Context

Context is dynamic and constructed jointly by the participants in a discourse, based on their
background knowledge and the information presented in the text.

Here's an example to illustrate this concept:

Imagine you are reading the following excerpt from Virginia Woolf's novel, Mrs. Dalloway:

Mrs. Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself. For Lucy had her work cut out for her.
The doors would be taken off their hinges; Rumpelmayer’s men were coming. And then, thought
Clarissa Dalloway, what a morning – fresh as if issued to children on a beach. (Virginia Woolf,
Mrs Dalloway, 1925/1964: 5)

As you begin reading, you don't yet know the full context of the situation. However, based on the
first sentence, you can infer that Mrs. Dalloway is planning some kind of event, likely a party,
because she is buying flowers. You can also guess that Lucy is likely a servant, because Mrs.
Dalloway refers to her by her first name only, and that extra work is expected of her because
"she had her work cut out for her."

The second sentence mentions "Rumpelmayer's men," which could be confusing to a modern
reader who may not be familiar with the fact that Rumpelmayer's was a famous bakery in
London at the time. However, the fact that they are delivering something suggests that they are
likely connected to the party. [DATE]
[Company name]
[Company address]
As you continue reading, you learn more about the context of the situation. The reference to
"doors being taken off their hinges" suggests that the party will be a large one, and Clarissa
Dalloway's thought about the morning being "fresh" reinforces the idea that it is a special
occasion.

In this way, our understanding of the text develops incrementally as we read it. We use the
information that is presented in the text, along with our own background knowledge, to make
inferences about the characters, the setting, and the situation.

This is just one example of how context is important in discourse. In any conversation or piece
of writing, the participants (whether speaker and listener or writer and reader) rely on their
shared knowledge and understanding of the world to create meaning.

DEICTIC EXPRESSIONS
The passage explains how deictic expressions, words that point to specific elements in a
situation, function differently in written text compared to spoken language.

Here's a breakdown of the key points:

 Deictic expressions: These are words or phrases that rely on context to convey meaning.
They "point" to things like time (then, now), space (here, there), and people (I, you, she).
 Spoken vs. Written Discourse: Deictics heavily rely on the current situation in spoken
language. Imagine a conversation - "Pass the salt" points to the specific salt shaker on the
table based on the shared space between speaker and listener.
 Written Text Challenges: Written text lacks the shared context of a conversation. The
"world" of the story is created by the words themselves. So, deictics in writing need to be
more explicit.

The passage highlights how deictics help establish the following aspects in written narratives:

 Spatio-temporal Perspective: Deictics can show when and where events are happening
in the story. Words like "later," "yesterday," "across the room" all provide location and
time references.
 Narrator vs. Character Perspective: Deictics can also indicate whose point of view the
story is following. For instance, "I felt scared" uses a first-person pronoun, implying the
story is from the character's perspective. On the other hand, "He didn't realize the danger"
uses a third-person pronoun, suggesting the narrator's perspective.

The passage argues that pronouns in fictional discourse function differently compared to
everyday spoken language. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

 Reference of Pronouns: Pronouns point back to previously mentioned nouns (their

referents). In spoken language, this is often clear due to shared context. Pointing to
someone and saying "he" is enough because the listener shares the physical space.

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  Fiction vs. Reality: In fictional discourse, the world is created by the text itself. There's
no shared context with the author or reader. So, pronoun references need to be clear
within the fictional world.
 The "I" and "You" in Fiction: The "I" in a poem, for example, doesn't necessarily refer
to the real-life author. It could be a character, an object, or anything the author chooses.
Similarly, the "you" in a love poem isn't necessarily the reader. It's the person the
character in the poem is addressing.
 Blurred Lines Between Pronoun Types: This lack of direct connection between
author/reader and characters in fiction leads to a blurring of pronoun functions. The "I"
can have elements of a "third person" (referring to a character, not the author) and vice
versa. The "you" can also act like a "third person" because it refers to someone within the
story, not the actual reader.
 Example: Lyric Poetry: This blurring is particularly evident in lyric poems, where the
speaker can be anything the poet imagines - an inanimate object, a dead person, even an
animal.

Pronouns/articles
The passage highlights that pronouns in fiction serve to establish characters and their
relationships within the fictional world, rather than directly linking to the author or reader.

The passage dives into how the definite article ("the") is used at the beginning of fictional
narratives and its role in establishing the setting and perspective.

Here's a breakdown of the key points:

 Unique Entities and "The": The definite article is typically used for one-of-a-kind
things (the sun) or things already mentioned before.
 Setting the Stage: When "the" is used at the beginning of a story, it introduces elements
the reader should consider as "given" information within the fictional world.
 Example: The sentence "At first Joe thought the job O.K." (D. H. Lawrence) uses "the"
before "job," implying it's the specific job Joe was just assigned, not any job in general.

Alternative Explanation - Script Theory:

 This theory suggests we have pre-existing knowledge structures (scripts) that help us
understand situations quickly.
 Example: The sentence "John went into the restaurant" uses "the" before "restaurant."
Script theory suggests our knowledge of restaurants allows us to understand this as a
specific restaurant relevant to the story, even though it isn't explicitly mentioned.

The Definite Article and Perspective:

 The definite article can also be used to introduce characters from a specific perspective.

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  Example: The sentence "John asked the waitress for the check" uses "the" before
"waitress." Here, "the" implies the waitress who was serving John specifically, not just
any waitress who might be working there.

Deictics (Time and Space Words) at the Beginning:

 The use of deictic expressions (words like "now," "then," "here," "there") at the
beginning of a story can be interesting because they can combine seemingly contradictory
ideas.
 Example 1: The sentence "It was now lunchtime..." (Hemingway) uses "now" even
though the story is in the past tense. This unexpected use of a present-tense word like
"now" suggests the story is shifting to the perspective of the characters, bringing the
reader into the scene.
 Example 2: Similar to above, "Evvie arrived again at supper time on Saturday. Tonight
she wore..." (Ellis) uses "tonight" even though the verb is past tense. This again suggests
a shift to the character's perspective, possibly someone who lives in the house where
Evvie arrives.

Overall, the passage explains how the definite article and deictics at the beginning of a story help
create the setting, introduce characters, and establish the narrative perspective, drawing the
reader into the fictional world.

Tense
This passage discusses the unique way tense is used in fictional narratives, differing from how it
functions in everyday language.

Here's a breakdown of key points:

 Tense as Deictic Marker (Usually): In spoken language, tense ("past," "present,"

"future") functions as a deictic marker, referencing the time of speaking. You say "I ate
yesterday" because "yesterday" is relative to the present moment of speaking.
 Tense in Fiction (Not Deictic): However, tense in fictional narratives often isn't used
this way. The most common tense in stories - the past tense - doesn't necessarily indicate
a specific time relative to the reader's present.
 Past Tense as a "Generic Marker": The past tense in fiction acts more like a general
marker, simply indicating these events are being presented as part of a story world.
 Dialogue and Tense: This is why we don't find it odd when past tense narration is
combined with present tense dialogue. Dialogue within the story follows the deictic rules
of spoken language because it represents characters having a conversation.
 Narrator's Perspective: The past tense also allows the narrator to present events with a
sense of hindsight, even if the story is unfolding for the first time. This is because the
narrator is separate from the characters and may know how things end, even if the
characters don't.

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Here's what it means for a narrator to use the past tense to present events with hindsight, even if
the story is unfolding for the first time:

Imagine a story where a group of friends goes on a camping trip. They decide to take a shortcut
through a dense forest, despite warnings from locals.

 Present Tense: In present tense, the story unfolds moment by moment, just like the
characters are experiencing it. We, the readers, are just as clueless as the characters about
the dangers that lie ahead.

They reach a fork in the path. They debate which way to go. Uh oh, the sunlight starts to
disappear behind the trees. It gets eerily quiet.

 Past Tense with Hindsight: In past tense, the narrator can subtly hint at future events,
even though the characters are still making their choices. This creates a sense of suspense
because we, the readers, now know more than the characters.

They reached a fork in the path. Looking back, they realized they hadn't seen the sun in a while
(foreshadowing getting lost). The forest grew quiet, an unsettling silence that sent shivers down
their spines (foreshadowing danger).

Effects of Hindsight in Past Tense:

 Raises suspense: By hinting at future events, the past tense with hindsight keeps the
reader engaged and guessing what will happen next.
 Creates irony: The characters might be oblivious to the danger they're in, while the
reader is aware due to the narrator's subtle clues.
 Highlights themes: The narrator's hindsight can be used to emphasize the story's themes,
such as the consequences of ignoring warnings.

Examples in Literature:

 F. Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby": Nick Carraway, the narrator, reflects on the
past summer and the tragic events that unfolded, suggesting his own understanding of
Gatsby's motivations and the doomed nature of Gatsby's dream.
 J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye": Holden Caulfield, the teenage protagonist,
narrates his story from a cynical perspective, hinting at his own emotional turmoil and the
disillusionment that awaits him.

Overall, using the past tense with hindsight is a powerful storytelling technique that allows the
narrator to manipulate the reader's knowledge and build tension within the narrative.


 Future Stories in Past Tense: This is why even stories set in the future are often
narrated in the past tense. The past tense becomes the storytelling tense, regardless of the
actual time frame of the story.

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  Tense Within the Story (Deictic): However, tense can still function deictically within
the story itself. The perfect tenses (past perfect, present perfect) can show events relative
to a specific point in the fictional timeline.
 Example: The sentence "The sewing sisters had not as yet been induced..." (Muriel
Spark) uses the past perfect tense to show this event happened before a specific point in
the story's past (the narrator's comment about the situation changing).

Overall, the passage highlights that tense in fiction has a special role. The past tense is the
default mode for narration, serving as a storytelling marker rather than a strict reference to time.
However, perfect tenses can be used within the story to create a more nuanced timeline of events.

the present tense

The passage discusses the use of the present tense in specific contexts within fictional narratives,
contrasting it with the more common past tense used for storytelling.

Here's a breakdown of the key points:

Present Tense and Unmediated Narrative: Literary scholar Frank Stanzel observes the use of
the present tense in elements like synopses (story summaries), chapter headings, and author's
notes. He suggests this present tense indicates an "unmediated" narrative, where the author hasn't
necessarily chosen a specific narrative voice yet. In the context of literary theory, an
"unmediated" narrative refers to a story presentation where the reader experiences the events
directly, without the intervention of a narrator. Here's a breakdown:

 Mediated Narrative: This is the most common type. A narrator, with their own voice
and perspective, tells the story. They might comment on events, describe characters'
thoughts, and control the flow of information. Examples include most novels and short
stories.
 Unmediated Narrative: This creates a sense of immediacy, as if the reader is witnessing
the events unfold in real-time. There's no narrator filtering the story or offering
interpretations.

Illustration:

Imagine a scene where a character is running away from danger.

 Mediated Narrative: "Sarah sprinted down the alley, fear pounding in her chest. She
could hear footsteps gaining on her, and her lungs burned with each desperate breath."
(The narrator describes Sarah's actions and emotions)
 Unmediated Narrative: "Sarah sprints down the alley. Footsteps pound closer. Lungs
burning, she pushes for more speed." (The scene unfolds without a narrator, relying on
action verbs and sensory details to immerse the reader)

Frank Stanzel's Observation:

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Literary scholar Frank Stanzel noticed that the present tense, often used in synopses, chapter
headings, and author's notes, creates a sense of unmediated narrative. This is because the present
tense focuses on the "now" of the story, similar to how a reader experiences a story in real-time.
However, it's important to note that this is a subtle effect and doesn't necessarily mean there's no
narrator present. The author might still be shaping the story, even if they're using the present
tense to create a sense of immediacy.


 Present Tense vs. Narrative Flow: These uses of the present tense are considered
separate from the main flow of the story itself.
 Shifting Perspectives and Past Tense: The main point of discussion is the use of the
present tense within a past-tense narrative. This is interesting because tense is often used
to indicate a shift in perspective or who is telling the story.
 Timeless Perspective: Linguists Huddleston and Pullum offer an explanation for this use
of present tense. They argue that it simply reflects the perspective of a text that can be
read at any time. They compare it to stage directions in plays, which are also written in
present tense but are meant to be applied at the specific moment of performance.

In essence, the present tense in these situations isn't there to indicate actual present time
within the story. Instead, it creates a sense of a universal or timeless instruction or
description.

For example, imagine a story written mostly in the past tense. Suddenly, there's a section written
in the present tense that describes a character's recurring nightmare. This shift wouldn't mean the
story has jumped to the present moment. The present tense is used because nightmares are
timeless experiences - they can happen any night.

Present tense for past event

This passage discusses the use of the present tense for past events in fictional narratives. Here's a
breakdown of the key points:

 "Historical Present" for Simultaneity: The present tense can be used to create a sense
that the narration and the events are happening at the same time. The example from
Sterne ("So now I am at Avignon...") does this, playfully blurring the lines between the
character's experience, the writing of the story, and the reader's experience. However, it's
clear this is still a story about the past.
 Whole Novels in Present Tense: Some novels, like parts of Dickens' "Our Mutual
Friend," use the present tense throughout. The passage argues this isn't very interesting
because readers quickly adjust, and the story's meaning isn't significantly changed by the
tense choice.
 Present Tense and Character Analysis: However, the choice of present tense can be
meaningful for character portrayal. For example, if a section about the Veneerings in

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 "Our Mutual Friend" is in present tense, it might suggest they are shallow and focused on
the present moment, lacking a rich past.
 Future Tense for Foreshadowing: When a story is entirely in the present tense, the
author might use the future tense for foreshadowing (giving hints about what will
happen). The example from Spark's "The Driver's Seat" uses future tense phrases ("She
will be found...") to create suspense, even though the story is clearly set in the past.
 Retrospective Narration: The key takeaway is that even though the present tense is
used, these narratives are still retrospective - they tell a story about the past. This use of
present tense is called the "historical present" and is different from using the present tense
to describe something happening right now.

Present in vernacular narrative

This passage explains how the present tense is used in informal, spoken stories (vernacular
narratives) and how famous author Charles Dickens uses this technique in his writing.

Here's a breakdown of the key points:

 Present Tense for Emphasis in Spoken Stories: People often use the present tense
when telling stories out loud, especially for important moments. This emphasizes those
parts of the story and grabs the listener's attention. Research by linguists supports this
idea (Brown and Levinson, Georgakopoulou et al.).
 Dickens and the Vernacular: Author Charles Dickens, known for his vivid characters
and settings, sometimes uses the present tense in his writing in a way that mirrors spoken
language.
 Example: The sentence "It being so, here is Saturday evening come, and here is Mr
Venus come, and ringing at the Bower-gate" (Our Mutual Friend) uses the present tense
to introduce both Saturday evening and Mr. Venus' arrival.
 Segmenting the Narrative: Another function of the present tense in vernacular
narratives is to mark transitions or beginnings of new sections within the story
(Georgakopoulou and Goutsos).

Overall, the passage highlights how the present tense can be a powerful tool for storytellers, both
spoken and written, to emphasize key moments and structure their narratives.

Vernacular language in narrative can have a powerful impact on the story. Here are some key
effects:

 Characterization: Vernacular lets characters speak and think in their own voice,
revealing their background, education level, and personality. Slang, contractions, and
regional expressions paint a vivid picture. Imagine a character from Brooklyn saying
"fuggedaboutit" versus someone from London saying "don't mind if I do."
 Scene Setting: Vernacular instantly establishes a sense of place. Dialects and slang
specific to a region transport the reader into the heart of the story's world. Imagine a
scene in a southern diner filled with characters saying "y'all" and "fixin' to."

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  Relatability: Vernacular language connects with readers on a deeper level. It feels
natural and authentic, drawing readers into the story and making them feel like they're
experiencing events alongside the characters.
 Humor and Emotion: Vernacular can be a powerful tool for humor. Dialect jokes,
sarcasm, and witty banter can all be conveyed through informal language. It can also
heighten emotional impact. Imagine a character expressing grief using their own unique
way of speaking, making it feel raw and genuine.
 Social Commentary: Vernacular reflects social dynamics and power structures. The way
different characters speak can highlight class differences, generational divides, or even
societal tensions.

Here are some additional points to consider:

 Balance is Key: Overusing vernacular can be distracting or alienate readers unfamiliar

with the dialect.
 Consistency is Important: Dialect and slang should be consistent within a character's
speech patterns.
 Variety Enhances the Story: Using a mix of formal and informal language can create a
more dynamic and realistic narrative.

Overall, vernacular language is a powerful tool for authors to create a more immersive,
engaging, and authentic reading experience.

Vernacular language in narrative can have a powerful impact on the story. Here are some key
effects:

 Characterization: Vernacular lets characters speak and think in their own voice,
revealing their background, education level, and personality. Slang, contractions, and
regional expressions paint a vivid picture. Imagine a character from Brooklyn saying
"fuggedaboutit" versus someone from London saying "don't mind if I do."
 Scene Setting: Vernacular instantly establishes a sense of place. Dialects and slang
specific to a region transport the reader into the heart of the story's world. Imagine a
scene in a southern diner filled with characters saying "y'all" and "fixin' to."
 Relatability: Vernacular language connects with readers on a deeper level. It feels
natural and authentic, drawing readers into the story and making them feel like they're
experiencing events alongside the characters.
 Humor and Emotion: Vernacular can be a powerful tool for humor. Dialect jokes,
sarcasm, and witty banter can all be conveyed through informal language. It can also
heighten emotional impact. Imagine a character expressing grief using their own unique
way of speaking, making it feel raw and genuine.
 Social Commentary: Vernacular reflects social dynamics and power structures. The way
different characters speak can highlight class differences, generational divides, or even
societal tensions.

Here are some additional points to consider:

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  Balance is Key: Overusing vernacular can be distracting or alienate readers unfamiliar
with the dialect.
 Consistency is Important: Dialect and slang should be consistent within a character's
speech patterns.
 Variety Enhances the Story: Using a mix of formal and informal language can create a
more dynamic and realistic narrative.

Overall, vernacular language is a powerful tool for authors to create a more immersive,
engaging, and authentic reading experience.

Instantaneous present
This passage dives into a rare use of the present tense in fiction: the instantaneous present.

Here's a breakdown of key points:

 Instantaneous Present vs. Normal Present: The instantaneous present describes events
as they unfold, like a live broadcast. This is uncommon in fiction, where the past tense is
the norm for storytelling.
 Example from Dickens (Unusual): There's an example from "Our Mutual Friend"
where a character describes a scene out the window using the present tense. This is
unusual because the present progressive tense ("is smoking") would normally be used for
ongoing actions.
 "Not to Disturb" by Muriel Spark: This novel is a unique example where the entire
story unfolds in the instantaneous present tense. The events and narration happen at the
same time.
 Why Instantaneous Present in "Not to Disturb"? This unusual tense choice reflects
the plot of the story. The servants, who are the main characters, know exactly what's
going to happen (a murder-suicide) and the story follows their perspective as they
anticipate and then react to the events.
 "Three Unities" of Drama: The story also adheres to the "three unities" of Greek drama
- one night, one location (a house), and a limited cast of characters. This limited scope
makes the instantaneous present tense more manageable.
 Shifting Tenses and Style: There are occasional uses of other tenses in the novel. The
perfect tense is used for past events that are still relevant to the present moment. There's
also one interesting use of the past tense by a character explaining why he's at the house.
This shift in tense might reflect the character's lower education level and a more informal
way of speaking.
 Future Tense for Resolution: Interestingly, the story ends in the future tense, describing
how the characters will be sleeping soundly after a long night.
 Significance of Tense Choices: The author's choice of tenses is deliberate and reflects
the story's themes. The instantaneous present mirrors the servants' manipulation of events
and the way they "predetermined" the plot.

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  Lister's Commentary on Narrative: One character, Lister, even comments on the
concept of tense and narrative, blurring the lines between the characters' actions and the
author's control over the story.
 Contrast with Dickens: The passage concludes by contrasting the unique and
meaningful use of the instantaneous present tense in "Not to Disturb" with the more
casual use in Dickens' novel.

Overall, this passage explores how an unusual tense choice (instantaneous present) can be a
powerful tool to craft a story and explore themes about narrative itself.

Present tense within past tense narrative

This passage explains how the present tense can be used within a story that's mainly told in the
past tense. Here's a breakdown of key points:

 Present Tense for Contrast: In stories that use both past and present tense, the present
tense is often used for contrast. It can signal a shift away from the main story flow.
 Setting the Scene: Sometimes, the present tense is used at the very beginning to
introduce the setting or establish that the story hasn't quite begun yet.
 Free Direct Discourse: The present tense can also be used for characters' thoughts when
presented in a style called "free direct discourse" (covered in Chapter 5 of this book).
This is different from the narrator using present tense for the whole story (like in "The
Driver's Seat").
 Historical Present vs. Character's Thoughts: The present tense used by the narrator for
the whole story is called the "historical present." This is different from using the present
tense for a character's thoughts, because there's no narrator "voice" present in the
character's thoughts.
 Example: As I Lay Dying: The novel "As I Lay Dying" by William Faulkner is an
example where the present tense is used for characters' thoughts and internal monologues.
The reader follows the story through the characters' perspectives without any
commentary from a narrator.

Overall, the passage highlights that the present tense within a past-tense story can serve various
purposes. It can signal a shift, introduce the scene, or be used for characters' unfiltered thoughts.

The Iterative Present: Habitual Actions in the Present

Moment
The iterative present is a verb tense used to describe actions that happen regularly and extend
from the past into the present (and often the future). It's most common in spoken language
but can also be used for specific effects in writing.

