
10. Plot graph between change of length ∆S (mm) and temperature (оC)

Fig.2: Change of length as a function of temperature T: brass ( ), steel ( ), glass ( ). The

solid lines correspond to a fit according equation (II).

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11. From the slope of the line calculate linear expansion coefficient α.
Slope= K
α = k/ S0
S0: length at room temperature.

12. Calculate length at each temperature by this equation

S = S0 [1 + α (T)]
S0: length at room temperature.
T: temperature in °C
α: linear expansion coefficient
13. Calculate percentage error of each material by this equation
Experimental α– Literature α
14. % Error = ∗ 100
Literature α

Questions:
1. Does the coefficient of linear expansion change with changing the temperature?
2. Explain why the length of brass increases more than glass as a function of temperature?
3. Why solid materials are different in the thermal expansion?
4. Why does solid material expand on heating?
5. A brass rod is 1m long at room temperature, if the coefficient of expansion is 1.9 * 10-5
K-1 what is the length at 30°C.

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 Experiment NO. (6)
(Specific heat)

Determining the specific heat of solids.

The heat capacity (thermal capacity) of a body is defined as the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of the body by 1 0c.

Aim of the experiment:

1. Mixing cold water with heated copper, lead or glass shot and measuring the mixture
temperature.
2. Determining the specific heat of copper, lead, and glass.

Apparatus:
Dewar vessel, cover for Dewar vessel, copper shot, 200 g, glass shot100 g, lead shot, 200 g,
school and lab. Balance, thermometer –10 oC to +110 oC or temperature sensor NiCr-Ni, digital
thermometer, steam generator, 550 W / 220 V, heating-apparatus, beaker, 400 ml, stand base,
V-shape, 20 cm, stand rod, 47cm, Ley bold multi clamp, universal clamp, silicone tubing int.
dia. 7 × 1.5 mm, 1 m, pair of heat protective gloves.

Theory:

The heat quantity ΔQ that is absorbed or evolved when a body is heated or cooled is
proportional to the change of temperature and to the mass m:

ΔQ = c. m. ΔT. …………… (I).

The factor of proportionality c, the specific heat capacity of the body, is a quantity that depends
on the material. In this experiment, the specific heat capacities of different substances, which
are available as shot, are determined. In each case, the shot is weighed, heated with steam to
the Temperature T1 and then poured into a quantity of water that has been weighed out and that
has the temperature T2. After the mixture has been carefully stirred, the pellets and the water
reach the common temperature TM through heat exchange. The heat quantity evolved by the
shot

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 T1

ΔQ1 = C1. m1. (T1 − TM) ……………. (II)

m1: mass of the shot

c1: specific heat capacity of the shot

Is equal to the heat quantity absorbed by the water

ΔQ2 = C2. m2. (TM − T2) ………….. (III)

m2: mass of the water

The specific heat capacity of water c2 is assumed to be known. The temperature T1 is equal to
the temperature of the steam. The unknown quantity c1 can, therefore be calculated from the
measured quantities T2, TM, m1 and m:

1= ∗ ……….. (IV)
1 1

The calorimeter vessel too absorbs part of the heat evolved by the shot. Therefore, the heat
capacity

CK = C2. mK. ………….. (V)

Or the water equivalent mK of the calorimeter vessel has to be taken into account. The absorbed
heat quantity calculated in Eq. (III) is thus more precisely

ΔQ2 = C2. (m2 + mK). (TM − T2) ……….. (VI)

And Eq. (IV) is extended to

……….. (VII)

Setup and carrying out the experiment

The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig.1.

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❖ Mount the heating apparatus in the stand material.
❖ Fill water into the steam generator, close the device cautiously, and connect it to the

top hose connection of the heating apparatus (steam inlet) with silicone tubing.

❖ Attach silicone tubing to the bottom hose connection of the heating apparatus (steam outlet),
and hang the other end in the beaker. See to it that the silicone tubes are securely seated at
all connections.
❖ Fill the sample chamber of the heating apparatus as completely as possible with lead shot,
and seal it with the stopper.
❖ Connect the steam generator to the mains, and heat the shot for about 20−25 minutes in the
heating apparatus flowed through by steam.

Fig.1 Experimental setup for determining the specific heat of solids

Carrying out the experiment:

1- Draw a table as bellow to collect your experimental data

Substance Mass of substance M1 (g) T2 (oc) TM (oc)

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 Lead 80

Copper 80

Glass 80

2- In each case the shot is weighed (M1) (80g)

3- The shot is Heating with steam to the temperature T1
4- Poured heated shot into a quantity of water that has been weighed out (M2) 180g in
the calorimeter and that has the temperature T2.
5- After the mixture has been carefully stirred, the shots and the water reach the common
temperature TM through heat exchange. Read the mixture temperature TM when the
temperature of the water stops rising.
6- Repeat the experiment with other shots
7- Calculate specific heat capacity of each substance by this equation

m1: mass of the Substance or shot

c1: specific heat capacity of the substance or shot you find
c2 = Specific heat capacity of water: 4.19 kJ/K ⋅ kg
T1= the temperature of shot heated by steam = 100 oc
T2= temperature of water in calorimeter before add shot
TM: heat of mixture (shot + water) in calorimeter
mK = Water equivalent of the calorimeter: 23 g
m2: mass of water in calorimeter
8- Calculate percentage error of each shot by this equation
Experimental c1– Literature c1
% Error = ∗ 100
Literature c1