Here's a breakdown of its key features:

 Habitual Actions: It emphasizes actions that are repeated routines or habits.

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  Presents a Continuous View: The action is ongoing, not a single completed event.
 Connects Past, Present, and Future: The iterative present suggests the action has been
happening in the past, continues in the present, and will likely continue in the future.

Example: "John walks to work every day." (John has walked to work in the past, does so now,
and likely will continue to do so in the future.)

Literary Example: The passage you provided uses the iterative present effectively: "Wanda
looks out of the window... She sees spies... She sees spies..." This emphasizes Wanda's constant
state of paranoia and her belief that she is being perpetually watched. The repeated use of the
present tense creates a sense of urgency and highlights the ongoing nature of her fear.

Contrast with Simple Present: The iterative present differs from the simple present tense,
which can be used for general truths or habits not necessarily connected to the present moment.

Example (Simple Present): "The Earth orbits the sun." (This is a general truth, not necessarily
happening right now.)

By using the iterative present, writers and speakers can effectively convey the routine, ongoing
nature of actions and create a vivid picture of habits and experiences.

Suspension of Narrative: A Deeper Dive

This passage delves deeper into the concept of "suspension of narrative" explored earlier. Here's
a breakdown of the additional points and examples:

Author's Intent:

 The narrator uses the shift to the simple present tense for various purposes:
o Generalizations: Offer broader observations applicable beyond the story (e.g.,
"A rolling stone gathers no moss").
o Commentary: Provide personal opinions on characters or plot (e.g., "Such
thoughts are known as hubris...").
o Reader Engagement: Encourage the reader to consider possibilities (e.g.,
"Occasionally one wonders...").

Effects of the Shift (continued):

 Shifting Authority: The narrator steps outside their storytelling role, offering a more
personal perspective.
 Creating Intimacy: The use of present tense creates a sense of immediacy, drawing the
reader closer to the narrative.
 Highlighting the "Problematic" Relationship: The shift draws attention to the fact that
the commentary isn't strictly part of the story itself.

Examples of Techniques:

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  Direct Advice to Reader: "I offer this advice without fee..." (Spark)
 Judgement on Plot/Character: "Such thoughts are known as hubris..." (Ellis)
 General Observations: "What praise is more valuable..." (Austen)

Alternatives to Present Tense:

 Tenseless Clauses: Phrases without a specific tense can also serve a similar function for
generalizations (e.g., "A rare and impressive instance..." [Lodge]).
 Past Tense Generalizations: In rare instances, authors might keep the narrative tense
(past) for generalizations, suggesting the character learns the lesson later (e.g., "She did
not know then..." [Spark]).

Engaging the Reader in Uncommon Ways:

 Direct Questions: The passage mentions using questions ("Or is it just that the past
seems to contain more local colour than the present?") as another way to actively involve
the reader.

Understanding this concept allows readers to appreciate the author's craft in:

 Creating a more dynamic and engaging reading experience.

 Offering insights into the narrator's voice and perspective.

 Encouraging deeper reflection on the story's themes and messages.

The passage discusses several other uses of the present tense in fiction besides
those covered previously:

 Setting the Scene: The present tense can be used at the beginning of a narrative to
establish the setting and background before the eigentliche geschichte (actual story)
begins. D.H. Lawrence does this in "Tickets, Please," where he opens with a description
of the Midlands countryside and its inhabitants before moving on to the specific events of
the story. (This is similar to the way the historical present is sometimes used in
nonfiction.)
 Descriptions of Enduring Situations: The present tense can also be used for
descriptions that are meant to be timeless or generally applicable. For example, Lawrence
uses the present tense in "Tickets, Please" to describe what happens when the tram
malfunctions: "During these performances pitch darkness falls from time to time, when
the machine goes wrong..." (This creates a sense of universality, suggesting that such
breakdowns are a common occurrence.)
 Authorial Intrusion: A shift to the present tense can also signal a moment where the
narrator steps outside of the narrative flow to comment on the story or address the reader
directly. This can be seen in Spark's "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie," where the narrator
pauses to remark, "It is not to be supposed that Miss Brodie was unique..." This kind of
authorial intrusion can be used to provide background information, offer commentary, or
create a more intimate relationship with the reader.

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  Narrator Commentary: Similar to authorial intrusion, the present tense can also be used
by narrators to explicitly comment on the development of their narrative. For instance,
Henry Fielding uses the present tense in "Tom Jones" to address the reader directly and
explain his decision to digress. (This kind of use was more common in earlier works of
fiction.)

In conclusion, the present tense has a number of functions beyond simply indicating that a story
is happening in the present moment. It can be used to set the scene, describe enduring situations,
allow for authorial intrusion, or provide narrator commentary. By being aware of these different
uses, readers can gain a deeper understanding of how authors craft their narratives.

The Imperative: When Narrators Give Orders (in a

Fictional Way)
This passage explores how authors use the imperative mood (commands) in the narrator's voice
to create a unique effect for the reader.

Key Points:

 Breaking the Mold: The use of imperatives disrupts the normal flow of fictional
discourse, drawing the reader's attention. (More common in verse than prose.)

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  Reader Engagement: Similar to the "gnomic present" (present tense for generalizations),
the imperative pulls the reader into the story, fostering empathy.
 Shifting Figure of the Reader: Tristram Shandy, a first-person narrative, is a prime
example, where the narrator interacts with the reader throughout, even acknowledging
interruptions.

Examples:

 Tristram Shandy: The narrator invites the reader to visualize a character: "Imagine to
yourself a little, squat, uncourtly figure..."
 David Lodge (Third-Person): "Imagine, if you will..." - Here, the imperative is used
even in a third-person narrative.

Effect:

 Similar to Rhetorical Questions: Commands function like rhetorical questions as they

demand a reaction from the reader.
 Collaborative Reading: This reminds the reader of their active role in constructing
meaning from the text.
 Unrealistic Response: However, unlike rhetorical questions, the reader knows they can't
literally carry out the command within the fictional world.

Tristram Shandy Example (Extreme Case):

 The narrator, unable to describe a character adequately, gives the reader control:

"– call for pen and ink – here’s paper ready to your hand. – Sit down, Sir, paint her to your own
mind..."

Overall:

The use of the imperative in a narrator's voice is a deliberate technique that authors can employ
to create a more dynamic and engaging reading experience. It breaks the fourth wall,
acknowledges the reader's presence, and encourages them to actively participate in the creation
of meaning within the story.

Pronominal References to the Narrator: Blurring the Lines

This passage delves into the complexities that arise when narrators in fiction refer to themselves
using pronouns like "I."

Key Points:

 Shifting Pronominal Reference: Third-person narrators sometimes use the first person
("I") to create effects or draw attention to the narrator's voice.

14
  Framing Device: This can be used as a framing device, like in "The 27th Kingdom" by
Ellis, where the first-person introduction sets the stage before transitioning to a third-
person narrative. (Similar to oral storytelling introductions.)
 Author vs Narrator: The first person can also be used to distinguish between the author
and the narrator, emphasizing that they are separate entities. (e.g., a playful way to
acknowledge the author's role in crafting the story.)

Problems with "I" in Narratives:

 Loss of Omniscience: An omniscient narrator (one who knows everything) loses

credibility by using "I" as it suggests a human limitation.
 Undermining Authority: Gnomic generalizations (universal truths) lose their force
when an "I" is used, as it introduces the narrator's personal perspective and weakens the
sense of universal truth. (e.g., Conrad's "The Secret Agent" passage)
 Confusing Voices: Blending the narrator's voice with the author's voice can create
confusion for the reader and disrupt the "pact" between reader and narrator. (e.g.,
passages from "Sons and Lovers" and "Tom Jones")

Examples:

 Disruptive "I" in Omniscient Narrator: The passage criticizes Conrad's use of "I" in
"The Secret Agent" as it disrupts the narrator's supposed omniscience.
 "I" as Authorial Intrusion: Fielding's introduction of Sophia in "Tom Jones" blurs the
lines between narrator and author, creating a similar issue.

Overall:

Using "I" in a third-person narrative can be a risky strategy. While it can be used effectively for
framing devices or acknowledging the author's role, it can also undermine the narrator's authority
or create confusion. The key is for the author to use it sparingly and ensure it doesn't disrupt the
reader's experience.

Pronominal Trouble: The "I" of the Narrator

This passage explores the complexities that arise when a third-person narrator in a story uses the
first-person pronoun "I."

Key Points:

 Shifting Pronouns: Third-person narrators can sometimes switch to "I" for various
effects.
 Framing Device: This can be used effectively as a framing device, like in "The 27th
Kingdom" by Ellis, where the narrator uses "I" to introduce the story before transitioning
to a third-person narrative. (Similar to an oral storyteller setting the scene.)

15
  Author vs. Narrator: The use of "I" can also be a way to distinguish the author from the
narrator, highlighting that they are separate entities. (This can be a playful way to
acknowledge the author's role in crafting the story.)

The "I" Can Be Problematic:

 Loss of Omniscience: An omniscient narrator (one who knows everything) loses

credibility by using "I" as it suggests a human limitation.
 Undermining Authority: Gnomic generalizations (universal truths) lose their power
when an "I" is used. This introduces the narrator's personal perspective, weakening the
sense of a universal truth. (e.g., passage from "The Secret Agent")
 Confusing Voices: Blending the narrator's voice with the author's voice can create
confusion for the reader and disrupt the "pact" between reader and narrator. (e.g.,
passages from "Sons and Lovers" and "Tom Jones")

Examples:

 Disruptive "I" in Omniscient Narrator: The passage criticizes Conrad's use of "I" in
"The Secret Agent" as it disrupts the narrator's supposed omniscience.
 "I" as Authorial Intrusion: Fielding's introduction of Sophia in "Tom Jones" blurs the
lines between narrator and author, creating a similar issue.

Overall:

Using "I" in a third-person narrative requires caution. While it can be used for framing devices or
acknowledging the author's role, it can also undermine the narrator's authority or create
confusion. The key is for the author to use it sparingly and ensure it doesn't disrupt the reader's
experience.

The Elusive "You": Second-Person Pronouns in Unexpected

Places
This passage explores the unusual use of the second-person pronoun ("you") in fiction,
particularly when it disrupts the usual flow of narration.

The "One" You:

 Spark's "A Far Cry from Kensington": The passage begins with the narrator using
"you" in a general sense (similar to "one"). This is a common way to express impersonal
ideas in English.
 Shifting to the Reader: However, things take a turn when the narrator seems to directly
address the reader with "you." This is evident in sentences like "It's fun, you should try
it."

The Problem with "One" as a Replacement:

16
  Replacing "you" with "one" throughout the passage disrupts the flow, especially in
sentences that seem like a direct invitation to the reader (e.g., "It's fun, you should try it").

Hemingway's "The Snows of Kilimanjaro":

 Hemingway uses "we," "he," and "you" interchangeably in a passage of introspection.

 The passage lacks a clear explanation for these pronoun shifts, and the author seems to be
inconsistent.

Possible Interpretations:

 Spark's Intentional Shift: In Spark's case, the shift to "you" might be a deliberate
strategy to engage the reader directly and create a more interactive experience.
 Hemingway's Carelessness: The inconsistencies in Hemingway's work might simply be
an editorial oversight.

Overall:

The use of "you" in unexpected ways can be a powerful tool for authors to draw readers into the
narrative. However, it's important to use it strategically to avoid confusion.

Literary Discourse vs. Non-Literary Discourse: Key

Differences
This passage highlights the key characteristics that differentiate literary discourse (language used
in literature) from non-literary texts (informational or everyday language).

Key Points:

 Self-Contained World: Literary discourse creates its own context within the text itself.
All the information needed to understand the text is included. (Unlike factual texts that
might rely on external knowledge.)
 Absent Audience: Literary works are directed towards an unseen audience, the readers.
 Embedded Discourse: The meaning of words can shift depending on the context within
the story or poem. (e.g., metaphors)
 Fictional World: Literary discourse refers to an imagined world, not the real world.
 Indirect Communication: The message is conveyed indirectly, often through characters'
words or a narrator's voice.
 Deictics (e.g., "I," "you") These words don't directly correspond to the author or reader,
creating a layered meaning that requires interpretation.
 Uni-Directional Communication: Unlike everyday conversations, literary
communication flows from the text to the reader.
 Reader's Role: Readers play a complex role. They engage with the story while also
recognizing it's fiction. They search for deeper meaning but avoid real-life reactions (e.g.,
suing a love poet).

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  Denser Language: Literary language can be denser and more layered than spoken
language, allowing for rereading and deeper understanding.
 Reader's Attention: The reader's willingness to engage with the text is crucial for
unlocking its full meaning. Literary texts often reward attentive readers with extra layers
of meaning.

Overall:

Literary discourse is a distinct form of communication that creates its own world and demands a
specific type of reader engagement. It's characterized by its self-contained nature, indirect
communication, and focus on an imagined reality.

Speech Act Theory: Beyond Just Saying Words

Speech act theory goes beyond simply analyzing the grammatical structure of utterances. It
delves into the communicative act itself, considering the context, participants, and the intended
meaning behind the words.

Key Points:

 Context is King: Speech acts are analyzed within their context, including the situation,
participants, and prior interactions. (e.g., "Cold, isn't it?" can have different meanings
depending on the context.)
 Three Acts of Speaking:
o Locutionary Act: The act of producing a grammatically correct utterance.‫النطق‬
‫بالكالم‬
o Illocutionary Act: The intended meaning or force behind the utterance (e.g., a
statement, question, request, etc.).‫القصد من الكالم‬
o Perlocutionary Act: The effect the utterance has on the listener (e.g., convincing
them, getting them to do something).‫االثر الناتج عن الكالم في المخاطب‬
 Literary Speech Acts: The focus in literature is often on locutionary and illocutionary
acts, as the perlocutionary effect (real-world impact) is usually less important. (e.g.,
Dickens' novels might aim to raise awareness but not directly change things.)
 Felicity Conditions: For a speech act to be successful, certain conditions must be met.
(e.g., asking a question requires the speaker to genuinely want to know the answer.)
 Misfires and Misunderstandings: Speech acts can fail due to misunderstandings or a
deliberate choice to be obtuse(‫)ثقيل الفهم‬. (e.g., Lord Emsworth missing the point in the
Wodehouse passage.)

Examples:

 P.G. Wodehouse: Lord Emsworth's response fails to grasp the intended meaning
(illocutionary force) of the other character's utterance.
 David Lodge: Trevor pretends to misunderstand Leslie's pointed comment.

Overall:

18
Speech act theory provides a framework for analyzing how utterances function in
communication, considering not just the literal meaning of the words but also the speaker's
intention and the impact on the listener.

The Power of Subtlety: Indirect Speech Acts

This passage delves into indirect speech acts, where we convey a meaning differently from what
the words literally say. Often, this is done to be polite.

Key Points:

 Beyond Literal Meaning: Indirect speech acts go beyond the surface meaning of the
words. We use them to imply a different intention, often for politeness.
 Avoiding Imperatives: In English, direct commands (imperatives) can be considered
rude in most situations.
 Indirect Requests: "Can you turn the radio down?" is a more polite way to ask someone
to lower the volume.
 Context is Crucial: Understanding indirect speech acts relies heavily on context. (e.g.,
"Was you looking at me Jimmy?" might be a question or a challenge depending on the
situation.)
 Fixed Expressions: Many indirect speech acts are common phrases used in specific
situations, making them easier to interpret. (e.g., "It would be nice if..." to suggest a
request.)
 Alternatives to Indirect Speech Acts: Some argue that focusing on function in context
is more helpful than classifying speech acts directly. (e.g., a question can serve many
purposes depending on the situation.)

Examples:

 A Question as a Complaint: In Hemingway's example, "Do you know how many days
it's now?" is likely a complaint about the situation, not a genuine question.

Overall:

Indirect speech acts are a nuanced way to communicate, relying on context and shared
understanding. They allow us to express ourselves politely and efficiently.

Speech Act Types: Unveiling the Speaker's Intentions

This passage categorizes different types of speech acts, highlighting how they reveal the
speaker's purpose and perspective.

Representative Speech Acts:

19
  Stating Beliefs: These acts convey the speaker's view of the world, like descriptions or
reports. (e.g., Narrators in fiction often use these to depict the story world.)
 Challenge in First-Person Narratives: First-person narrators with limited knowledge
(like the governess in "The Turn of the Screw") might present a biased view that clashes
with the reader's understanding.

Expressive Speech Acts:

 Revealing Emotions: These acts express the speaker's feelings, such as congratulations,
sorrow, or surprise.
 Focus on Characters: These are more common in character dialogue than narration.
 Deictic Elements: Words like "here," "there," and interjections can be difficult to
interpret outside the context of the situation (e.g., the narrator's "Bloody hell!" in Ellis's
"The Other Side of the Fire").
 Narrator's Bias: Expressive speech acts by the narrator can reveal their perspective and
potential unreliability. (e.g., Jane Austen's comment about Mrs. Bennet in "Pride and
Prejudice").

Examples:

 Marlow's Doubtful Utterance: In "Heart of Darkness," Marlow claims to know the state
of Kurtz's soul, which violates the rules of representative speech acts (claiming
knowledge without evidence).
 Moll Flanders' Confession: In "Moll Flanders," the narrator's emotional response
("tears") clashes with her lack of remorse for stealing.

Overall:

By analyzing the types of speech acts used, we can gain insights into the speaker's intentions,
hidden biases, and the overall reliability of the narrator's perspective in a story.

Giving Orders and Shaping the Story: Directives in

Literature
This section explores how directives (commands and instructions) function in literary discourse.

Directives: Mostly One-Way Communication

 Directives are typically used in character interactions, conveying orders or requests.

 Authors rarely directly address readers with directives, as readers exist outside the
fictional world.

Exceptions for Reader Engagement

 Some authors break the mold by directly addressing readers with directives.

20
 o Laurence Sterne, in "Tristram Shandy," instructs the reader to go back and re-read
a chapter.
o Italo Calvino, in "If on a Winter's Night a Traveller," uses directives to guide the
reader's approach to the story.
 These techniques can be similar to rhetorical questions, aiming to pull the reader into
active engagement with the text.
 They might also remind us of the storyteller tradition, where a narrator directly interacts
with the audience.

Special Cases of Directives

 Henry Fielding in "Tom Jones": Fielding uses directives in prefaces to instruct readers
about his innovative writing style and how to approach the story.
 Novel Openings as Directives: The opening lines of some novels can be seen as a
promise to tell a story (e.g., "The story I shall tell begins like this").

Overall:

Directives are used sparingly in narration but can be a powerful tool for authors to engage
readers directly or highlight the story's artificiality compared to real-world communication.

Promises, Threats, and Make-Believe Declarations:

Commissives in Literature
This section focuses on commissives, speech acts that commit the speaker to a future action
(promises) or the opposite (threats). In literature, commissives are a type of speech act used by
characters to commit themselves to a future action. They play a significant role in driving the
plot and revealing character motivations. Here's a breakdown:

 Function: Commissives signal the speaker's intention to do something in the future. This
can range from promises ("I'll finish this report by tonight") to threats ("You'll regret
crossing me").
 Impact: They create expectations between characters and the reader. When a character
fulfills a commissive, it reinforces trust and consistency. If broken, it can create suspense,
betrayal, or highlight a character's flaw.
 Examples:
o Promises: "I'll find the lost treasure for you."
o Offers: "Let me help you with that."
o Threats: "Pay your debt, or else."
o Vows: "I swear to avenge my father's death."

By analyzing commissives in literature, we can gain insight into:

 Character motivations: Why does a character make a particular promise or threat?

 Plot development: How do fulfilled or broken commissives move the story forward?

21
  Themes: Do commissives highlight themes of trust, loyalty, or the consequences of
broken promises?

Commissives are a powerful tool for writers to shape their characters and narratives. They add
layers of complexity and keep readers engaged in the story's progression.

Key Points:

 Character-Driven: Commissives are more common in character dialogue than narrator

speech.
 Promises at the Outset: The opening lines of some novels can be seen as a promise to
tell a story. (e.g., "The story I shall tell begins like this").
 Genre and Expectations: Openings like "Once upon a time" set the genre expectation of
a story and what kind of story it might be.

Declarations: A Special Case

 Real-World Impact: Declarations are speech acts that bring about a change in the real
world (e.g., pronouncing someone guilty).
 Limited Role in Literature: True declarations are rare in fiction because literature is not
the real world.
 Pseudo-Speech Acts(pseudo= false not real): Marriages or imprisonments in stories are
considered pseudo-declarations, mimicking real-world events.
 The Debate on Speech Acts: Some argue all speech acts in literature are not real, but
this doesn't affect how readers interpret the story.

Overall:

Commissives help shape the narrative by creating anticipation about future events. Declarations,
while not truly applicable in fictional worlds, can be used to mirror real-world events and
consequences.

Speech Act Theory: Butterfly Collection or Key to

Literature?
This passage discusses the usefulness of speech act theory in interpreting literature.

Criticisms:

 Limited Application: Some find speech act theory too focused on categorizing speech
acts, with little practical use for literary analysis (like collecting butterflies).
 Focus on Errors: The most interesting applications seem to be when speech acts are
misused (e.g., unreliable narrators).
 Limited Insights: Speech act theory might not fully explain how literature creates
meaning and achieves its effects.

22
Defenses:

 Understanding Communication: Speech act theory helps us understand the conditions

needed for communication and shared meaning, which is crucial for interpreting
literature.
 Alternative Viewpoints: Fish sees speech act theory as a way to understand how
meaning is established within a community, which is relevant to literature.
 Defense of Speech Acts: Petrey argues that speech act theory can be a valuable tool for
literary studies.

Overall:

The value of speech act theory in literary interpretation is debated. While some find it limited,
others see it as a foundation for understanding how communication works in literature.

The Art of Conversation: Grice's Cooperative Principle

This passage delves into H. P. Grice's theory of how people communicate effectively.

The Cooperative Principle:

 Core Assumption: Conversational partners cooperate to achieve successful

communication.
 Following the Rules: We follow unspoken rules when we talk and interpret what others
say.

Grice's Four Maxims(rules):

 Maxim of Quantity:
o Provide enough information to be helpful (not too little, not too much).
 Maxim of Quality:
o Strive to be truthful (don't lie or mislead).
 Maxim of Relation:
o Stay relevant to the topic at hand.
 Maxim of Manner:
o Be clear and avoid ambiguity.
 Express yourself simply and avoid vagueness.
 Avoid misunderstandings (don't be ambiguous).

23
  Be concise (avoid unnecessary wordiness).
 Be logical and organized in your communication.

Overall:

By following these principles and maxims, we can ensure smooth and efficient
communication, where participants understand each other's intentions and meaning.

The Cooperative Principle: A Foundation for

Understanding, with Nuances
This passage explores the strengths and limitations of Grice's Cooperative Principle (CP) in
human communication.

The Power of Cooperation:

 Shared Assumptions: The CP suggests we naturally assume others are trying to

communicate effectively (being cooperative).
 Cross-Cultural Relevance: While the CP's details might differ between cultures, some
basic assumptions about honest communication likely exist everywhere.


Limitations of the CP:

 Beyond Conversation: The CP might not perfectly apply to all communication

situations (e.g., lectures, gossip).
 Exceptions and Subversions:
o Phatic expressions (social greetings) don't strictly follow the CP maxims.
o Lies, exaggerations (gossip), and irrelevance can be part of some interactions.
o Conflicts and arguments inherently violate cooperation principles.
 Nuances of Maxim Violation:
o Opting Out: Clearly stating you can't follow a maxim due to external constraints
(e.g., embargo on news).
o Violating a Maxim: Lying or deliberately misleading someone.
o Clashing Maxims: Uncertainty about information can make it hard to follow
both quantity (being informative) and quality (being truthful).
o Flouting: Intentionally breaking a maxim to achieve an indirect effect (e.g.,
metaphors, irony, non-chronological storytelling). This is where the CP gets
interesting for literature.

The CP and Literature:

Flout= (to show that you have no respect for a law, etc. by openly not
obeying it

24
  Flouting for Implicature: Flouting a maxim in literature (e.g., using metaphors) creates
implied meaning (implicatures) that readers must interpret.
 Understanding the Genre: A story's genre shapes our expectations about what a maxim
flout might mean. (e.g., a non-chronological detective story could be a character study).
 Reading as a Journey: Literary interpretation is a gradual process like listening to
music, where we accumulate and compare implicatures throughout the reading
experience.

Overall:

The Cooperative Principle offers a valuable framework for understanding communication, even
with its limitations. It is particularly insightful in analyzing how authors use indirect language
and implied meaning in literature.

Saying More Than You Say: Conversational Implicature in

Action
This passage explains how conversational implicature works in communication and literature.

What is Conversational Implicature?

 Meaning Beyond Words: Conversational implicature is an extra layer of meaning

conveyed indirectly through language and context.
 Context is Key: The same words can have different implied meanings depending on the
situation.
 Cooperative Inference: We infer the intended meaning based on the assumption that the
speaker is following the Cooperative Principle (trying to communicate effectively).

Why Use Implicature?

 Politeness Matters: Implicature can be a way to make requests indirectly, avoiding

bluntness that might damage someone's self-esteem (FTAs - Face Threatening Acts).

Example: Miss Brodie's Dismissive Remark

 Literal Meaning: Miss Brodie's statement seems neutral about Brownies and Guides.
 Implicature for the Girls: They infer Miss Brodie disapproves, wanting to stay in her
good graces.
 Implicature for the Reader (like Sandy):
o Brownies might be seen as competition for Miss Brodie's attention.
o Miss Brodie controls her students.
o There's a nostalgic view of past teacher-student dynamics.

Overall:

25
Conversational implicature adds richness and nuance to communication by allowing us to
convey more than the literal meaning of our words. It plays a significant role in how we
understand both everyday interactions and literary works.

Why We Flout the Rules: The Power of Conversational

Implicature
This passage builds on the concept of conversational implicature, explaining why speakers might
deliberately bend the rules of the Cooperative Principle.

Beyond Literal Meaning:

 Cooperative Principle Revisited: We generally follow the Cooperative Principle's

maxims (quantity, quality, relation, manner) to communicate effectively.
 Exploiting the Maxims: Speakers can strategically break these maxims to create
implicature (indirect meaning).

Benefits of Flouting Maxims:

 Efficiency: Implicature can be a more economical way to express something than a

literal statement.
 Added Interest: Flouting a maxim can make an utterance more engaging or intriguing
for the listener.

Examples:

 Grandfather's Joke: By giving excessive detail (flouting quantity), the grandfather

creates the implicature that he has a colorful past (more than one wife).
 Rhetorical Questions: These questions (often with flouted manner) typically don't
expect an answer but aim to make a point. In the Wodehouse excerpt, Uncle Clarence
avoids directly addressing his niece's concerns by answering her rhetorical questions with
irrelevant stories (flouting relation).

Overall:

Speakers can strategically break the rules of the Cooperative Principle to achieve specific effects.
Conversational implicature allows them to convey more than just the literal meaning of their
words, adding efficiency, humor, or intrigue to communication.

The Cooperative Principle: A Tool for Reading Literature?

This passage explores how Grice's Cooperative Principle (CP) can be applied to understand
literary discourse.

The CP and Characters:

26
  Applicable to Character Interactions: The CP, with its maxims (quantity, quality,
relation, manner), can be used to analyze how characters communicate with each other in
a story.
 Readers Can Know More: Unlike real conversations, readers might have more
information than characters, allowing them to interpret unspoken meaning (implicatures).
 Unreliable Narrators: The CP helps identify situations where narrators might be
untrustworthy (e.g., withholding information, lying).

The CP and the Narrator-Reader Relationship:

 Interpreting Narratorial Choices: The CP can help us understand why narrators might
withhold information, creating suspense or guiding the reader's interpretation.
 Balancing Maxims: Narratives may reorder events or withhold details to create a more
engaging story (e.g., detective stories, Miss Jean Brodie).
 Maxim of Manner and Literary Devices: Ambiguity, obscurity, and non-chronological
storytelling can all be seen as ways for narrators to achieve specific effects, inviting
reader participation through implicature.

Challenges and Nuances:

 Limited Role for Manner?: The maxim of manner seems less applicable to literature, as
some works embrace ambiguity and non-standard structures.
 Quantity and Information Gaps: The amount of information provided can be a point of
analysis. In some stories, like James' "The Turn of the Screw," crucial information is
missing, creating permanent gaps for readers to grapple with.
 Deception in Detective Fiction: Withholding information (violating quantity) can be
part of the genre's conventions, but some readers might find it a cheat if taken too far.

Overall:

The Cooperative Principle offers a valuable framework for analyzing how meaning is
constructed in literature. By considering how narrators and characters adhere to, or flout, the
CP's maxims, we can gain deeper insights into the author's craft and the reader's role in
interpreting the text.

Unpacking the Implicature: A Hemingway Dialogue

This passage delves into a conversation between characters in Hemingway's "The Short Happy
Life of Francis Macomber," using the lens of conversational implicature.

Context:

 Story Background: The story follows a troubled couple on a safari. The wife betrays the
husband, who regains his courage but is then accidentally (or perhaps not?) shot by his
wife.

27
  Narrator's Stance: The narrator claims the shooting was an accident, but the dialogue
hints at ambiguity.

The Conversation:

 Wilson's Accusation: Wilson (the white hunter) says "That was a pretty thing to do"
(referring to the shooting). The literal meaning doesn't directly accuse the wife.
 Implicature for the Reader: Considering the context, we infer a stronger meaning:
Wilson implies the wife's action was intentional and blames her for Macomber's death.

Further Implicature:

 Wilson's Suggestion: He asks "Why didn't you poison him?" This is a clear accusation
and suggests the wife might have considered harming Macomber before.

The Wife's Response:

 Repetitive "Stop it": Her pleas don't directly address the accusations but show her
distress and desire to silence Wilson.

Overall:

This conversation is a rich example of conversational implicature. Wilson's words, while not
explicitly stating an accusation, convey a strong implication of the wife's guilt through selective
language ("shooting at" vs "shooting") and a shocking suggestion. The wife's response avoids
directly refuting the accusations but strengthens the sense of something unspoken and potentially
sinister hanging in the air.

Wilson's Loaded Words: A Look at Gricean Maxims

This passage dissects Wilson's words in Hemingway's story through the lens of Grice's
Cooperative Principle.

Wilson's Violations:

 Maxim of Quality:
o Wilson accuses the wife of murder ("That was a pretty thing to do") despite not
witnessing the shooting.
o He predicts her future actions ("He would have left you too").
o He lacks evidence for his claims.
 Maxim of Manner: His language is harsh and insensitive ("Stop it. Stop it. Stop it")
towards a grieving widow.

Implicatures for the Reader:

28
  Murderous Intent: Despite the narrator claiming it was an accident, Wilson's words
strongly imply the wife is guilty.

Beyond Character Interaction:

 Communication with the Reader: The hidden meaning (wife as murderer) is partly
aimed at the reader who is aware of the story's complexities.

Uncertain Psychology:

 Mrs. Macomber's Role: The passage acknowledges the reader's uncertainty about the
wife's true feelings.

Overall:

Wilson's speech is a masterclass in using Gricean maxims to manipulate meaning. By blatantly

violating the maxims of quality and manner, he creates an implicature for the reader that
contradicts the narrator's claim of an accident. This approach also highlights how literary
communication can extend beyond character interactions, with the author using characters' words
to convey meaning directly to the reader.

The Narrator's Role: Implicatures Beyond Characters

This passage explores how the Cooperative Principle can be applied to understand the narrator's
role in creating meaning for the reader.

The Story and the Narrator:

 Focus: The story follows Mr. Duffy, a lonely man who experiences a brief, unfulfilled
connection with Mrs. Sinico.
 Narrator's Role: The narrator goes beyond simply describing events and provides subtle
clues that shape the reader's interpretation.

The Captain's Absence:

 Literal Meaning: The Captain (Mrs. Sinico's husband) is mostly absent from the story.

Narrator's Implicature:

 Captain's Absence as a Reason: The narrator mentions the Captain's absence at sea
"most of the time." This seemingly random detail might imply the Captain's absence
created an opportunity for Mr. Duffy and Mrs. Sinico's connection.

Captain's Marriage Hope:

29
  Literal Meaning: The narrator reveals the Captain hoped Mr. Duffy would marry his
daughter.

Narrator's Implicature:

 Irony and Inappropriate Match: This detail seems ironic considering Mr. Duffy's age
is closer to Mrs. Sinico's. It suggests the Captain might be oblivious or naive about his
wife's emotional needs.

Overall:

The narrator in "A Painful Case" doesn't directly state Mr. Duffy and Mrs. Sinico's feelings.
However, by carefully selecting details and using ironic observations, the narrator creates
implicatures for the reader. These implicatures help us understand the characters' unspoken
desires, missed connections, and the social constraints of the time.

The Curious Case of Quantity: How Less Can Be More in

Literature
This passage explores the role of the maxim of quantity (providing the right amount of
information) in understanding literature.

Quantity and Fiction:

 Literal Application: The maxim seems inapplicable to fiction, as the amount of

information isn't predetermined by reality.

Why We Look for Meaning in Details:

 Implied Relevance: Readers expect published works to be relevant, so even seemingly

insignificant details might hold meaning.
 Details as Clues: Unlike everyday life, details in literature (e.g., clothing, room
descriptions) can reveal character traits, social status, or hidden themes.

Example: A Painful Case

 Mr. Duffy's Room: The description is rich with details, including colors (black and
white) and book collection.
 Negatives and Interpretations: The heavy use of negatives and focus on order might
suggest Mr. Duffy's emotional state and personality.
 Relevance to the Story: While seemingly unrelated to the main plot (failed love affair),
these details might be the narrator's way (through metonymy) to reveal Mr. Duffy's
character.

Quantity and Repetition:

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  Multiple Accounts: The same event being recounted can have different purposes.
 Confirmation and Character Credibility: An omniscient narrator retelling an event can
strengthen a character's interpretation, making them seem more reliable.
 Contrasting Narrator and Character Views: Sometimes characters and narrators have
different interpretations of events, creating tension or highlighting unreliability.

Overall:

The maxim of quantity seems less about the exact amount of information and more about how
readers perceive its relevance. Authors use seemingly irrelevant details or repetition strategically
to create implicatures and guide the reader's understanding of characters, themes, and the overall
narrative.

Truth and Deception: The Maxim of Quality in Literature

This passage examines the role of the maxim of quality (truthfulness) in analyzing characters and
narrators in literature.

Characters and the Truth:

 Lies, Exaggerations, and Concealment: Characters, like real people, can lie, mislead, or
hide information.

Beyond Literal Truth:

 Narrator's Role: The narrator can also be untruthful, making the story more intriguing
or unreliable.
 Contrasting Narrator and Character Views: Sometimes, narrators and characters have
different perspectives on events, creating tension or raising questions about reliability.

Example: A Painful Case

 Captain Sinico's Testimony: The Captain claims his marriage was happy, contradicting
the narrator's portrayal of his neglect.

Reader's Role:

 Reconciling Discrepancies: Readers must decide who to believe, the narrator (usually
seen as more reliable) or the character with a potential motive to lie.

Overall:

The maxim of quality goes beyond literal truth in literature. By analyzing how characters and
narrators adhere to, or violate, this maxim, readers can gain deeper insights into their
motivations, the story's reliability, and the author's craft.

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Breaking the Mold: The Maxim of Manner and Literary
Style
This passage explores the role of the maxim of manner (clear and orderly expression) in shaping
literary works.

Manner and Control:

 Direct Influence: This maxim is most controllable by the writer, as it concerns how
things are said, not what is said.

Manner and Literary Devices:

 Chronology and Order: Non-chronological storytelling is a way to break the maxim and
engage the reader in piecing the story together.
 Figurative Language: Metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech all depart from
literal expression to create a stronger effect.
 Irony and Exaggeration: These techniques often rely on violating the maxim for
emphasis or humor.

Example: The Two Fiddlers

 Rephrasing and Different Perspectives: The narrator rephrases Gavin's story, adding a
detail about Storm's popularity with girls. This suggests a different perspective on the
event.

Overall:

The maxim of manner is a powerful tool for authors. By strategically breaking this maxim,
writers can employ various literary devices to make their stories more engaging, create deeper
meanings, or reveal hidden truths through irony and figurative language.

Relevance Rules: The Maxim of Relation in Action

This passage delves into the maxim of relation (relevance) and its role in interpreting literary
works.

Relevance and Published Works:

 Expectation of Meaning: Readers expect published works to be relevant, so seemingly

unimportant details might hold significance.
 Duffy's Bookshelf as an Example: The way Mr. Duffy's books are arranged might be
interpreted as relevant to his character based on the maxim of relation.

Relevance and Figurative Language:

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  Metaphors and Connections: The maxim helps us understand figures of speech by
prompting us to consider their relevance to the story's meaning.

Example: A Painful Case

 Duffy's Meals and the Distillery: The description of his meals (beer and biscuits) and
the view from his window (a derelict distillery) might be metaphors for his empty and
barren life.
 A Chain of Meaning: These seemingly unrelated details become relevant when
considered together, creating a chain of metaphors that paint a picture of Mr. Duffy's
emotional state.

Beyond Grice:

 Alternative Interpretations: The passage acknowledges that Grice's maxims are just
one approach to analyzing literature. Other interpretations are possible.

Grice and the Reader's Role:

 Guiding Interpretation: Grice's maxims highlight deviations from the expected,

prompting readers to consider the significance of those deviations in interpreting the text.

Overall:

The maxim of relation encourages readers to be active participants in making meaning. By

considering how details and events connect to the overall narrative, readers can uncover hidden
meanings, symbolism, and the author's deeper message.

This passage discusses the debate around using Grice's Cooperative Principle to analyze
literature.

Cooperative Principle and Literature:

 Cook's Argument: Literary discourse doesn't necessarily follow the Cooperative

Principle (being truthful, relevant, clear) because literature can be fantastical, violate
maxims for effect, and involve unreliable narrators.
 Counter-Argument: Breaches of the maxims can highlight the nature of communication
and make us pay closer attention to the text.
 Readers as Voyeurs: Readers enter a world different from their own and might adjust
their expectations for communication.

The Maxims and Literature:

 Quality: Cook argues truthfulness is irrelevant in fiction. The counter-argument suggests

readers might still judge language based on real-world standards.

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  Quantity: Cook argues the amount of information isn't crucial. The counter-argument
suggests readers might judge the length based on its effectiveness.
 Relation: Cook argues relevance might not be important. The counter-argument suggests
readers might still connect details to the overall meaning.

Alternative Theories:

 Schema Refreshment: Cook proposes literature refreshes our mental models of the
world. However, this doesn't explain why we reread familiar works.
 Relevance Theory: This theory focuses on how readers actively make connections to
find meaning in a text.

Defining Literariness:

 The Passage's Stance: The passage acknowledges the difficulty of defining "literariness"
and why we read literature.
 Challenges to Cook's Theory: Cook's idea of schema refreshment doesn't explain why
we enjoy challenging or unfamiliar works.
 Thorne's View: The passage suggests appreciating the ambiguity and multiple meanings
in literature might be a key aspect.

Overall:

The passage highlights the limitations of the Cooperative Principle for analyzing literature. It
explores alternative theories and the ongoing debate about what makes a text "literary" and why
we find value in reading such works.

Politeness and the Reader's Choice: Another Look at

Literary Communication
This passage furthers the discussion on how well traditional communication theories apply to
literature, specifically regarding the politeness principle.

Cook on Politeness and Literature:

 Cook's Argument: The politeness principle (avoiding imposition) is violated in literature

because it inherently imposes on the reader.
 Reader's Choice: The passage counters that readers can choose what to read, so the
imposition argument is weak.

Fielding and the Reader Relationship:

 Tom Jones as an Example: Fielding directly addresses the reader, acknowledging them
like paying customers and aiming to please their tastes.

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  Subplot and Reader's "Face" This approach suggests Fielding might be concerned with
the reader's "face" (avoiding offense) as a subplot.

Antithetical Narrators:

 Spark's The Driver's Seat: This novel presents a narrator who is distant and refuses to
connect with the characters or the reader emotionally.
 Intentional Unsettlement: The narrator's unsettling tone might be a deliberate strategy
by the author.

Overall:

The passage challenges the idea that literature always violates the politeness principle. Some
authors, like Fielding, might consider the reader's perspective. However, other authors, like
Spark, might use an intentionally harsh or distant narrator for specific effects. This reinforces the
idea that literary communication can be complex and doesn't always follow the same rules as
everyday conversation.

The Joy of Language: The Interest Principle and Literary

Enjoyment
This passage introduces the Interest Principle, another concept by Leech that sheds light on why
we enjoy reading literature.

The Interest Principle Explained:

 Leech's Proposal: This principle suggests that language is often used to hold our
attention and entertain us, explaining features like understatement, hyperbole, and
metaphor.
 Examples in Literature: The passage uses a humorous excerpt from Wodehouse to
illustrate how language can be playfully manipulated to amuse the reader.

Beyond Practical Communication:

 Literature and Entertainment: The Interest Principle highlights that reading literature
is not just about conveying information but also about enjoyment.
 The Ludic Principle: The passage suggests "the ludic principle" (the playfulness of
language) might be a key reason we read fiction.

Interest vs. Politeness:

 Litotes and Hyperbole: The passage mentions how litotes (understatement) and
hyperbole (exaggeration) can both be seen as ways to grab attention, even though they
seemingly violate the politeness principle of clear communication.

35
Leech and the Maxims:

 Maxim of Manner: The passage acknowledges that the Interest Principle might overlap
with the maxim of manner (clear expression) but emphasizes the entertainment aspect of
language use.

Overall:

The Interest Principle helps us understand why literature is not just about conveying information.
Authors use language in creative ways to surprise, amuse, and engage the reader. This focus on
entertainment adds another layer to our understanding of how language functions in literary
works.

The Cooperative Principle and Symbolism: Finding

Common Ground
This passage bridges the gap between the previous discussion on the limitations of the
Cooperative Principle for literature and its potential application to understand symbolism.

 Cook's Argument: We previously discussed how Cook argued the Cooperative Principle
(being truthful, relevant, clear) might not fully apply to all literature.
 Eco's Counterpoint: This passage introduces Eco's perspective. He believes the
Cooperative Principle can be used to interpret symbols in literature.

The following sections likely delve deeper into Eco's ideas on how the Cooperative Principle
helps us understand symbols.

Background Knowledge and Reading: The Role of Schemata

This passage explains how our existing knowledge structures (schemata) influence how we
read and understand texts.