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Questions:
1. Why specific heat capacity of glass differs from the specific heat capacity of copper
and lead?
2. Distinguish between heat capacity and specific heat capacity?
3. 100.0 g of water was placed in a simple, constant-pressure calorimeter. The temperature
of the water was recorded as 295.0 K. A 20.0 g copper block was heated to 353.0 K and
then dropped into the water in the calorimeter. What was the final temperature of the
water if the specific heat capacities of water and copper are 4.18 and 0.385 KJ K–1 kg–
1
, respectively and mk=23g?

4. Why is the high specific heat capacity of water useful?

5. Derive equation (VII).

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 Experiment NO. (7)
Converting electrical energy into heat energy: measuring with the joule and wattmeter

Objects of the experiment

1. Determination of electrical energy and thermal energy.

2. Confirm the equivalence of the energy quantities 1 Ws and 1 J.

Principles
Energy is a measure of stored work. It occurs in different forms, which can be converted one
into the other. In a closed system, the total energy is conserved in conversion processes.
therefore, energy is one of the fundamental quantities of physics. In this experiment, the
equivalence of electrical energy Eel and thermal energy Eth is established experimentally. The
supplied electrical energy Eel is converted into heat Eth in the heating coil. This leads to a
temperature rise in the calorimeter.
The supplied electrical energy is determined by:
Eel= U. I. t (I)
U: Voltage I: Current t: time
According to equation (I), the electrical energy Eel can be determined by measuring the voltage
U, the current I, and the time t. In this experiment, however, the electrical energy is directly
measured by using the Joule and Wattmeter. This device measures the effective voltage U, the
effective current I, and the nonreactive power P for voltages and currents of any shape, from
which the electrical work is determined by:
Eel = ∫P(t) dt (II)
P(t): electrical power
The thermal energy Eth is determined by:
Eth= c. (ϑ2 − ϑ1) (III)
c: total heat capacity ϑ1: the temperature at the start ϑ2: the temperature at the end
According to equation (III) measuring the temperature ϑ1 at the beginning of the and ϑ2 at the
end of the experiment allows determining the thermal energy Eth. The two energy forms can be
determined quantitatively in units of wattsecond (Ws) and Joule so that their numerical
equivalence can be demonstrated experimentally: Eel = Eth.

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Apparatus
Copper-block calorimeter, Aluminium-block calorimeter, Large Aluminium-block calorimeter,
Pair of connecting cables, Joule and Wattmeter, Variable extra-low voltage transformer, Pair
cables 50 cm, red/blue, Mobile-CASSY, NiCr-Ni Adapter, NiCr-Ni temperature sensor.
Setup
Setup the apparatus as figure bellow

Fig. 1: Experimental setup for converting electrical energy into heat energy schematically.
Carrying out the experiment
1. Set up the aluminum calorimeter so that the bore points upwards.
2. Pour water into the opening.
3. Insert the gasket in the bore and hold it with the locking screw.
4. Insert the temperature sensor as deeply as possible in the opening of the calorimeter
and tighten the locking screw of the calorimeter.
5. Connect the variable extra-low voltage transformer to the input sockets of the Joule and
Wattmeter as shown in Fig. 1.
6. Connect the heating coil of the calorimeter to the 4 mm output sockets of the Joule and
Wattmeter as shown in Fig. 1.
7. For measuring the temperature at the start and end of the experiment connect the NiCr-
Ni temperature sensor to the Digital thermometer.
8. Switch on the Digital thermometer (Mobile CASSY) to measure the temperature.
9. Switch on the variable extra-low voltage transformer and set the voltage to approx. 8 V.
10. Select the unit “Ws” with the pushbutton “U, I, P.
11. Measure the time (min.) electrical energy (Ws), initial temperature, ϑ1, and final
temperature ϑ2 as table below by starting the integration with the pushbutton t
START/STOP.
t/min. Eel/Ws ϑ/oC ϑ/K ϑ2 − ϑ1/K Eth/J

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 2
4
6
8
10

12. Use this equation to calculate the thermal energy Eth

Eth= c. (ϑ2 − ϑ1) (III)

13. Plot a graph between Thermal energy Eth/J and electrical energy Eel/Ws

Fig.2: electrical energy as a function of the thermal energy

The figure for electric energy measured in Ws (Eel = Ws) agrees with the figure for the
thermal energy measured in J (Eth = J) within the accuracy of the experiment. Thus,
the equivalence
1 Ws = 1 J

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 is experimentally confirmed.
The equivalence of the electrical energy Eel and the thermal energy Eth can be confirmed
by fitting a line through the origin in Fig. 2. Usually, the slope of the straight line through
the origin is somewhat smaller than 1 because of heat loss due to the emission of heat
radiation. This becomes particularly obvious in the case of long measuring times where
the measuring data can deviate significantly from the straight line through the origin.
Questions:
1. what is the law of conservation of energy?

2. What does it mean to have high or low heat capacity?

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