Schemata and Scripts:

 Pre-existing Knowledge: Schemata are mental frameworks representing our knowledge

about the world, situations, and even genres. Scripts are similar but focus on sequences of
events (e.g., going to a restaurant).
 Cultural Understanding: Schemata are shaped by our culture and allow us to interpret
references efficiently.

Example: Restaurants vs. Transport Cafes:

 The Passage's Analogy: A simple mention of "restaurant" triggers assumptions about

waiters, menus, etc., while "transport cafe" suggests a different set of expectations.

36
Definite Articles and Shared Knowledge:

 Given vs. New Information: The definite article ("the") can be used for things
technically new in the conversation but assumed to be understood based on the schema.

Benefits of Schemata:

 Faster Processing: Schemata allow us to quickly grasp situations and allusions in text.
 Conciseness and Shared Context: Writers can rely on schemata to avoid over-
explaining things everyone already understands.

Schemata and Literature:

 Literary Interpretation: Our schemata about literature (e.g., genre expectations) also
influence how we interpret a text.

Overall:

Schemata are like mental shortcuts that help us make sense of the world and literature by filling
in the gaps and using our background knowledge. This allows for efficient communication and a
deeper understanding of texts that draw on familiar concepts.

Genre: Setting the Stage for Reading

This passage explores the concept of genre and how it shapes our expectations as readers.

Genre and Schemata:

 Similar Functions: Genre, like schemata (background knowledge), provides a

framework for interpreting texts. Genre expectations are part of our knowledge structure.
 Pre-setting Expectations: Genre helps us anticipate the kind of text we're encountering
(joke, novel, poem) and approach it accordingly.

Paratextual Features:

 Beyond Words: Genette's concept of paratext includes elements beyond the text itself,
like the cover, binding, author information, and publication date.
 Visual Clues: These features offer visual clues about the genre (e.g., columns in
informative texts, line breaks in poetry).

Genre and Reader's Role:

 Understanding Conventions: For full comprehension, readers need to be aware of the

genre's conventions and the expectations they bring to the text.
 Sterne's Tristram Shandy: The passage uses this novel as an example where the author
plays with genre conventions (footnotes, unusual layout) to surprise the reader.

37
Overall:

Genre acts as a guide, priming readers with certain expectations about the text's content, style,
and structure. This allows for a smoother reading experience and a deeper appreciation of the
author's choices within or against the genre's conventions.

The Competent Reader: Genre, Expectation, and

Interpretation
This passage dives into the concept of the "competent reader" and how genre shapes our
understanding of a text.

The Competent Reader:

 Genre Awareness: Culler's concept suggests a competent reader understands genres and
the expected schemata (knowledge structures) associated with them.
 Example: Fairy Tales: The passage uses fairy tales as an example. Readers familiar with
the genre expect certain elements like "Once upon a time" and "happily ever after."

Genre and Interpretation:

 Setting Expectations: Genre primes the reader for a particular reading experience by
setting expectations about the content, style, and even the ending.
 Subverting Expectations: Authors can play with genre conventions to create irony or
surprise the reader. (e.g., Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man with its fairy
tale opening)

Genre and Intertextuality:

 Genre as a Matrix: Genre acts as a framework (matrix) within which we initially

interpret a text. It helps us connect the text to other works in the same genre.

Genre and Difficulty:

 Uncertain Genre: Texts with unclear genre can be challenging to interpret because
readers lack the usual framework for understanding. (e.g., the poem Pearl)

Genre and "Given" Knowledge:

 Genre Shapes Assumptions: Genre influences what the reader takes for granted as part
of the background knowledge needed to understand the text.

Fish's Experiment:

38
  The Limits of Genre: The passage mentions Fish's experiment where he presented a list
of names as a poem. It highlights that readers are predisposed to find meaning even in
something not following a clear genre.

Overall:

Genre plays a crucial role in shaping how we approach and interpret a text. A competent reader
leverages their knowledge of genre conventions to make sense of the text, but skilled authors can
also use genre in unexpected ways to create deeper meaning or surprise the reader.

explain and illustrate by examples what Genre is

Genre is a category that helps us classify and understand works of literature, music, film, or any
other kind of creative work. It's like a filing system for creative expression, but instead of
folders, we use terms like "novel," "rock music," or "comedy." Genre gives us a general idea of
what to expect from a work, based on its conventions and characteristics.

Here's how genre works with some examples:

 Literature:
o Genre: Science Fiction
o Example: "Dune" by Frank Herbert
o What to Expect: Futuristic settings, advanced technology, space travel,
exploration of societal and philosophical themes.
o Genre: Mystery
o Example: "And Then There Were None" by Agatha Christie
o What to Expect: A puzzling crime, a detective or investigator, clues and red
herrings, a surprising solution.
o
 Music:
o Genre: Rock
o Example: "Back in Black" by AC/DC
o What to Expect: Strong electric guitar riffs, powerful vocals, driving drum beats,
often energetic and rebellious themes.
o Genre: Classical
o Example: "Moonlight Sonata" by Beethoven
o What to Expect: Complex melodies and harmonies, focus on instrumental
technique, often evokes emotions like joy, sorrow, or drama.
 Film:
o Genre: Superhero
o Example: "The Avengers" by Marvel Studios
o What to Expect: Superhuman characters with special abilities, epic battles
between good and evil, high-tech gadgets and fantastical settings.
o Genre: Documentary
o Example: "Icarus" by Bryan Fogel

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 o What to Expect: Real-life story presented in a factual way, often using
interviews, archival footage, and narration to explore a specific topic.

Understanding genre helps us find works we enjoy and navigate the vast world of creative
expression. It also helps us appreciate the artistry of creators who work within or push the
boundaries of their chosen genre.

The passage is right! The beginning of a novel can definitely be a clue to the genre, but it's not
always foolproof. Here's a breakdown of the excerpt and why it works for some genres and not
others:

The Telltale Opening:

 Example 1: Fairy Tale

o "The story I shall tell begins like this. Once upon a time in the year of Our Lord
1954..." (Ellis, The 27th Kingdom, 1982: 7)
This opening clearly signals a fantasy or fairytale genre with elements like "once
upon a time" and a fantastical year.

The Tricky Start:

 Example 2: Autobiography
o "I wish either my father or my mother, or indeed both of them, as they were in
duty both equally bound to it, had minded what they were about when they begot
me; had they duly considered how much depended upon what they were then
doing..." (Sterne, Tristram Shandy, 1760–7/1980: I, 1)
This excerpt is more ambiguous. The introspective tone and focus on the
narrator's birth could be an autobiography (as hinted by the title Life and
Opinions of Tristram Shandy). However, it's also possible it's a different genre
with a strong focus on the narrator's unique perspective.

Why Openings Can Be Misleading:

 Genre Bending and Unconventional Starts: Some authors might deliberately subvert
expectations. For instance, a seemingly lighthearted opening sentence could lead into a
dark and serious novel.

Overall:

While the beginning is a good clue, here are some things to consider:

 Look for keywords and phrases: Fantasy elements, historical references, or mentions of
specific professions (detective) can indicate genre.
 Consider the tone: A humorous tone might suggest comedy or satire, while a
suspenseful tone could hint at a thriller or mystery.

40
  Don't rely solely on the opening: The first few pages or chapters will give you a better
sense of the genre.

By considering these elements, you can use the opening along with other clues to make a more
educated guess about the genre of a novel.

Labov's Narrative Theory: Analyzing Stories from Speech to

Literature
This passage explains Labov's theory of narrative structure, originally developed for analyzing
spoken narratives but also applicable to written stories.

Core Argument:

 Narrative as Ordered Events: Labov defines a narrative as a sequence of related events

where the order matters (e.g., "Jane got married and had a baby" vs. "Jane had a baby and
got married").

Elements of a Narrative (Labov's Model):

1. Abstract: A summary or preview of the story (e.g., a novel's title). May be absent in
modern narratives.
2. Orientation: Introduces the characters, setting, and background information ("who,
what, when, where").
3. Complicating Action: The main events and plot development of the story.
4. Evaluation: Judgments or opinions about the events, conveying their significance.
5. Resolution: The ending that follows from the main events.
6. Coda: An optional concluding section that ties up loose ends (less common today).

Examples in Literature:

 Abstract: The passage mentions The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber as an
example where the title serves as an abstract.
 Orientation: Sons and Lovers by Lawrence is given as an example where a lengthy
opening scene sets the stage.

Evaluation: The Interesting Part

 Evaluative Devices: These are elements that express the importance or significance of
events in the story. Labov categorizes them as internal (within the story) and external
(referencing the real world).
 Universal Devices: The passage suggests that while the specific devices might differ,
Labov's framework remains valuable for analyzing evaluation in both oral and written
narratives.

41
Overall:

Labov's model provides a framework for analyzing narratives by identifying key components
that structure stories, even complex literary works. Understanding how these elements function
helps us appreciate how authors craft narratives and engage readers.

External Evaluative Devices in Labov's Narrative Theory:

The Narrator's Voice
This passage dives into external evaluative devices in Labov's narrative theory. These are
instances where the narrator directly comments on the story to influence how the reader
interprets the events.

The Narrator's Interruption:

 Expressing Significance: External devices are comments by the narrator that highlight
the importance of the events being described. (e.g., "I was terrified.")

External Evaluation in Literature:

 First-Person Narration: The passage suggests external evaluation is more common in

first-person narratives, where the narrator is a character in the story.
 Example: Heart of Darkness: Comments by Marlow in Conrad's Heart of Darkness are
given as examples. He directly addresses the significance of the story and his own
perspective.

External Evaluation in Third-Person Narration:

 Limited Examples: The passage acknowledges external evaluation is less frequent in

third-person narratives (omniscient narrator). An example is "Bloody hell!" from The
Other Side of the Fire, possibly a narratorial comment.

Other Forms of External Evaluation:

 Generalizations and Sayings: Narrator's observations or proverbs can also be external

evaluation (e.g., "history suggests actions performed for lofty motives are more likely to
be dangerous...").

Effects of External Evaluation:

 Suspending the Narrative: These comments interrupt the story flow momentarily, often
using the present tense instead of the past tense used for narration.
 Shifting Perspectives: In oral narratives, the narrator might attribute evaluations to
another person (not a character). Dialogue within the story can also serve this purpose.

42
Overall:

External evaluative devices are a tool for narrators to directly influence how readers interpret the
story's events and characters. These comments add another layer of meaning and guide the
reader's judgment.

what are external evaluative devices?

External evaluative devices, in Labov's theory of narrative structure, are comments by the
narrator that directly interrupt the story flow to tell the reader how they should interpret the
events. These are like the narrator stepping out from behind the scenes and giving their own
opinion on what's happening.

Here are some key points about external evaluative devices:

 Function: They highlight the significance of events in the story.

 Form: They can be exclamations ("I was terrified!"), direct commentary ("This is a
crucial moment"), or even generalizations ("Actions for good intentions can be
dangerous").
 Effect: They interrupt the narrative flow and often use the present tense instead of the
past tense used for narration itself.
 Prevalence: More common in first-person narratives (where the narrator is a character)
but can appear in third-person with an omniscient narrator (though less frequently).

Here's an example:

 Story: "The storm raged on. It was terrifying!"

Here, the narrator directly tells the reader that the storm is scary, using an external evaluative
device ("It was terrifying!"). This is different from simply describing the storm's intensity, which
would let the reader decide how scary it is.

This passage explores internal evaluative devices in Labov's narrative theory. These are elements
woven within the story itself, unlike external devices where the narrator directly comments.

Internal vs. External Devices:

 Subtlety: The passage suggests internal devices are generally less obvious than external
commentary by the narrator.

Examples of Internal Evaluative Devices:

 Comparators: These elements (negatives, future tenses, modal verbs) introduce

possibilities beyond the immediate story line.

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 o Example: "They would never live with her again..." (The Other Side of the Fire) -
This reflects on an unrealized possibility, a future different from what happened.
 Character's Thoughts: Internal monologues, self-reflections, and thoughts of characters
can be evaluative, revealing their judgments about events.
 Narrator's Subtle Guidance: Comments by the narrator woven into the story can offer
hints or foreshadowing.
o Example: "So far the girls had found no evidence to the contrary, nor were they
ever to do so" (The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie) - This subtly suggests what's to
come in the story.
 Tense Shifts: Moving between past, present, and future tenses can signal evaluation,
disrupting the narrative flow to highlight a point.

Functions of Internal Devices:

 Highlight Significance: Like external devices, they nudge the reader towards a particular
interpretation of events or characters.
 Emotional Cues: They can also reveal the emotional state of the narrator or characters.
 Emphasize and Punctuate: These devices can add emphasis to specific moments or act
as a kind of punctuation within the narrative flow.

Overall:

Internal evaluative devices are a more nuanced way for authors to shape the reader's
understanding. By using subtle hints and weaving meaning into the narrative itself, these devices
create a richer and more layered reading experience.

what are internal evaluative devices?

Internal evaluative devices, in Labov's narrative theory, are like hidden whispers within a story
that tell you how to interpret it. Unlike external devices where the narrator directly comments,
these hints are woven into the narrative itself.

Here's the key idea: internal devices nudge you towards a certain understanding of characters,
events, or their significance.

Here are some key features of internal evaluative devices:

 Subtlety: They're sneakier than external devices. You have to be an attentive reader to
pick up on them.
 Forms: They can take many forms, like:
o Comparators: These are words or phrases that introduce possibilities beyond the
story itself. Think negatives ("They would never be happy"), future tenses ("They
would regret it forever"), or modal verbs ("She could have chosen differently").
o Character's Thoughts: Internal monologues or a character's reflections can
reveal their judgments about events.

44
 o Tense Shifts: Moving between past, present, and future tenses can disrupt the
flow and highlight a significant moment.
o Narrator's Subtle Cues: The narrator might offer hints or foreshadowing woven
into the story itself.

Here's an example:

 Story: "She stared at the empty chair, a wave of loneliness washing over her."

This is an internal evaluation. The description of her emotions ("loneliness") tells you how to
interpret the empty chair and how it affects the character.

By using these internal devices, authors create a richer story experience. They guide you without
being too obvious, letting you discover meaning along the way.

Beyond Comparators and Character Thoughts: More

Evaluative Devices
This passage explores additional tools in Labov's theory that go beyond internal evaluative
devices previously discussed. These devices all contribute to shaping the reader's interpretation
of the story.

Expanding the Toolkit:

 Metaphor: Metaphors can be used to imply a character's value or the significance of

events.
 Shifting Narrators: A change in narrator midway through a story (like in "The Two
Fiddlers" or "Miss Pinkerton's Apocalypse") can challenge the initial perspective and
offer a new evaluation of events.
 Focalization Shift: Similar to a narrator shift, moving from the narrator's voice to a
character's internal perspective can create a new lens for interpreting the story.
 Rhetorical Devices: Variations in sentence structure can also be evaluative. A sudden
change from simple sentences to complex ones might emphasize a key moment.

Connecting the Dots:

 Intertextuality: References to other works or allusions to broader cultural ideas can

influence how we understand the story.
 Genre: The genre itself sets expectations and can be used subversively to create new
meaning or critique existing norms.

The Takeaway:

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Labov's theory offers a range of tools for analyzing how authors use language to shape our
understanding of narratives. By considering these devices, we can become more active and
critical readers, uncovering the layers of meaning within a story.

Labov's Evaluative Devices: The Power of Implication

This passage delves into the core idea behind Labov's evaluative devices in narratives: their
influence on the reader's interpretation.

The Core Function: Interpersonal Impact

 Direct vs. Indirect: Evaluative devices can address the reader directly (e.g., rhetorical
questions) or more subtly invite the reader to consider certain interpretations.
 Examples: Irony, metaphors, and questions all draw the reader into active participation
in making meaning of the story.
 Unveiling Hidden Depths: Evaluative devices can help us understand characters'
motivations or thought processes. For instance, the protagonist's reflection in "A Painful
Case" about Mrs. Sinico reveals his missed opportunities.

Narrative Beyond Traditional Forms:

 Labov's Core Argument: Labov suggests narratives are built on a sequence of past
tense clauses.
 Challenging the Definition: The passage uses Wendy Cope's poem "Reading Scheme"
as an example. Despite lacking traditional narrative structure, the poem suggests a story
through implication.
 Multiple Interpretations: The poem allows for different interpretations based on the
reader's background knowledge and perspective. A child might see a simple story with
pictures, while an adult might infer a more complex narrative of infidelity.

The Takeaway:

Labov's evaluative devices are not just about explicit comments. They encompass various
techniques that guide the reader's understanding and encourage them to actively participate in
constructing meaning from the narrative. This framework allows us to analyze narratives beyond
traditional forms, recognizing how meaning is shaped through implication and reader

participation

Temporal Ordering in Narratives: Unveiling the Story's

Puzzle
This passage builds on Labov's theory by exploring the concept of temporal order in narratives.
It explains how the order in which events are presented (suzhet) can influence the reader's
understanding.

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The Norm and the Deviation:

 Labov's Core Principle: Labov suggests narratives typically follow a chronological

order (fabula) with events presented in the sequence they happened.
 Impact of Deviation: Deviations from this order, like flashbacks or flash-forwards,
become significant evaluative devices, shaping how readers interpret the story.

Reconstructing the Puzzle: Fabula vs. Suzhet

 Fabula: This refers to the actual chronological order of events in the story, even if not
presented that way. It's the underlying story timeline.
 Suzhet: This refers to the order in which events are presented to the reader in the text. It
can be different from the fabula, with the author rearranging the sequence for effect.

Examples of Reordering:

 Genre Conventions: Certain genres, like detective stories, often use a non-chronological
suzhet. They might start with the discovery of a crime (later event) and then reveal the
lead-up events (flashback). This keeps the reader engaged in solving the mystery
alongside the detective.

Genette's Framework for Temporal Analysis:

Genette, a theorist, proposes three aspects to analyze the temporal organization of a narrative:

 Order: This refers to the sequence of events presented in the suzhet (what happened first,
next, last?).
 Duration: This focuses on how much time each event takes in the story compared to the
actual time it would take in real life.
 Frequency: This considers how often an event happens in the story (e.g., a recurring
dream happening multiple times within the narrative).

The Takeaway:

Understanding the difference between fabula and suzhet and how authors manipulate temporal
order allows for a deeper appreciation of narratives. By analyzing these choices, we can see how
the order of events can be used to build suspense, reveal character motivations, or create a unique
reading experience.

Fabula vs. Suzhet: Unveiling the Story's Order

Fabula refers to the chronological order of events in a story, the actual sequence in which they
happened, even if it's not presented that way. It's the underlying timeline.

Suzhet refers to the order in which events are presented to the reader in the text. The author can
choose to rearrange the fabula for different effects.

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Here's an example to illustrate the difference:

Story: A woman named Sarah goes on a solo backpacking trip. While hiking, she gets lost and
injured. Stranded and alone, she uses her survival skills to build a shelter and find food.
Eventually, a search party finds her, and she is rescued.

Fabula:

1. Sarah goes backpacking.

2. Sarah gets lost and injured.
3. Sarah survives in the wilderness.
4. Search party finds Sarah.
5. Sarah is rescued.

Suzhet:

The author might choose to tell the story differently:

1. The story opens with Sarah weak and injured, struggling to survive. (This throws us into
the middle of the action and builds suspense.)
2. We learn through flashbacks how Sarah got lost and what happened before her injury.
(This creates a sense of mystery and reveals her resourcefulness.)
3. The story then follows her survival efforts chronologically.
4. The search party's efforts to find Sarah might be interwoven with her story.
5. The story ends with her rescue and a reflection on the experience.

Here, the suzhet uses flashbacks and a non-chronological order to create a more engaging
reading experience.

Another Example:

Story: A detective investigates a murder. He interviews suspects, gathers evidence, and uncovers
hidden secrets. Finally, he solves the case and exposes the killer.

Fabula:

1. A murder takes place.

2. The detective is assigned to the case.
3. The detective investigates the crime.
4. The detective solves the case and identifies the killer.

Suzhet:

The detective story might begin with the discovery of the body (later event) and then introduce
the detective and the investigation (flashback). This keeps the reader guessing about the culprit
and invested in solving the mystery alongside the detective.

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By understanding the difference between fabula and suzhet, we can appreciate how authors
manipulate the order of events to create suspense, reveal information gradually, and shape our
understanding of the story.

Show drafts
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Why Mess with the Order? Unveiling the Power of

Reordering in Narratives
This passage explores why authors might choose to deviate from chronological order (fabula) in
structuring their narratives (suzhet). It argues that these disruptions serve a purpose beyond
simply keeping the reader engaged.

Order and Its Disruptions:

 Beyond Detective Fiction: The passage acknowledges that manipulating order is not
limited to detective stories (where suspense is built).
 Spark's "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" as an Example: This novel uses both
flashbacks (analepses) and flash-forwards (prolepses) extensively.
o Effect: By revealing the future of the characters early on, the story takes away the
usual suspense about plot outcomes. However, it keeps the reader engaged by
focusing on unanswered questions and motivations. The narrator even feigns
ignorance, further piquing the reader's curiosity.
 Vickers' "Instances of the Number 3" as Another Example: This novel starts with the
death of a man and then uses flashbacks to reveal the relationships between the
characters.

Why Disrupt Order?

 Reader Engagement: The passage suggests that disrupting order can be a strategy to
make the story more interesting for the reader. It creates a "teasing" effect that draws the
reader in and encourages them to actively participate in piecing together the story.
 Focus on Specific Aspects: By revealing some things early and delaying others, the
author can direct the reader's attention to specific themes or character motivations.
 Breaking the Rules for a Purpose: While disrupting the order might violate the
"cooperative principle" of clear communication, it can serve the "interest principle" by
creating a more engaging reading experience.

The Takeaway:

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Authors who choose to reorder the events in their narratives are not just trying to be clever. They
are using a deliberate strategy to draw the reader in, shape their focus, and create a more
impactful story. These disruptions act as a kind of evaluative device, implicitly guiding the
reader's interpretation and highlighting what the author wants them to pay attention to.

Stretching Time and Skipping Moments: How Authors Play

with Narrative Speed
This passage dives into the concept of "duration" in Genette's framework for analyzing
narratives. It explores how authors manipulate the time it takes to read an event compared to the
actual time it takes in the story world.

The Challenge of Duration:

 Relating Story Time to Reading Time: It's difficult to measure how long events take in
the story world ("story time") compared to how long it takes to read about them
("discourse time").
 Using Space as a Clue: Genette proposes using the amount of text dedicated to an event
as a rough estimate of its duration.

Examples of Manipulating Duration:

 Sterne's "Tristram Shandy": This playful novel highlights the issue of duration. The
narrator takes a very long time to narrate even basic events, creating a humorous effect.
 Dialogue: Dialogue is considered the closest to a one-to-one correspondence between
reading time and story time, though individual reading speeds can vary.
 Scene: This refers to passages where the reading time roughly matches the story time,
like dialogue.
 Summary: This occurs when the narrator condenses events, with the reading time being
much shorter than the story time.
o Example: "So he went to Harvard and was extremely miserable for several
months" (Lodge, Changing Places)
 Ellipsis: This is when time passes in the story world, but there are no words dedicated to
it in the text.
o Examples:
 The gaps between scenes in Cope's "Reading Scheme"
 Joyce's "A Painful Case" (uncertain cause of Mrs. Sinico's death)
 Browning's poems "Meeting at Night" and "Parting at Morning" (reader
infers events between poems)
 Stretch: This is the opposite of summary, where the reading time is much longer than the
story time. The author elaborates on a short event in great detail.
o Example: Ambrose Bierce's "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge" - the
condemned man's elaborate escape fantasy takes much longer to read about than
the actual seconds before his hanging.

50
 o Another Example: In Conrad's "The Secret Agent," the narrator describes Mr.
Verloc's thoughts in excruciating detail as he realizes his wife is about to kill him.
The internal monologue and plan formulation take much longer to read about than
the actual moments before his murder.

The Takeaway:

Authors use various techniques to manipulate duration in narratives. They can summarize long
periods, skip over uneventful parts, or stretch out a single moment for dramatic effect. By
understanding these techniques, we can appreciate how authors control the pacing of their stories
and create specific effects on the reader.

The Power of Pacing: How Authors Control the Flow of

Time
This passage concludes the discussion on narrative duration, highlighting the concept of "pause"
and wrapping up the key ideas.

Pause: A Moment of Stillness

 Definition: Pause refers to moments where the story time stops, but the narration
continues.
 Examples: Descriptive passages narrated by a neutral voice can be considered pauses.
 Character-Focused Descriptions: If a description is seen through a character's
perspective, it can still contribute to pause, but it also reveals the character's world view
and thus indirectly advances the narrative.
 Impact: Even the smallest pause can create suspense by delaying the forward movement
of the plot.

The Takeaway: Duration and Evaluation

 All Duration Choices Shape the Reader's Experience: The passage argues that all the
choices related to duration (scene, summary, ellipsis, stretch, pause) contribute to the
evaluation of a narrative.
 Impact on Reading Rhythm: These choices influence how quickly or slowly the story
unfolds, shaping the reader's experience.
 Levels of Authorial Choice: Some choices, like sentence structure, are more superficial.
Others, like shifts in narration or manipulation of time, are more fundamental decisions
the author makes in crafting the story.
 The Importance of Pacing: The passage emphasizes that a story wouldn't be engaging if
reading time perfectly matched real-time events. The choices about how much space to
dedicate to different parts of the story become very telling.

In Conclusion:

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Understanding how authors manipulate duration allows us to appreciate the artistry behind
pacing in narratives. By stretching, summarizing, or pausing at key moments, authors can create
suspense, reveal character thoughts, and control the overall rhythm of the reading experience.

All About Frequency: How Often Do Things Happen in the

Story?
This passage wraps up Genette's framework for analyzing narratives by discussing the category
of "frequency." It refers to how many times an event happens in the story world (fabula)
compared to how many times it's mentioned in the text (suzhet).

The Three Possibilities:

1. Singulative: This is the most common, where an event that happens once is mentioned
once in the text.
2. Iterative: This refers to mentioning an event multiple times that happens multiple times
in the story world. It's often marked by words like "always," "often," or "would."

 Example: A father always points out constellations to his child, creating a special
memory.

3. Repetitive: This is the least common and can be tedious if done excessively. It involves
mentioning the same event multiple times, even though it only happens once in the story
world.

 Example: A character repeatedly tries to tell a story but gets interrupted, never getting
beyond the first few words.

Tricks and Techniques:

 The "Parable of the Talents": This is an example of an iterative narrative where a

pattern is repeated with slight variations (each servant doubles the money).
 Faulkner's "As I Lay Dying": This is a complex case, with multiple narrators offering
their perspectives on a single event. While repetitive elements exist, the reader has to
piece together the overall story.
 Ellis' "Trilogy": Here, the "same" story is told from three different viewpoints,
highlighting how interpretations of the same event can differ.

The Role of Grice's Cooperative Principle:

The passage argues that these frequency variations can be seen as ways of generating meaning
through implication, aligning with Grice's cooperative principle. By manipulating frequency,
authors focus the reader's attention on specific aspects of the story.

Key Takeaway:

52
Understanding how often events are mentioned can reveal how authors want us to interpret their
stories. They might emphasize recurring habits, highlight the significance of a single event, or
offer different perspectives on the same experience.

Decoding Story Choices: How Pacing and Order Shape

Meaning
This passage explores the connection between temporal organization (pacing and order) and the
overall impact of a story. It builds on the concept of "evaluation" introduced by Labov,
suggesting that how authors choose to tell a story shapes how readers interpret it.

The Power of Proportions:

 Scene vs. Summary: The decision to dedicate more text to a scene or summarize an
event reveals the author's priorities and how much attention they want the reader to give
to specific parts of the story.
 Irony and Summary: Summarizing events can also be a tool for the narrator to add a
layer of irony or commentary, keeping some details hidden from the reader.

Case Study: D.H. Lawrence's "Tickets, Please"

 Story Summary: A philandering tram inspector gets beaten up by his female victims, the
conductors.
 Descriptive Introduction: The story opens with a long, descriptive passage about the
tram route and surrounding landscape. This seemingly unrelated introduction takes up
about a quarter of the text.
 Analysis of the Introduction:
o Style: The passage is rhythmic, with long sentences and vivid descriptions.
o Personification: The tram system is given human-like qualities, making it seem
exciting and energetic.
o Imagery: The landscape is bleak and industrial, with pops of color coming from
the trams. This creates a contrast between human activity and the harsh
environment.
o Evaluation: This long introduction prepares the reader for the story's themes of
violence and unexpected turns, even though the content seems unrelated to the
plot.
 The Introduction as Pause: According to Genette, this long descriptive passage can be
considered a "pause" in the narrative, even though the story time isn't necessarily
stopped. It serves to introduce the story's world and foreshadow upcoming events.

The Takeaway:

Authors use various techniques to organize their narratives in time. By understanding these
choices, we can appreciate how seemingly unrelated elements like descriptive passages can be
strategically placed to influence the reader's interpretation and emotional response to the story.

53
These choices act as a form of evaluation, guiding the reader's attention and shaping their
understanding of the characters and events.

what does references mean? illustrate by examples

In the context of literature, a reference can have two meanings:

1. Citation: This refers to mentioning another source, like a book, article, or another
creative work. It's a way to acknowledge that you got information from another source or
to show the influence of another work on your own.
o Example: "In her novel, Harper Lee references the classic coming-of-age story,
To Kill a Mockingbird."
2. Allusion: This is a more indirect way of referencing something. It's a hint or suggestion
that the reader might pick up on if they are familiar with the original work. Authors use
allusions to create depth, irony, or humor.
o Example: In Joseph Heller's Catch-22, the main character Yossarian is constantly
battling nonsensical rules and bureaucracy, which can be seen as an allusion to the
absurdity of war.

Here are some additional examples to illustrate the concept of references:

 A historical reference: A novel set in medieval times might reference the bubonic
plague.
 A literary reference: A poem might reference the imagery or themes from another
famous poem.
 A mythological reference: A children's story might reference a character from Greek
mythology.
 A pop culture reference: A movie might reference a famous scene from another movie.

By using references, authors can connect their work to a wider conversation or tradition. They
can also enrich their stories by adding layers of meaning for readers who recognize the
references.

Decoding Meaning Through Sentence Structure: How

Syntax Evaluates
This passage explores how sentence structure (syntax) can be used as a tool to shape the reader's
interpretation of a text. It builds on the idea of "evaluation" introduced by Labov, suggesting that
the way sentences are constructed can influence how we judge the events and characters in a
story.

Foregrounding Through Syntax

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  Highlighting a particular element in a sentence can be a way of emphasizing its
importance or making a judgment about it.
 Written vs. Spoken Language: In written narratives, unlike spoken ones, variations in
sentence structure are more noticeable and can be used for deliberate purposes.

Case Study: George Mackay Brown's "The Two Fiddlers"

 The passage describes wedding gossip in a rhythmically pleasing way.

 Sentence Structure Breakdown: The passage uses a variety of sentence structures to
create rhythm and highlight specific details.
o Short, simple phrases: "the events of the evening"
o Descriptive phrases: "the bonny face of the bride"
o More complex phrases with clauses: "the unworthiness of the bridegroom to
possess such comeliness"
 Impact: This variation in sentence structure makes the gossip seem more interesting,
even though the content itself might be ordinary. It also suggests a judgmental tone,
pointing out details that might be seen as flaws or humorous aspects of the wedding.

Conclusion

By paying attention to sentence structure, readers can gain insights into the narrator's perspective
and the overall tone of the story. Unusual sentence structures can signal that something important
is being said, or they can be used to create a specific atmosphere or rhythm.

The Roadmap to Reading: How Texts Guide Our

Understanding
This chapter wraps up the discussion of how texts themselves provide clues to help readers
interpret their meaning. These clues can be seen as "signposts" that guide us through the story.

The Purpose of Signposts

 Labov defines evaluation in storytelling as the ways the teller connects with the audience
and makes the story seem worthwhile.
 In published works, the author's name and publishing process offer a certain level of
quality assurance, so the signposts here serve a different purpose.

What Signposts Do

 They show readers how to interpret the text by suggesting the overall cultural context.
 They involve the reader directly, requiring active participation to decipher the meaning.
 They are pragmatic, meaning their meaning depends on the specific context of the story.

Examples of Signposts

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  Narrative Order: Shifting the order of events (e.g., flashbacks) can create suspense or
highlight specific elements.
 Focalization: Changing who the story is told from (point of view) can influence how we
see the characters and events.
 Genre: Understanding the genre (e.g., romance, mystery) helps us predict certain
conventions and what to expect from the story.
 Intertextuality: References to other works can add depth and meaning, but require the
reader to recognize the allusion.

Overall Effect

These signposts, following Grice's cooperative principle, generate implicatures that contribute to
the reader's understanding. Readers must actively interpret these clues to construct a full
understanding of the story.

Looking Ahead

The next chapter will explore the role of the narrator and how different narrators can further
influence how we interpret a story.

The Enduring Power of Storytelling: From Ancient

Traditions to Modern Minds
This passage highlights the fundamental nature of storytelling in human experience.

 Universality of Storytelling: Sharing stories is a common human activity, happening in

casual conversations and across generations.
 First-Person Narration: This is a natural way of telling stories, from personal anecdotes
to bedtime tales.
 Third-Person Narration (Omniscient): This type of narrator, with seemingly unlimited
knowledge of the story world, has roots in our oldest stories.
 Folklore and Tradition: Traditional tales, like folk tales, shape the way stories are told
and are often familiar to both the teller and the audience.
 Endurance of Narrative Forms: The basic structures we use for storytelling have
existed for a very long time.

Key Takeaway:

Sharing stories is a core human behavior that transcends time and culture. The ways we tell
stories, from casual anecdotes to traditional tales, have a rich history and continue to evolve as
we do.

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Navigating the Voices in Fictional Storytelling: A Reader's
Guide
This passage dives into the concept of narrative voice in fictional discourse, exploring the
different roles and relationships at play.

Key Players in Fictional Storytelling

 Author vs. Implied Author: The actual author who creates the work is distinct from the
"implied author," a fictional construct representing the voice and perspective presented in
the text.
 Reader vs. Implied Reader: Similar to the implied author, there's an "implied reader"
who possesses the ideal knowledge and cultural background to fully understand the story.
 Narrator: This is the voice that tells the story within the fictional world. It can be first-
person (using "I") or third-person (using "he," "she," or "they").
 Characters: These are the individuals who inhabit the fictional world and participate in
the story's events, often through dialogue.
 Narratee (Optional): This is a concept suggesting a recipient of the story within the
fictional world, like a character the narrator is directly addressing.

The Importance of these Constructs

 These concepts help explain potential confusion when the author's views might differ
from the narrator's or the story takes place in a different culture or time period.
 Recognizing these distinctions allows readers to approach the story with an open mind
and appreciate its fictional nature, even if the events are disturbing.

Structure of Fictional Discourse

 The author and reader exist outside the story itself.

 The narrator tells the story, and characters might converse through dialogue.
 This creates a hierarchy of communication, with the author using the implied author (and
sometimes a narrator) to deliver the story, which might include characters' dialogue.

The Role of the Narratee

 While not universally accepted, some argue for the concept of a narratee, the fictional
recipient of the story within the narrative world.
 This can be seen in cases where the narrator directly addresses a character within the
story.

Engaging with the Story

 Authors can use characters within the story to represent different reader perspectives,
helping guide the real reader towards a deeper understanding.

57
Understanding these different voices and relationships within fictional storytelling allows
readers to engage with the narrative on a deeper level and appreciate the author's craft.

The Power of Perspective: How Narrators Shape Our

Understanding
This passage explores how the choice of narrator can significantly impact a story's meaning and
our experience as readers.

The Narrator's Influence

 The perspective from which a story is told (first-person, third-person) shapes many
aspects of the narrative.
 Different narrators can create vastly different interpretations of the "same" events.

Case Study: Alice Thomas Ellis' "The Clothes in the Wardrobe" Trilogy

 This trilogy tells a single story from the perspectives of three characters.
 Each narrator offers their own version of events, requiring readers to actively piece
together the full picture.
 This approach creates irony as characters might misrepresent events or withhold
information.
 Additionally, each narrator might have limited knowledge of the story's entirety.

The Reader's Role

 Stories with multiple narrators can demand more effort from the reader.
 Re-reading can be crucial to catch subtleties and understand how different perspectives
influence the story.

Overall Impact

 The choice of narrator is a powerful tool that authors can use to create depth, complexity,
and intrigue in their storytelling. By presenting events from different angles, readers are
challenged to form their own conclusions.

This passage dives into the different types of narrators and how their perspective shapes a story.

Two Main Narrator Types:

 First-Person ("I") Narrator: This narrator tells the story from their own perspective
and can be either:
o Participant (Homodiegetic): This narrator is a character directly involved in the
events of the story (e.g., Conrad's Marlow).

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 o Observer (Heterodiegetic): This narrator observes the story from the outside, not
taking part in the events (e.g., Nick in Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby).
 Third-Person Narrator: This narrator tells the story from an outside perspective, using
pronouns like "he," "she," or "they."

Simpson's Narrator Typology

This typology classifies narrators based on their perspective and use of language:

 Type A (Homodiegetic): These are narrators who participate in the story (first-person,
participant).
 Type B (Third-Person): These are narrators who tell the story from an outside
perspective (third-person).

Narrator Voice and Modality

 Modality refers to the narrator's attitude and how they judge or perceive events. It's
linked to the concept of following conversational principles (Grice's maxims).
 Positive Narrators: These narrators use emotional language (verbs of feeling) and
express their opinions freely.
 Neutral Narrators: These narrators present the story objectively, with minimal use of
emotions or opinions.
 Negative Narrators: These narrators use language that creates distance from the story,
focusing on what characters perceive and withholding judgment. They might also use
terms that make the story seem strange or unfamiliar.

Understanding these different narrator types can help readers analyze the story's
perspective and how the narrator's voice shapes the interpretation of events.

The Unreliable Witness: Exploring First-Person Narrators

and Deception
This passage delves into the complexities of first-person narration, particularly when the narrator
might be unreliable.

Why First-Person Narration?

 Traditionally, first-person narration was used to create a sense of realism ("I was there, I
saw it").

Modern Uses and Challenges

 Modern authors exploit this perspective to create ambiguity and challenge readers.
 Henry James' "The Turn of the Screw" exemplifies this, where the governess' narration is
unsettling due to potential bias or unreliability.

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Epistemic Modality and the Gricean Maxims

 First-person narrators can reveal their limitations through their use of language,
particularly regarding the "maxim of quality" (having evidence for statements).
 In "The Turn of the Screw," the governess makes claims about characters' emotions that
she couldn't truly know, highlighting potential bias or limitations.
 This raises questions about the narrator's intentions: are they simply mistaken, trying to
mislead, or expressing themselves in a unique way?

The Governess as an Unreliable Narrator?

 The governess' strong opinions and Manichean worldview ("good vs. evil") raise doubts
about her objectivity.
 Her language choices and comparisons create "implicatures" on multiple levels,
suggesting either inexperience or a possible mental imbalance.
 It's challenging to determine if she's violating storytelling principles, intentionally
misleading, or simply limited in her expression.

Speech Act Theory and the Governess' Discourse

 The governess' statements can be seen as "representative speech acts," expressing her
subjective perspective.
 However, readers might find these statements questionable due to her absolute certainty,
even if she genuinely believes them.
 This creates a dilemma for readers: is the narrator honest but mistaken, or are they
dishonest and manipulative?

The Challenge of Interpretation

 In such narratives, readers become detectives, needing to decide whether the narrator is
trustworthy or not.

Understanding the complexities of first-person narration, especially when dealing with

potentially unreliable narrators, enriches the reading experience by making readers active
participants in deciphering the story's true meaning.

Decoding the Storyteller: How Modality Shapes Narrative

Voice in Ellis and Conrad
This passage analyzes how the narrators in Alice Thomas Ellis' "The Clothes in the Wardrobe"
and Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" use modality (their way of expressing knowledge and
judgment) to create distinct narrative voices.

Ellis' First-Person Narrator: A Paradox

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  This narrator is generally optimistic and trusting (Simpson's Type A Positive).
 However, they frequently make comments or provide details beyond what a first-person
narrator should realistically know.
 For example, the passage mentions the narrator commenting on the character's view of
religion, which might be more suited to a third-person narrator with broader knowledge.
 This inconsistency makes the narrator less believable and weakens the story's realism.

Marlow in "Heart of Darkness": A Master of Uncertainty

 Marlow (from "Heart of Darkness") is another first-person narrator, but with a very
different approach.
 He exemplifies Simpson's Type A with negative shading, meaning he expresses doubt
and limitations.
 His speech is filled with words that distance himself from events (Uspensky's terms of
estrangement) and qualifiers like "perhaps" and "seem."
 He emphasizes his own lack of knowledge and the confusing, uncertain nature of the
Congo.
 This is further emphasized by metaphors that blur the lines between living and non-living
things (e.g., "bundles of acute angles" for dying men).
 Marlow's use of modality creates a sense of unease and reflects the unsettling nature of
his experiences, which the reader shares.

The Power of Modality

 The way narrators use modality goes beyond individual words and interacts with other
aspects of the story.
 In a well-crafted story, the narrator's modality should be consistent with the overall tone
and themes. (This is referred to as the relationship between "deep grammar" and "surface
realizations").
 Exceptions to Marlow's usual caution, like his strong statements about Kurtz, might be
due to his emotional response to the character.

Motivations of First-Person Narrators

 First-person narrators can have various reasons for telling their stories, including simply
wanting to entertain the audience (following the Gricean principle of interest).
 Some narratives, like Ellis' trilogy, seem to have no specific audience or reason for
existing.
 Marlow, on the other hand, is directly addressing a group of friends.

Understanding how narrators use modality allows readers to appreciate the narrator's
voice, assess their reliability, and gain a deeper understanding of the story's world.

what is modality? give me examples

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Modality, in the context of literature and language, refers to how a speaker or writer expresses
their attitude, level of certainty, and degree of possibility about something. It's like using shades
of gray to show how likely or believable you think something is, rather than just black and white.
Here are some examples:

Necessity: This indicates something must be true or will definitely happen.

 Example: "You must be at least 18 years old to vote." (There's no doubt about this
requirement.)

Possibility: This suggests something might be true, but it's not guaranteed.

 Example: "He might be late due to traffic." (There's a chance this could happen, but it's
not for sure.)

Probability: This shows how likely you think something is to occur.

 Example: "It will probably rain today, so bring an umbrella." (The weather forecast
suggests rain is more likely than not.)

Permission: This indicates whether something is allowed or not.

 Example: "You can borrow my book if you promise to take care of it." (Granting
permission)
 Example: "You shouldn't talk to strangers online." (Advising against something)

Obligation: This shows what someone feels compelled or obligated to do.

 Example: "She has to finish her homework before going out to play." (There's an
external pressure to complete the task.)

Epistemic modality: This focuses on the speaker's level of knowledge or belief about
something.

 Example: "I know for a fact she passed the exam." (Expressing certainty)
 Example: "I think I saw a UFO in the sky last night." (Expressing uncertainty)

Hedging: This involves using phrases to soften statements or show they might not be entirely
accurate.

 Example: "Perhaps" they'll arrive on time.

 Example: "It seems like" a good idea.

By using modality, writers can shape the reader's understanding of the story, characters, and
events. They can create suspense, highlight uncertainty, or reveal the narrator's biases and
limitations.

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The Double-Edged Sword of Time in First-Person
Narratives: Narrative Instance
This passage explores a specific aspect of first-person narration called "narrative instance,"
highlighting its impact on how readers approach the story.

What is Narrative Instance?

 Introduced by Brooke-Rose (1981), it refers to any element that distinguishes the time of
writing from the time the story takes place.
 Examples include phrases like "I remember" or any marker that creates a gap between
"when things happened" and "when they're being told."

The Effects of Narrative Instance

 Marks the Passage of Time: It reminds readers that the narrator is reflecting on past
events.
 Highlights Potential Bias: This time gap suggests the narrator might forget, distort, or
re-interpret events.
 Artistic License: The narrator might choose to present events in a specific way.
 Critical Reading: Readers are encouraged to analyze the story with this time gap in
mind.
 Involves the Reader: The use of "I remember" can create a sense of addressing the
reader directly.
 Perspective Shift: A large gap between past and present can indicate the narrator's
perspective on their younger self has changed.

Different Uses of Narrative Instance

 Absent or Unremarkable: In stories where the writing and narration times are close,
there might be no clear instance.
 Complex Interpretation: First-person narratives can demand more interpretive effort
from the reader compared to traditional third-person narratives where the narrator is
assumed to be reliable.

Example: Uncertainty and Self-Consciousness

 A passage from Kazuo Ishiguro's "When We Were Orphans" is used as an example.

 The narrator uses phrases like "fairly sure" and "less certain" to highlight his own doubts
about past events.
 This self-consciousness about his role as narrator adds another layer of complexity to the
story.

Temporal Dimensions in Narrative Instance

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  The narrator's references to their role introduce multiple timeframes: writing time, event
time, and potentially future events they are foreshadowing.
 This is further illustrated by an example from Henry James' "The Turn of the Screw."

Narrative Instance and Reader Engagement

 By highlighting the time gap and potential biases, narrative instance encourages readers
to be active participants in deciphering the story's meaning and the narrator's reliability.

Understanding narrative instance allows readers to appreciate the complexities of first-

person narration and the role of time in shaping the story.

spotlighting Key Moments: Narrative Instance as an

Emphasis Tool
This passage delves into how "narrative instance" (referencing the act of narrating) can be used
to highlight specific parts of a story and explore the relationship between narrator and audience
in first-person narratives.

Emphasis Through Narrative Instance

 Authors can use narrative instance strategically to draw attention to crucial moments in
the story.
 This is exemplified by Marlow in Conrad's "Heart of Darkness."

Marlow: A Storyteller Engaging His Audience

 Since "Heart of Darkness" is framed as an oral tale, Marlow naturally refers to his role as
both narrator and participant.
 He directly addresses his listeners, seeking their reactions and presenting himself as
someone who reflects on his experiences.
 This technique emphasizes the difficulty of conveying his experiences in the Congo, as
shown in the example where he compares it to trying to describe a dream.

Narrative Instance and Audience Awareness

 Recognizing the presence of an audience can also be considered a form of narrative

instance.
 It highlights the difference between the story's timeline and the time of narration.
 This awareness can manifest in various ways:
o Outer frame narratives (e.g., "The Turn of the Screw" with a written manuscript)
o Narrators directly addressing the reader (e.g., Nick Carraway in "The Great
Gatsby")
o Comments about storytelling itself (e.g., Nick mentioning "reading over what I
have written")

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Motivated vs. Unmotivated Narratives

 Some first-person narratives provide a clear reason for the story's existence, like "Heart
of Darkness" with its framing device.
 Others, like Ellis' "The Skeleton in the Cupboard," offer no clear audience but might hint
at a confessional motive.
 The lack of explanation in some narratives creates ambiguity about their purpose and
audience.

The Unseen Audience and "Left-Hanging" Stories

 Certain narrators seem unaware of an audience or the act of narration itself.

 This can leave readers questioning the story's purpose and its reason for existing.
 Spark's "You Should Have Seen the Mess" is an example, where the story feels like an
unmotivated school essay.

Truly Unanchored Narratives

 The passage uses "The Clothes in the Wardrobe" as an extreme example.

 The opening line suggests the narrator might be dead, further obscuring the purpose of
the story.

Understanding how narrative instance is used allows readers to not only appreciate the
complexities of first-person narration but also to analyze the relationship between the
narrator and the audience, both within the story and in the real world.

Narrative instance refers to a specific aspect of first-person narration that highlights the
difference between the time the story takes place and the time it's being told. It's like the narrator
stepping outside the story for a moment to remind you they're telling it.

Here's a breakdown:

 What it is: Phrases, words, or markers that show there's a gap between "when things
happened" and "when they're being told." Examples include "I remember," "Looking
back," or any reference to the act of narrating.
 What it does:
o Highlights the passage of time: Reminds you the narrator is reflecting on past
events.
o Suggests potential bias: This time gap means the narrator might forget, distort,
or re-interpret events.
o Adds complexity: Readers become aware of the narrator's role and consider how
it might affect the story.
o Encourages critical reading: Readers are prompted to analyze the story with this
time difference in mind.

Here are some additional points to consider:

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  Emphasis: Narrative instance can be used to draw attention to crucial moments in the
story.
 Audience Awareness: Sometimes, the narrator acknowledges the presence of an
audience, which also highlights the time difference.
 Motivation: Some stories offer a reason for the narration (e.g., a written manuscript),
while others leave it ambiguous.
 Unanchored Narratives: Certain narrators seem unaware of an audience or the act of
narration itself, creating a puzzling effect.

By understanding narrative instance, you can appreciate the complexities of first-person

narration and how the time gap shapes the story and your interpretation of it

The Many Faces of the First-Person Narrator: Audience

Awareness and Narrative Framing
This passage explores how first-person narrators can reveal their awareness of their role as
storytellers and how this awareness shapes the reader's experience.

Explicit vs. Implicit Audience Awareness

 Narrators can demonstrate their awareness of the act of narration in various ways.
 Outer Frame: Framing devices like Marlow's audience in "Heart of Darkness" or the
governess' manuscript in "The Turn of the Screw" explicitly establish a context for the
story.
 Absence of Commentary: Not referring to the act of narration is also a choice with
meaning.

Free-Floating Narratives and Unclear Motivation

 Some stories lack explanations for their existence, leaving readers unsure why they are
being told.
 Spark's "A Far Cry from Kensington" is an example, even though the narrator offers
advice to the reader.

Direct Address and Engaging the Reader

 Narrators can directly address the reader, creating a sense of conversation.

 Ellis' "The Fly in the Ointment" exemplifies this with the narrator arguing with the reader
and seeking agreement.
 This technique strengthens the connection between narrator and reader.

The Power of Narrative Framing

 A narrator's awareness of their role can shape their relationship with the reader.

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  Explicit references to the audience can create a persuasive effect, drawing the reader into
the story. (e.g., rhetorical questions)
 This is further emphasized when the narrator seems to anticipate the reader's reactions
(e.g., Ellis' argumentative approach).

Contrasting Examples: Moll Flanders and the Artful Narrator

 Defoe's "Moll Flanders" is presented as a cautionary tale, but the narrator, Moll, seems
unaware of her potential impact on the reader.
 This contrasts with the more self-conscious narrators discussed earlier.

The Significance of Narrative Awareness

 References to the narrator's role can serve multiple purposes:

o Evaluation: They can guide the reader's interpretation of the story and characters.
o Structure: They can help structure the narrative and control the flow of
information.
o Reader Engagement: They can create a more interactive and engaging reading
experience.

Understanding how first-person narrators reveal their awareness of their role allows for a
deeper appreciation of the complexities of storytelling and the relationship between
narrator and reader.

Unveiling the Third-Person Narrator: A Spectrum of Voices

This passage dives into the world of third-person narration, exploring different types of narrators
and how they approach storytelling.

The All-Seeing Voice: Third-Person Narrator (Type B)

 Defined by ubiquity (can access all events) and the ability to enter characters' minds
(though not always used).
 Referred to as "it" to emphasize its impersonal nature.
 Offers flexibility, allowing for a blend of character and narrator voices (heteroglossia).

The Trusted Guide: Omniscient Narrator (Type B positive)

 Presents information as "true" within the fictional world.

 Requires reader trust in their judgments and information.
 Often uses irony and generalizes about characters and situations.
 Example: Mr. Bennet's portrayal in "Pride and Prejudice."

Navigating the Maze: The Complexities of B positive Narration

 Offers the richest and most complex narration due to access to character thoughts.

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  Creates opportunities for irony through contrasting character and narrator perspectives.
 Difficulty arises in distinguishing narrator and character voice in certain situations
(focalization).
 Examples from "The Inn at the Edge of the World" and "Mr. Golightly's Holiday"
illustrate this challenge.

The Impassive Observer: Neutral Narrator (Type B(N))

 Uses an impersonal style with minimal judgments or character analysis.

 Lacks evaluative devices, creating a seemingly reliable but potentially misleading voice.
 Example: The disorienting opening of a Hemingway vignette in "In Our Time."

The Unsettled Witness: Uncertain Narrator (Type B negative)

 Creates a sense of unease by expressing doubt about interpreting events.

 Uses phrases like "as if" to create a sense of estrangement.
 Distances the reader from characters and creates confusion.
 Example: A passage from "The Driver's Seat" exemplifies this unsettling effect.

Understanding the different types of third-person narrators allows readers to appreciate

the various ways stories can be told and how the narrator's voice shapes their experience.

The Language Fingerprint: How Characters Speak and

What it Reveals
This passage explores how authors use language to create unique voices for their characters,
adding depth and revealing social standing.

Idiolect: The Language of One

 Every speaker has a unique way of using language, influenced by background and
situation.
 This personal style is called idiolect.
 In fiction, it's difficult to perfectly capture a character's full idiolect, but authors use
contrasting speech patterns to suggest it.

Speech as a Characterization Tool

 The way characters speak reveals various aspects of their personality:

o Actions and intentions
o Relationships with others
o Social class and education

Alignment with the Narrator: A Moral Compass?

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  Some authors, like Jane Austen, use language similarity to suggest characters share the
narrator's values.
 Characters who deviate from the narrator's speech patterns might have different
viewpoints.

Dialects and Social Signifiers

 Dialects can be used for quick character sketches, indicating geographical origin and
social class.
 Mark Twain's "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" is an example, where dialect
choices highlight social differences between Huck and Jim.

Beyond Local Color: Code-Switching and Deeper Meanings

 Sometimes, characters switch between dialects or languages, revealing a shift in

dynamics.
 Irvine Welsh's "The Granton Star Cause" uses code-switching to show God establishing
authority by switching to standard English.
 This act can be a metaphorical commentary on the power associated with standard
language in society.

The Reader's Reaction: Embracing or Resisting Dialect

 Readers might be drawn in or challenged by the use of vernacular language in a story.

Understanding how authors use idiolect and dialect allows readers to appreciate the
richness of character portrayal and the social commentary embedded within language
choices.

Analyzing Speech and Thought Representation in Fiction

This passage delves into methods for analyzing how authors portray characters' speech and
thoughts in fictional narratives. The approach is based on the work of Leech and Short (1981)
and Short (1996).

Discourse: A Broad Term

 The term "discourse" encompasses both spoken dialogue and internal thoughts of
characters.

A Spectrum of Narratorial Involvement

 Speech and thought representations range from directly quoted speech to the narrator
summarizing a character's mental state.

Narrator's Reported Speech/Thought Act (NRSA/NRTA)

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  This is when the narrator simply acknowledges a character's speech or thought without
directly presenting it.

Free Direct Discourse (FDD)

 This method presents a character's speech or thought without quotation marks or

reporting verbs, creating a sense of immediacy.
 Example: "You believed this? Everyone believed it..." (Alice Walker, "Possessing the
Secret of Joy")
 The line blurs the distinction between narrator and character, requiring reader
interpretation.

Free Direct Thought (FDT)

 This technique purports to directly access a character's inner thoughts.

 Example: "The bishop's a fair man, he thought..." (Hilary Mantel, "Fludd")
 It's important to remember the narrator is still the one "presenting" these thoughts.

The Blurring of Lines: Embedded Discourse

 FDD can sometimes include reporting clauses for clarity.

 Characters' thoughts can be layered, with one character reflecting on another's speech.
 Example: "'A very fair man,' Karen said later..." (Alice Munro, "Fits")

The Difficulty of Distinction

 Short (1988) argues that clearly distinguishing between direct speech and FDD can be
challenging.
 The examples provided support this view, highlighting the subtle ways authors use
language.

By understanding these methods of speech and thought representation, readers can gain deeper
insights into character development and the overall narrative style.

Unveiling the Power of Direct Speech in Fiction

This passage explores the use of direct discourse (DD) in fictional narratives, highlighting its
functions and stylistic effects.

Quotation Marks and Reporting Verbs: The Hallmarks of DD

 Direct discourse is characterized by quotation marks and a reporting verb (e.g., said,
thought).
 Example: "'You're a rotten driver,' I protested..." (F. Scott Fitzgerald, "The Great
Gatsby")

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Functions of Direct Discourse

 Verisimilitude: Creates a sense of realism by replicating spoken language.

 Character Development: Reveals personality through word choice, grammar, and style.
 Variety and Engagement: Enhances the reading experience by breaking up narration.

The Art of Crafting Dialogue

 Fictional dialogue is usually more concise and focused than real speech.
 Unnecessary elements like hesitations are often omitted for clarity and flow.
 Example: "'I'm dying to see...'" (Bret Easton Ellis, "The Clothes in the Wardrobe")

Beyond Individual Voices: Unattributed Direct Discourse

 Used to represent the collective voice of a group or social class.

 Example: "'I tell you this...'" (Muriel Spark, "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie")
 Offers a sense of immediacy and emphasizes the importance of the message.

Emotional Impact and Selective Representation

 Direct discourse can be used for internal monologues, conveying a character's thoughts
and emotions.
 Example: "'Nature has but little clay,'" (Virginia Woolf, "To the Lighthouse")
 Authors might choose DD for significant moments, while relegating less important
exchanges to indirect discourse.

Understanding how authors utilize direct discourse allows readers to appreciate the
richness of character portrayal, the flow of the narrative, and the emotional core of the
story.

Beyond Direct Speech: Exploring Indirect Discourse in

Fiction
This passage dives into the world of indirect discourse, a technique authors use to report
character speech in narratives.

Indirect Discourse: A Stepping Stone from Drama to Narrative

 Novels rely more heavily on indirect discourse than plays, offering flexibility in
representing speech.

The Mechanics of Indirect Discourse

 Tense shifting: Present tense in direct speech becomes past tense in indirect discourse
(e.g., "said" + "he said").

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  Deictic adjustment: Pronouns and adverbs change to reflect the narrator's perspective
(e.g., "you" becomes "he/she").
 Embedding reported speech within a subordinate clause introduced by "that."

The Nuances of Interpretation

 Indirect discourse can be open to interpretation, as with the example of Mr. Hurd's
advice.
 The distinction between "using" and "mentioning" a term can create confusion.
 Direct speech involves using words, while indirect discourse refers to mentioning them.

Indirect Discourse: A Tool for Rich Narratives

 This technique adds layers of meaning to the story by filtering speech through the
narrator's perspective.
 It can create implied meanings (implicatures) when combined with the narrator's voice.

By understanding indirect discourse, readers can gain a deeper appreciation for the complexity of
fictional communication and the subtle ways authors convey character thoughts and intentions.

Blurring the Lines: Unveiling Free Indirect Discourse

This passage delves into free indirect discourse (FID), a narrative technique that bridges the gap
between direct and indirect speech.

FID: Closer to Direct Speech, with Nuances

 FID resembles direct speech more than indirect discourse.

 Reporting verbs might be absent, with the character's utterance embedded in the main
clause.
 Example: "The sleepy voice became gradually enthusiastic..." (F. Scott Fitzgerald, "May
Day")

Identifying FID: The Backshift Test

 A possible test for FID is to see if it can be seamlessly converted into direct speech.
 Tenses and pronouns typically follow indirect discourse rules (past tense, adjusted
pronouns).
 However, other elements like deictics may reflect the character's perspective, not the
narrator's.

Fusion of Voices: Character and Narrator Collide

 FID creates a unique blend of the narrator's voice and the character's perspective.
 This merging of voices is sometimes referred to as "duality" or "hybrid discourse."
 Exclamation marks, slang, and colloquialisms often point towards the character's voice.

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Complexity and Irony: The Power of FID

 The ambiguity of FID creates layers of complexity within the text.

 It can be challenging to pinpoint where the character's voice ends and the narrator's
begins, leading to irony and hidden meanings.
 A character's idiolect (unique speech patterns) can be used to identify their parts within
an FID passage.

Beyond Written Language: FID in the Spoken World

 While commonly associated with written narratives, FID can also appear, though rarely,
in spoken language.

By understanding FID, readers can appreciate the subtle ways authors weave together narration
and character speech, creating a richer and more nuanced reading experience.

Unveiling the Nuances of Indirect Discourse in Fiction

This passage explores indirect discourse (ID), a fundamental technique for conveying character
speech in narratives.

The Essence of Indirect Discourse

 The narrator takes center stage, reporting what characters say.

 Verbs are shifted to the past tense (e.g., "said" + "he said").
 Deictics (pronouns, adverbs) are adjusted to reflect the narrator's perspective ("you"
becomes "he/she").
 Summarization is common, capturing the gist of a speech rather than exact wording.
 Example: "After this I got embraced..." (Joseph Conrad, "Heart of Darkness")

Beyond Accuracy: Interpretation and Authorial Influence

 Unlike real-life situations, the accuracy of reported speech in fiction isn't verifiable.
 The narrator might inject their own attitudes and interpretations into the reported speech.
 Example: "Her first husband...had been given to boasting..." (Bret Easton Ellis, "The 27th
Kingdom")

The Spectrum of Reported Speech: From Direct Discourse to Summarization

 Direct discourse offers a sense of realism and drama by replicating spoken language.
 Indirect discourse allows for conciseness and flexibility, enabling the narrator to
summarize or comment.

The Reliability of Reported Speech: Taking the Narrator's Word

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  In the absence of clear deception within the story, the reader assumes the reported speech
is a faithful representation.
 Example: "He said much of his earnest desire..." (Jane Austen, "Sense and Sensibility")

The Gray Areas: Complexity and Interpretation

 The line between the narrator's voice and the character's voice can sometimes be blurry.
 Example: "We must all be cut out for what we do..." (Ernest Hemingway, "The Snows of
Kilimanjaro")
 This passage demonstrates the use of Free Indirect Thought (FIT), where the character's
thoughts are presented with minimal narration.

The Preference for Indirect Thought

 Leech and Short argue that indirect thought is the norm for reporting thoughts, as only the
thinker truly knows them.
 Free Indirect Discourse, while closer to the character's perspective, is seen as a more
natural development in representing consciousness.

By understanding indirect discourse and its variations, readers can gain a deeper appreciation for
the narrator's role in shaping the story and the complexities of character portrayal in fiction.

The Narrator's Minimalist Approach: Reporting Speech and

Thought Acts
This passage delves into the concept of Narrator's Report of Speech/Thought Act
(NRSA/NRTA), a method for conveying characters' actions without directly expressing their
words.

NRSA/NRTA: When Actions Speak Louder Than Words

 The narrator simply acknowledges that a character spoke or thought something, without
explicitly presenting the content.
 This approach can be highly summarizing, focusing on the essence of the speech or
thought.

Examples of NTRA:

 "He was an old man, he realized" (George Mackay Brown, "The Two Fiddlers")
 Here, the character's internal recognition is reported without detailing their exact
thoughts.

Examples of NRSA:

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  "The lord ordered a steward to bring some refreshments..." (George Mackay Brown, "The
Two Fiddlers")
 This sentence reports a command without reproducing the specific wording used by the
lord.

Blurring the Lines: NRTA and Idiolect

 In some cases, the narrator might incorporate elements of a character's unique speech
patterns (idiolect) while reporting their thoughts.
 This creates an effect similar to Free Indirect Thought (FIT), fostering a sense of
closeness to the character.

A Smooth Transition: NRTA to FDT

 The passage uses an example from David Lodge's "Changing Places" to illustrate a subtle
shift from NRTA to Free Direct Thought (FDT).
 The narrator begins by describing the situation, then moves into reporting the character's
thoughts, eventually transitioning to directly presenting them using first-person pronouns
and subjective language.

By understanding NRSA/NRTA, readers can appreciate the various tools authors have at their
disposal to portray characters' inner lives and actions without relying solely on direct speech or
thought representation.

Politeness Theories and Their Application to Fiction

This passage introduces the concept of politeness theories and explores their relevance in
analyzing fictional discourse.

The Power of "Face": Brown and Levinson's Theory

 This theory, developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson, suggests a universal
human desire to preserve "face."
 "Face" refers to a person's social image and self-esteem, with two key aspects:
o Negative Face: The right to act freely and avoid imposition.
o Positive Face: The desire for approval and a positive self-image.
 These two aspects can create conflicts.

Examples of Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs)

 Asking for a loan threatens the lender's negative face (imposition).

 Not asking for a loan when needed might damage the borrower's positive face (implies
lack of friendship).

Strategies for Maintaining Politeness

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  To navigate these conflicts, people employ "redressive strategies."
 Examples:
o Avoiding the FTA altogether (not asking for the loan).
o Using indirect hints (commenting on the weather, hinting at needing a taxi).
o Emphasizing social closeness (using nicknames, reminding of friendship).

The Relevance to Fiction

 While developed for face-to-face interactions, politeness theories can be applied to

analyze dialogue and even the narrator-reader relationship in fiction.
 Even the act of inviting someone to read a book can be seen as an imposition (an FTA).
 The concept of "face" helps explain how authors navigate communication within the
story and with the reader.

Further Exploration

 The passage mentions the role of metaphor and irony in politeness, which will be
discussed later.

By understanding politeness theories, readers can gain a deeper appreciation for the subtleties of
communication within fictional narratives.

Leech's Politeness Principle: A Different Lens

This passage explores Leech's approach to politeness, offering a complementary perspective to
Brown and Levinson's theory.

Leech's Core Principle: Minimizing Impoliteness

 Leech proposes a principle that emphasizes minimizing the expression of impolite ideas
and maximizing polite beliefs.

Maxims for Politeness: A Menu of Options

 Leech suggests several maxims to guide polite communication, including modesty, tact,
and agreement.

The Sliding Scale of Politeness

 The degree of politeness depends on the situation and the potential "imposition" on the
listener.
 A direct request like "Answer the phone" is less polite than a softened version.

Context Matters: Relationship and Understanding

 Closeness with the listener allows for more directness.

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  If the listener understands the context (e.g., the phone can't be answered), a blunt request
might be acceptable.

The Challenge of Maxim Proliferation

 A potential criticism of Leech's approach is the ever-growing list of maxims.

The Interest Principle: Hyperbole and Litotes as Politeness Tools

 Leech proposes an "interest principle" explaining why we use exaggeration (hyperbole)

and understatement (litotes).
 These can be seen as polite strategies to make a story more engaging.

Examples from Literature

 The passage uses examples from "Pride and Prejudice" (Jane Austen) and "Beowulf" to
illustrate litotes and hyperbole in politeness.
 Litotes can also be a way to indirectly express a strong opinion while seemingly adhering
to the Cooperative Principle.

The Challenge of Directness: Mitigating Devices in Difficult Situations

 The passage presents a real-life example where someone downplays bad reviews to avoid
seeming boastful or overly negative.
 Mitigating strategies like litotes can be seen as politeness tactics in such situations.

By understanding Leech's politeness principle and its maxims, readers can gain a deeper
appreciation for the nuanced ways characters communicate in fiction, considering the context
and the speaker's intentions.

The Invitation to Read: A Politeness Paradox in Literature

This passage explores the intriguing connection between politeness theories and the act of
reading literature.

Theories of Politeness: From Conversation to Fiction

 The passage builds on the previously discussed politeness theories (Brown & Levinson,
Leech) to examine their relevance in analyzing literary discourse.

The Invitation to Read: An FTA?

 The act of asking someone to read a book can be seen as an imposition, threatening the
reader's negative face.
 It takes up their time and potentially challenges their existing beliefs or worldview.

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Parallels with Conversation: Turn-Taking and Face

 Just like interrupting a conversation, asking someone to read disrupts their usual flow of
activity.
 Similar to Labov's analysis of storytelling in natural conversation, authors might employ
strategies to minimize the "imposition" on the reader.

Mitigating the Imposition: Strategies for Reader Engagement

 The passage suggests that authors might use evaluative devices (like clear language,
highlighting interesting aspects) to address the reader's positive face.
 This aligns with politeness theories as the author tries to make the reading experience
positive and engaging.

By understanding the potential "impoliteness" of inviting someone to read and how authors
navigate it, readers can gain a deeper appreciation for the writer's craft in creating a compelling
and respectful reading experience.

The Two-Way Street of Politeness in Literature: Author and

Reader
This passage delves into the complexities of politeness theories applied to the relationship
between author/narrator and reader in fiction.

Beyond Character Interactions: Politeness on a Grander Scale

 The analysis of politeness extends beyond character interactions to the author-reader

dynamic.
 Unlike face-to-face conversations, this interaction is primarily one-sided (author to
reader).

The Invitation to Read: A Potential Threat?

 Just like asking someone to listen to a story, inviting someone to read a book can be seen
as an imposition (FTA).
 It demands the reader's time and potentially disrupts their existing plans.

Mitigating the Imposition: Strategies for Reader Engagement

 Authors might employ various strategies to make the reading experience more engaging
and respectful of the reader's time.
 Examples include clear writing, highlighting interesting aspects, and establishing a
connection with the reader (like Fielding's formal parting address).

The Spectrum of FTAs: From Topic Choice to Literary References

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  The choice of subject matter can be an FTA, especially if it's offensive to some readers
(e.g., Rushdie's "Satanic Verses").
 Literary references and allusions can also be problematic if readers don't understand
them, potentially making them feel excluded.

The Challenge of Irony and Metaphor

 Leech argues that irony can be an FTA as it conveys a negative message while appearing
polite on the surface.
 Metaphors can also be challenging if they require too much effort to decode, potentially
causing embarrassment for the reader who misses the meaning.

Balancing Clarity and Complexity: Over-Specification vs. Under-Specification

 Similar to politeness strategies, authors need to balance clarity with complexity.

 Under-specifying (not providing enough information) can lose the reader, while over-
specifying can imply a lack of trust in their intelligence.

Narrative Techniques and the Imposition on the Reader

 Certain narrative techniques, like starting a story "in medias res" (in the middle of
things), can be jarring for some readers.
 Free Indirect Discourse (FID) and stream-of-consciousness techniques can also be
demanding for readers, requiring them to work harder to understand the narrative.

The Art of Engagement: Keeping the Reader on Board

 These challenging techniques can be seen as FTAs as they impose extra effort on the
reader.
 Ultimately, the reader decides if the reward of understanding the text outweighs the
effort, or if, like Wodehouse suggests, they'd rather seek out a more easily digestible form
of entertainment.

By understanding the potential "impoliteness" of various narrative choices and how authors
navigate it, readers can gain a deeper appreciation for the complex dance between author and
reader in creating a successful and engaging literary experience.

Politeness in Action: Character Interactions

This passage examines how politeness theories play out in interactions between characters in
fiction.

The Rarity of Pure Politeness: When Conversation Flows Smoothly

 Finding examples of purely polite dialogue can be challenging because such interactions
might lack dramatic tension.

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  The passage uses Hemingway's "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" as an example.

The Offer, the Refusal, and the Face-Saving Measures

 Even simple exchanges involve politeness strategies.

 Offering something (positive face for the listener) is often followed by a softened refusal
that acknowledges the offer's value (saving the offerer's positive face).

Beyond Direct Speech: Reporting Politeness

 The passage acknowledges that authors often use Narrator's Reported Speech Act
(NRSA) or Free Indirect Speech (FIS) to convey polite interactions.
 Direct Discourse (DD) might be used sparingly for specific utterances.

Understanding the Dance: Offer-Refusal and Positive Face

 In the example, the woman's offer is inherently polite (attending to the man's positive
face).
 The man's refusal, softened with praise, avoids threatening her positive face.

The Many Faces of Politeness in Character Interactions:

Conflict and Civility
This passage explores how politeness theories manifest in character interactions within fiction,
showcasing both cooperative and confrontational scenarios.

Beyond Pleasantries: Examining Politeness in Everyday Dialogue

 The passage moves from analyzing polite interactions to examining how characters
communicate in more realistic situations.

The Art of Disagreement: Saving Face While Voicing Opinions

 Even disagreements can involve politeness strategies, like softened rejections and indirect
phrasing.
 The example from Hemingway's "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" demonstrates how a refusal
can be polite while acknowledging the offer's value.

The Domestic Battleground: Politeness and Power Dynamics

 The passage delves into a more complex situation from Spark's "Memento Mori,"
analyzing an argument between a couple and their cook.
 Social power dynamics are evident. Godfrey, the husband, dominates the conversation,
interrupting and contradicting the women.
 Charmian and Mrs. Anthony employ various politeness strategies:

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 o Charmian uses agreement and "feminine intensives" (e.g., "so very") to maintain
peace.
o Mrs. Anthony uses mitigating devices (e.g., "well," "really") and appeals to
external factors (her cooking) to try to end the discussion.

FTAs in the "Safe Space": Beyond Brown and Levinson

 The passage acknowledges that Brown and Levinson's politeness theory might not fully
explain certain situations.
 In a seemingly "safe" environment like home, Godfrey's behavior is quite aggressive,
contradicting and interrupting the women.
 Vuchinich's theory of submission is considered, but the women's lack of engagement
suggests they might be strategically disengaging to win the argument.

Beyond Domesticity: Verbal Aggression and Irony

 The passage uses Hemingway's "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" to
illustrate another type of verbal aggression: sarcasm.
 Mrs. Macomber's use of "pearl" for her husband and "beautiful" for Mr. Wilson are
clearly ironic, conveying the opposite of the literal meaning.

Conclusion: Politeness - A Spectrum in Character Interactions

 Politeness theories offer valuable insights into character interactions, encompassing both
cooperative and confrontational communication styles.
 Superficial violations of politeness (e.g., sarcasm) can even contribute to a more
engaging narrative (Leech's interest principle).

The next chapter will explore how "relevance theory" sheds light on impolite utterances like
irony in literary communication.

Relevance Theory: Decoding Communication Beyond the

Literal
This passage introduces Relevance Theory, a cognitive approach to understanding
communication developed by Sperber and Wilson.

Critique of Grice's Cooperative Principle

 The passage starts by critiquing Grice's Cooperative Principle, which suggests listeners
search for implied meanings in utterances.
 Sperber and Wilson argue that this approach gives too much freedom for interpretation.

Relevance: The Core Principle

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  Relevance Theory proposes that communication succeeds when the message is relevant
to the recipient. It's worth the effort to process, and it's the most relevant message the
communicator could convey considering their abilities and preferences.

Key Terms for Understanding Relevance

 The passage defines several key terms used in Relevance Theory:

o Ostensive Stimulus: A communication act from a sender intending to inform or
communicate.
o Logical Entries: Fixed mental representations of word meanings.
o Encyclopaedic Entries: Mental storage of factual information and background
knowledge.
o Explicature: The literal meaning of an utterance combined with contextually
inferred information.
o Implicature: Inferred meaning that goes beyond the literal meaning of the words.

Distinguishing Explicature and Implicature

Explicature:

 Literal meaning + basic context: This refers to the core, literal meaning of the sentence
combined with basic contextual information needed to understand that meaning. It's the
most basic level of what is said and directly encoded by the words and grammar.
 Example:
o Sentence: "The dog chased the cat."
o Explicature: We understand there is a dog, a cat, and the dog pursued the cat in
some way (chasing implies movement).

Implicature:

 Inferences based on the utterance: This refers to additional meaning that is conveyed
indirectly, often based on what is not explicitly said but is implied by the speaker's choice
of words, context, and our general knowledge of the world.
 Types of implicatures:
o Conventional implicatures: These are general inferences based on the way
language works (e.g., "It's cold outside" implies you should wear something
warm).
o Conversational implicatures: These depend on the specific context of the
conversation and the speaker's intent (e.g., "It's nice weather, isn't it?" might be an
indirect request to go outside).
 Example:
o Sentence: "The flowers are wilting." (said to someone watering the garden)
o Implicature: The speaker might be indirectly suggesting the person needs to water
the flowers more (goes beyond the literal meaning of wilting).

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  Explicature relies more on the encoded language and context.
o Example: "It will get cold" literally means someone spoke and made a prediction
about temperature.
o Considering the context (cooking dinner time), the hearer infers it refers to the
food getting cold (explicature).
 Implicature requires more inference and depends on the listener's background knowledge.
o In the cooking example, an implicature might be that the speaker wants the
listener to come and eat soon.

The Importance of Context

 The passage emphasizes the role of context in deriving meaning, especially for
implicatures.
 Listeners who overhear a conversation might grasp the basic meaning (explicature) but
miss the implicatures due to lack of context.

By understanding these core concepts of Relevance Theory, readers can gain a deeper
understanding of how communication works, especially the role of implied meaning.

Relevance Theory: Decoding Communication - Effort,

Context, and Implicatures
This passage delves deeper into Relevance Theory, exploring how much processing effort is
involved in understanding communication and the role of context in deriving meaning.

Relevance and Cognitive Impact

 For communication to be relevant, it needs to create some change in the listener's

cognitive environment (new information or confirmation of existing knowledge).
 The effort required to process the information is a factor. Listeners weigh the effort
against the potential rewards of understanding the message.

Shared Responsibility in Communication

 Relevance Theory emphasizes the shared responsibility between speaker and listener.
 Speakers encode messages to be relevant to the listener, but listeners are responsible for
inferring implicatures (meaning beyond the literal words).

Predicting Implicatures: A Challenge

 While speakers can't fully predict all the implicatures a listener might derive, unforeseen
inferences shouldn't align with the relevance principle (i.e., require too much effort for
minimal gain).
 Ambiguity can lead to communication breakdown if the listener can't choose between
two equally relevant interpretations.

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The Presumption of Relevance: Why We Question Pointless Utterances

 Any utterance inherently suggests it's worth the listener's attention.

 Comments like "why did you say that?" highlight our expectation of relevance in
communication.

Processing Effort and Degrees of Relevance

 The original theory suggested speakers minimize processing effort for the listener. The
revised theory acknowledges speakers might not always prioritize minimal effort.
 The key idea is that relevance is a spectrum. It depends on the effort required to
understand the message versus the information gained (implicatures).

The Laziness Principle: Balancing Effort and Reward

 There's a general tendency to favor communication that requires less effort for the
listener to achieve a good understanding (more implicatures).

Strong vs. Weak Implicatures and the Role of Context

 Strong implicatures are close in meaning to the literal message. Weaker implicatures
depend more on context and paralinguistic features (tone, facial expressions).
 The example of a husband's announcement about missing dinner illustrates this. The
literal meaning is clear, but his tone and expression might suggest additional, weaker
implicatures about his mood or potential consequences (changing the menu, inviting
someone else).

Implicatures and Speaker's Intention

 Listeners activate implicatures based on the situation. Some implicatures might not be the
speaker's intended message.
o In the Wodehouse example, Lady Constance's literal message is clear. Lord
Emsworth is expected to infer her disapproval, concern about her niece, and a
desire for him to intervene.
o However, her vague reference to the "young man" creates a weak implicature that
he might not be aware of (their previous conversation about the unsuitable suitor).

Understanding how relevance theory explains the role of effort, context, and implicatures equips
readers with valuable tools for analyzing communication in literature.

Relevance Theory and Literary Interpretation: The Hunt

for Meaning
This passage explores the tension between relevance theory and literary interpretation,
particularly regarding weak implicatures.

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The Challenge of Weak Implicatures in Literature

 Relevance theory suggests there's a limit to how much effort listeners invest in deriving
meaning (especially weak implicatures).
 Literary texts, however, seem to encourage readers to pursue even very weak
implicatures, potentially enriching the reading experience.

Different Approaches to Weak Implicatures in Literature

 Sperber and Wilson might argue that very weak implicatures wouldn't be considered part
of the intended message.
 Pilkington argues literary texts, with their dense and interconnected features, actively
encourage readers to search for more implicatures.
 Blakemore suggests readers are responsible for interpreting weak implicatures, provided
they align with the relevance principle (not requiring excessive effort).

The Impact of Background Knowledge on Interpretation

 The knowledge and experiences a reader brings to the text (encyclopaedic knowledge)
influence the implicatures they derive and the overall richness of their interpretation.

Multiple Interpretations and the Core Meaning

 Relevance theory acknowledges that different readers might derive different implicatures,
leading to varied interpretations.
 However, the theory suggests these interpretations wouldn't significantly differ in their
core understanding of the text's meaning.

The Example of Cope's "Reading Scheme"

 A child reader focuses on the literal meaning and pictures, while an adult reader infers a
narrative of adultery and Cope's expertise in making reading easier for children
(implicatures).

Key Takeaway

Relevance theory offers valuable insights into literary interpretation, but it's important to
consider the reader's active role in seeking and interpreting implicatures, especially in rich
literary texts.

Relevance Theory and Context: A Different Perspective

This passage focuses on how Relevance Theory treats context, highlighting its unique approach
and limitations.

Sperber and Wilson's Definition of Context

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  Relevance theory defines context as the set of assumptions a listener uses to interpret an
utterance.
 This context is largely under the hearer's control, based on the assumption that the
speaker intends a relevant message.
 It includes the hearer's encyclopaedic knowledge (general knowledge, background
information) and is not limited to the immediate situation.

Contrasting Views of Context

 Unlike some theories that focus on the physical environment or preceding discourse,
relevance theory considers a broader range of contextual factors.

The Role of Encyclopaedic Knowledge

 The knowledge a reader brings to the text significantly impacts the implicatures they
derive and the overall interpretation.
 This explains why interpretations of the same text can vary across readers with different
backgrounds.

Relevance Theory and Literary Text

 The passage acknowledges that relevance theory might not fully capture the nuances of
context in literary works.
o Literary texts often rely on subtle cues to create context and encourage readers to
seek out implicatures.

The "Observer" Example: Context and Implicature

 The passage uses an article from "Observer" to illustrate how context is crucial for
understanding the intended meaning.
o The literal meaning mentions a software purchase by a law firm in Little Rock.
o To understand the humorous implication (that the Clintons might be interested),
readers need additional knowledge about the Clintons and the Whitewater affair.

The Importance of "Implied Reader"

 Writers consider the "implied reader" when crafting messages, deciding what information
needs to be explicit and what can be inferred based on context.

Limitations of Relevance Theory's Context

 The passage acknowledges limitations of relevance theory's approach to context:

o It primarily focuses on single utterances rather than extended discourse.
o It doesn't fully account for how context develops dynamically as a text unfolds (as
opposed to a static set of assumptions).

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Conclusion

Relevance theory provides valuable insights into context, but it's important to consider its
limitations, especially when dealing with complex and nuanced communication like literary
texts.

Relevance Theory, Echoic Language, and Literary Effects

This passage explores how relevance theory handles language that goes beyond literal meaning,
particularly in literature.

Echoic Language: Beyond Literal Propositions

 Sperber and Wilson acknowledge that language can be used to represent itself
(metalinguistic use) – like quoting someone.
 The example of "I'll tell you later" highlights the ambiguity between an assertion
(promising to inform later) and echoing John's words (a metalingual use).
 This "echoic language" is also relevant to irony and Bakhtin's concept of heteroglossia
(incorporating different voices).

Relevance Theory and Universality

 Relevance theory, unlike Grice's cooperative principle, aims for a universally applicable
account of human cognition in interpreting communication.
 However, the theory recognizes cultural variations in how directly or indirectly messages
are conveyed.

Relevance Theory and Literary Interpretation

 The concept of "arrays of weak implicatures" explains how readers derive different
interpretations from a text.
 Factors influencing interpretation include:
o Reader's encyclopaedic knowledge (background information)
o Ability to connect different parts of the text
o Effort invested in reading
 Relevance theory's view of context is limited in literary texts as it doesn't fully consider
the role of preceding and following discourse.

Poetic Effects: Weak Implicatures and Shared Understanding

 Relevance theory describes "poetic effects" as arising from a multitude of weak

implicatures in an utterance.
o Metaphors are a prime example, requiring the reader to infer meaning beyond the
literal words.
 These weak implicatures are the responsibility of the reader to pursue, and not necessarily
endorsed by the speaker.

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  The reliance on the reader's effort creates a sense of shared knowledge and intimacy,
similar to Cooper's idea of shared attitudes through metaphor.

Common Effects, Not Just Knowledge

 Sperber and Wilson emphasize the importance of "common effects" (emotional response,
deeper understanding) rather than just shared knowledge in appreciating these poetic
effects.

Relevance Theory and the Limits of Interpretation

This passage explores limitations of relevance theory, particularly in its application to complex
language and literary interpretation.

Deceptive Language and Ambiguity

 Relevance theory acknowledges that some utterances can be misleading, like jokes or
irony, leading the listener "down the garden path."
 However, the theory emphasizes that the initial, relevant interpretation is likely the
intended one.
 This creates limitations in handling ambiguities, which are common in literature and can
be intentional.

Irony and Echoing Opinions

 Sperber and Wilson argue that irony involves mocking an opinion by "echoing" it with
distance or distaste, not simply saying the opposite.

Limitations of Relevance Theory in Literature

 The theory struggles with ambiguities and the possibility of multiple valid interpretations
in a text.
 Relevance theory might explain these as different "implicatures" rather than true
ambiguities.
 The theory is criticized for not fully embracing the playful and open-ended nature of
language use in literature.

Literary Interpretation and the Reader's Role

 Unlike non-literary texts, literary works encourage readers to seek out a wider range of
weak implicatures.
 Factors influencing interpretation include:
o Absence of an immediate audience during writing
o Disparate reader backgrounds and knowledge
o Temporal gap between writing and reading

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  This can lead to diverse interpretations of the same text, which some theorists see as a
strength, not a weakness.

Relevance Theory vs. Richness of Interpretation

 Pilkington argues that a good literary text, like a metaphor, resists paraphrasing because
different readers will find different meaning in the "weak implicatures."
 He emphasizes the value of rich interpretations over finding a single "correct" meaning.

Conclusion

Relevance theory offers valuable insights into communication, but it's important to acknowledge
its limitations when dealing with the complexities and ambiguities of language use in literature.

Code-Switching and Relevance Theory: Decoding the Effects

This passage explores how relevance theory can be applied to code-switching (mixing languages
or dialects) in literature.

Relevance Theory's Take on Code-Switching

 Relevance theory, which focuses on maximizing relevance for the listener, can be applied
to code-switching despite not directly addressing it.
 The theory suggests code-switching contributes to meaning through weak implicatures
(inferences).

Motivations for Code-Switching in Literature

 Authors use dialect or code-switching for various reasons:

o Characterization: Reveals social background, personality traits
o Situating characters and narratives: Creates a sense of place and time
o Educational effect: Exposes readers to new language varieties

Challenges and Reader Reactions

 Unfamiliar dialects can cause processing difficulties and even exclude some readers.
 Readers may react positively (feeling included) or negatively (feeling alienated)
depending on the dialect used.

Balancing Rewards and Processing Effort

 Relevance theory emphasizes the balance between the extra processing effort required for
understanding a dialect and the cognitive effects (deeper meaning, appreciation) gained.
 Examples:
o "Stage Mummerset" (exaggerated dialect) became familiar to audiences over
time.

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 o Using Americanisms in a British story creates "local color" without much
difficulty.

Code-Switching and Characterization

 Dialect choices can instantly establish a character's social class, background, and even
intelligence (e.g., Piggy's speech in "Lord of the Flies").

Code-Switching as Social Commentary

 Authors can use code-switching to reflect social structures and class divisions within a
society (e.g., different dialects used by characters in "Lord of the Flies").

Relevance Theory and the Limits of Code-Switching

 While code-switching can be effective, extreme obscurity might make readers doubt the
author's intention to communicate.

Conclusion

Relevance theory offers a framework for understanding how code-switching in literature

generates meaning and impacts readers, acknowledging the potential challenges and the
importance of balancing effort with cognitive rewards.

Relevance Theory Under Scrutiny: Criticisms and

Challenges
This passage highlights key criticisms of relevance theory, particularly concerning its limitations
in capturing the complexities of social context and literary interpretation.

Social Context and Genre

 Critics argue that relevance theory overlooks the social context where language is used.
 Goatly emphasizes the role of genre and social situations in shaping how utterances are
interpreted.
 He criticizes the theory's focus on information exchange, neglecting other communicative
functions like storytelling or lying.

Limitations of Relevance Theory in Conversation

 Relevance theory's examples (like Grice's) are considered artificial and don't reflect the
realities of conversation.
 Everyday interactions involve turn-taking, negotiation of direction, and sociocultural
variations that the theory doesn't fully address.

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Limited View of Context

 Werth criticizes the theory's narrow view of context, neglecting the ongoing discourse
that shapes interpretation.
 He argues that context is dynamic, constantly evolving as a conversation or text unfolds.

Knowledge and Text Interpretation

 Werth also criticizes relevance theory for not sufficiently considering the reader's existing
knowledge.
 He argues that accessing knowledge is driven by the text itself, not just trying to
maximize relevance.

Relevance Theory and Literary Interpretation

 While the theory's rejection of excessive deconstruction is appreciated, some scholars

find it too restrictive.
 Literary interpretations often involve a wider range of weak implicatures than the theory
might predict.
 Pilkington, for example, argues for a more holistic approach to literary texts, considering
the entire work when interpreting an utterance.
 The theory is seen as less applicable to readers with different aims and interests compared
to interlocutors in spoken discourse.

Conclusion

Relevance theory offers valuable insights, but its limitations in capturing the nuances of social
context and literary interpretation require further consideration.

Bakhtin's Sociolinguistic Approach to Language in

Literature
This passage explores Mikhail Bakhtin's (1895-1975) ideas on language in literature, particularly
his emphasis on diversity and dialogue.

Bakhtin's Pragmatic View of Language

 Bakhtin emphasizes the importance of context in understanding meaning.

 He opposes attempts to create a "pure" language, celebrating the natural variety of
language use.

Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces in Language

 Bakhtin sees language as a dynamic interplay of unifying forces (standard language) and
diversifying forces (individual experiences, historical periods).

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Dialogic Nature of Language

 Every utterance anticipates a response, creating an ongoing "dialogue" across time and
contexts.
 Language carries the weight of past experiences and evolves through interactions.

Example: Echoing The Canterbury Tales

 The passage analyzes how David Lodge's novel "Small World" uses an excerpt from
"The Canterbury Tales."
 The familiar language is juxtaposed with a modern context (conferences) to highlight
both similarities and differences.

Heterogeneity and Standard Language

 Natural language reflects diverse perspectives and experiences, differing from the
standardized form.
 Bakhtin supports a flexible standard language for mutual understanding, but opposes
excessive control.

Freedom of Language in Fiction

 Bakhtin sees literature as a space for the freest expression of language variation within a
society.
 Novelists can experiment and depict diverse voices without social constraints.

Bakhtin's Key Concepts: To Be Explored Further

 The passage introduces two key terms from Bakhtin's work that will be discussed later.

Key Takeaways

 Bakhtin offers a sociolinguistic perspective on language, highlighting the interplay of

context, diversity, and dialogue in shaping meaning, particularly in literature.

The Case of Miss Jean Brodie's Pupils: Heteroglossia and

the Development of Voice
This passage builds on the concept of heteroglossia to analyze the language used by two students
in Muriel Spark's novel "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie."

Heteroglossia as a Lens for Analyzing Voice

 Heteroglossia allows us to examine the various influences that shape a character's voice.

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  The limitations in the students' knowledge are reflected in their use of language from
different sources.

The Students' Letter: A Mix of Registers

 The passage analyzes a letter written by the students, revealing a blend of registers
including:
o Police reports (sentences 1 & 6)
o Folk tales (sentence 5)
o Romantic fiction (sentences 3 & 4)
 This unlikely combination highlights their limited understanding of adult concepts like
romantic love.

Heteroglossia and Social Context

 The mixing of registers exposes the students' exposure to different societal attitudes
towards sex.
 These attitudes are reflected in the language of police reports, folk tales, and romantic
fiction.

Heteroglossia and Character Development

 The students haven't developed unique speech patterns (idiolects) yet.

 Their language use throughout the novel reflects their ongoing development.

Heteroglossia and Anti-Languages

 The passage connects heteroglossia to Halliday's concept of anti-languages, which

represent subcultural resistance.
 Literature, with its ability to create alternative realities, shares some functions with anti-
languages.

Conclusion

This analysis demonstrates how heteroglossia offers valuable insights into character development
and the interplay of social influences on language use in literature. The students' letter, through
its mixed registers, showcases their naiveté and the fragmented knowledge they gather from
various sources.

Unveiling Double Voices: Bakhtin's Hybrid Discourse

This passage explores Bakhtin's concept of hybrid discourse, a phenomenon where two distinct
voices or languages intermingle within a single utterance in literature.

Hybrid Discourse Defined

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  It's a merging of two different "language consciousnesses" within a single sentence or
text.
o These consciousnesses can be:
 Author vs. character
 Different social dialects
 Historical language variations
 It results in a text with "mixed" voices and belief systems.

Two Key Aspects of Hybrid Discourse

 Free Indirect Discourse: Blending narrator and character speech, creating a fusion of
perspectives.
 Combination of Sociolects: Reflecting the social diversity within the fictional world.

Hybrid Discourse vs. Heteroglossia

 Heteroglossia is the broader concept of diverse language varieties present in a text.

 Hybrid discourse is a more specific phenomenon where two distinct voices interact
within a single utterance.
 You could say heteroglossia is the "mechanism" and hybrid discourse is the "operation"
that manifests it.

Examples of Hybrid Discourse

 Pride and Prejudice: The opening sentence reflects the "general opinion" of a social
class, aligning the narrator with societal views.
 "Tickets, Please" by D.H. Lawrence: The narrator adopts the perspective of the girl
conductors when describing the inspector. This creates a shift in perspective and distance
between narrator, characters, and reader.

Effects of Hybrid Discourse

 Creates a dynamic and unstable narration, challenging readers to interpret multiple

perspectives.
 Can be used for irony, where the narrator's voice undercuts the characters' views or
societal opinions presented.
 Creates a "doubling" effect, where a single sentence or clause carries the weight of two
consciousnesses that need to be interpreted simultaneously.

Conclusion

Hybrid discourse adds complexity to literary narration, allowing authors to explore diverse
voices and perspectives within a single text. It challenges readers to become active participants
in deciphering the interplay of meaning and intention.

Hybrid Discourse in Action: Unpacking Multiple Voices

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This passage delves deeper into Bakhtin's concept of hybrid discourse, showcasing how it
manifests in various literary techniques.

Echoic Narration and "Double-Accented" Discourse

 A single word or phrase can introduce hybridity by echoing a character's perspective

within the narrator's description.
 This creates a "double-accented" effect, where the narrator's voice carries the weight of
both their own perspective and the character's view (e.g., "pointless birds" in Ellis's "The
Other Side of the Fire").
 Non-restrictive modifiers are often used for this purpose.

Free Indirect Discourse (FID) and the Blending of Voices

 FID is a key feature of hybrid discourse, where the narrator's voice and the character's
thoughts and feelings interweave seamlessly.
 This creates a complex fusion that can be challenging to disentangle for the reader.
 Similar to the realignment of narration with character perspective discussed earlier, FID
serves to provide deeper insight into the character's world.

Challenges of Identifying Voices in FID

 The passage uses an excerpt from Ellis's "The 27th Kingdom" to illustrate the difficulty
of pinpointing the exact source of each voice in FID.
 Markers like "observed," "had not shared," and "seemed" indicate Narrated Thought
Reporting Acts (NRTA), but overall, the distinction between narrator and character is
blurred.
 The passage demonstrates the varying levels of FID usage within a single paragraph,
making interpretation a dynamic process for the reader.

The Burden of Interpretation

 The complexity of hybrid discourse, particularly in FID, places a significant interpretive

burden on the reader.
 Readers must actively engage with the text to decipher the nuances of meaning and
intention embedded within the intertwined voices.

Conclusion

By analyzing various techniques like echoic narration and FID, this passage highlights how
hybrid discourse enriches literary narration. It allows authors to create a tapestry of voices,
inviting readers to actively participate in constructing meaning and understanding the characters'
inner worlds.

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Unveiling the Tapestry of Voices in To the Lighthouse:
Hybrid Discourse at Play
This passage delves into Virginia Woolf's "To the Lighthouse" as a prime example of hybrid
discourse in action.

Free Indirect Discourse (FID) and the Blending of Voices

 The passage reiterates that FID is a key feature of hybrid discourse in "To the
Lighthouse."
 It creates an echoic effect, blurring the lines between narrator and character's thoughts,
leading to interpretive challenges for the reader.

Irony and Juxtaposition in FID

 The mixing of perspectives in FID can lead to irony. The passage doesn't provide an
example, but potentially, the narrator might convey a character's naive thoughts
ironically.

Heteroglossia vs. Hybrid Discourse

 Not all hybrid discourse necessarily involves heteroglossia (different social dialects).
 However, FID often creates a clear case of heteroglossia by blending the narrator's voice
with the character's distinct way of thinking and feeling.

Example: The Ramseys and the Intrusion of Narratorial Voice

 The passage analyzes the opening scene of "To the Lighthouse" to illustrate hybrid
discourse.
 James's rage against his father is presented through FID, with some hyperbolic elements
("ten thousand times better") likely reflecting the narrator's perspective on the situation.
 The narrator's voice further intrudes by clarifying that a six-year-old wouldn't consider
their mother as "someone's wife."
 There's a sudden shift into Mr. Ramsay's thoughts, characterized by his "over-blown
rhetoric," creating a clear juxtaposition of perspectives within FID.
 Even the parenthetical comment about Ramsay's thought patterns is narrated, showcasing
the fluidity of voice transitions.

Limited Idiolects and Reader Experience

 The passage notes the absence of distinct idiolects (unique speech patterns) for most
characters, except the working-class women in the "Time Passes" section.
 The rapid shifts between characters' consciousness can be unsettling but also contribute to
the smooth flow of the narrative.
 Woolf's world, as reflected in the language, is arguably limited to the middle class.

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  The complexity of FID compels readers to slow down and actively engage with the
unfolding interplay of voices.

Conclusion

This passage demonstrates how Woolf utilizes hybrid discourse, particularly FID, to create a
multi-layered narrative experience in "To the Lighthouse." The blending of voices allows for
both irony and a deeper understanding of the characters' inner worlds, while also potentially
reflecting the social context of the novel.

Miss Jean Brodie's Pupils: Undermining Authority with

Hybrid Discourse
This passage explores how Muriel Spark uses hybrid discourse in "The Prime of Miss Jean
Brodie" to create irony and challenge societal norms.

Hybrid Discourse as a Tool for Irony

 The passage highlights how hybrid discourse can be used for irony, echoing Sperber and
Wilson's concept of "echoic" discourse.
 This irony arises from the co-presence of two contrasting voices within a single utterance.

Undermining Miss Brodie's Authority

 The opening of "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" exemplifies this concept.
 Sentence 1: Narrator describes the girls as "vastly informed" but on "irrelevant" subjects
according to the headmistress. This juxtaposition creates irony.
 The narrator presents the girls' knowledge (Renaissance painters, skincare) as positive,
while the headmistress views it as useless, creating a clash of perspectives.

Irony and Social Commentary

 Sentence 2: The narrator mentions the girls' fame within the school, but clarifies it as
"suspicion and not much liking." This again highlights a disconnect.
 By using hybrid discourse, the narrator subtly exposes the irony in the school's
perspective and potentially critiques their narrow-mindedness.

Conclusion

This passage demonstrates how Spark employs hybrid discourse to create a sense of irony and
challenge the established authority figures in the school. The contrasting voices within the
narration raise questions about societal norms and the value of unconventional knowledge.

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Unveiling Voices and Unsettling Authority: Hybrid
Discourse in Miss Jean Brodie
This passage delves deeper into the analysis of hybrid discourse in Muriel Spark's "The Prime of
Miss Jean Brodie," focusing on the role of the narrator and the construction of irony.

The Narrator as a Ventriloquist: Echoing and Redefining

 The passage analyzes how the narrator employs hybrid discourse by echoing the voice of
the headmistress (e.g., "vastly informed" on "irrelevant" subjects).
 The passive voice ("were discovered") further conceals the source of disapproval,
potentially reflecting the whispers of various parties within the school.
 The use of a non-restrictive modifier like "honest" in reference to soap and water
reinforces the headmistress's (and potentially other teachers') perspective.
 This strategy creates irony by contrasting Miss Brodie's unconventional approach with
the more traditional views of the school.
 Similarly, the narrator redefines "famous" in the context of the school, highlighting the
gap between the girls' perception and the broader meaning of the term.

Multiple Voices and the Instability of Narration

 The passage emphasizes that the text contains multiple voices, including:
o Common opinion
o Parental views
o Views of various teachers
 Identifying the exact source of each voice isn't always crucial.
 The narrator's willingness to align with different voices creates an "unstable" narration,
challenging the reader to make judgments.

Hybrid Discourse and Character Development

 The narrator's use of hybrid discourse allows the novel to showcase the influences
shaping the girls' development.
 The language variety reflects the cultural diversity of the city, encompassing matters of
religion, education, the arts, and sexuality.

Conclusion

By analyzing the narrator's ventriloquism and the presence of multiple voices, the passage
demonstrates how hybrid discourse enriches "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie." It creates a sense
of instability and compels readers to actively engage in interpreting the characters' situations and
Miss Brodie's influence. This complexity is what makes novels such powerful tools for exploring
diverse perspectives and social contexts.

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Edinburgh's Linguistic Tapestry: Code-Switching in Irvine
Welsh
This passage shifts the focus from hybrid discourse to code-switching, another key concept in
sociolinguistics, using Irvine Welsh's work as an example.

Code-Switching vs. Hybrid Discourse

 Hybrid discourse, as discussed earlier, focuses on the blending of voices or perspectives

within a single utterance.
 Code-switching refers to the act of shifting between different languages or dialects within
a conversation or text.

Code-Switching in Edinburgh

 The passage acknowledges that Spark's novel doesn't capture the full linguistic range of
Edinburgh.
 Irvine Welsh's work, on the other hand, is known for its portrayal of the city's diverse
speech patterns.

The Narrator as a Code-Switcher

 The excerpt from Welsh's "Park Patrol" features a narrator who switches between
standard English and Scottish dialect ("wisnae," "nae," "tae").
 This code-switching suggests the narrator belongs to two social groups: one that uses
standard English and another that uses the local dialect.

Functions of Code-Switching

 The passage mentions two potential functions of code-switching:

o Building solidarity: Switching to a shared dialect can create a sense of closeness
between speaker and listener.
o Distancing: Code-switching can also be used to create distance or assert authority.
 The specific function depends on the context and speaker's intention.

Mimicking Edinburgh Speech

 Welsh's use of code-switching aims to create a realistic portrayal of how some people in
Edinburgh speak, reflecting the city's linguistic diversity.
 This "bi-dialectal" narrator adds another layer of complexity to the story.

Conclusion

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This passage highlights the presence of code-switching in Irvine Welsh's writing as a way to
capture the rich and varied linguistic landscape of Edinburgh. It showcases another tool used by
authors to create characters and settings that feel authentic and socially diverse.

Code-Switching in Irvine Welsh: Balancing Authenticity

with Readability
This passage delves into the complexities of code-switching in Irvine Welsh's writing and the
challenges it presents for readers.

Motivations for Code-Switching

 The passage acknowledges the narrator's code-switching when addressing interlocutors

(promoting solidarity).
 However, it questions the motivation for mixing standard English and dialect within the
narration itself.
 Unlike Spark's strategic hybrid discourse, this code-switching seems "random" in the
context of the story.

Heteroglossia and Authenticity

 The passage highlights the connection between Welsh's writing and the concept of
heteroglossia (the presence of multiple voices or languages).
 It acknowledges that most people's language use naturally varies depending on context.
 However, in Welsh's work, the lack of a clear narrative purpose for the code-switching is
seen as a potential drawback.

National Pride and Readability

 The passage suggests that Welsh's use of vernacular Scots might be driven by national
pride in his language.
 This potentially alienates readers unfamiliar with the dialect, creating a barrier to
understanding.
 The non-standard spelling further adds to the reading difficulty.

Balancing Representation and Accessibility

 The passage raises the question of politeness in writing. Unfamiliar language can be
perceived as impolite or challenging for readers.
 However, it also acknowledges the potential value of representing diverse language
varieties in literature.
 This reflects a societal movement towards recognizing and celebrating linguistic
diversity.

Centrifugal vs. Centripetal Forces

100
  The passage references Bakhtin's concept of centrifugal and centripetal forces in
language.
 Centrifugal forces represent individuality and variation, while centripetal forces represent
standardization for clear communication.
 Welsh's writing leans towards the centrifugal, potentially reflecting a resistance against
language standardization.

The Future of Heteroglossia in Literature

 The passage acknowledges the current challenges readers face with non-standard
language in literature.
 However, it expresses optimism that increased exposure and familiarity might bridge this
gap in the future.
 This aligns with the idea of celebrating heteroglossia in writing to reflect the rich tapestry
of spoken languages in society.

Conclusion

The passage presents a balanced perspective on Irvine Welsh's use of code-switching. While
acknowledging its potential for authenticity and national pride, it raises concerns about
readability and the challenges it poses for readers. Ultimately, it suggests that navigating the
balance between linguistic representation and accessibility is an ongoing conversation in the
literary world.

Relevance Theory, Hybrid Discourse, and the Power of

Multiple Voices
This passage wraps up the discussion on relevance theory, hybrid discourse, and their
applications in literary analysis.

Relevance Theory's Contributions

 The passage highlights relevance theory's strengths in understanding the pragmatics of

discourse (how meaning is conveyed in context).
 It offers valuable insights into what constitutes "literariness" by explaining how readers
arrive at interpretations, including diverse ones.
 Its analysis of "echoic language use," encompassing irony and indirect discourse, is seen
as a major contribution.

Relevance Theory vs. Bakhtin

 The passage acknowledges the differences between relevance theory (a cognitive

approach) and Bakhtin's literary theory.
 Bakhtin focuses on identifying the effects of multilayered voices in fictional discourse.

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Sources of Hybrid Discourse and Heteroglossia

 The passage reiterates two key sources of hybrid discourse and heteroglossia (presence of
multiple voices):
o Free indirect discourse (blending narrator and character voice)
o Layering of voices in fictional narratives (narrator, characters, external
perceptions)

Irony and Echoic Language

 The passage emphasizes the compatibility of relevance theory's "echoic" account of irony
with Bakhtin's concept of doubled voices in ironic utterances.

Instability and Reader Responsibility

 The passage highlights the impact of hybrid discourse on the reader's experience.
 The conflict of voices and diminished authorial authority place greater responsibility on
the reader to construct meaning.
 This creates a richer and more complex reading experience compared to texts with a
singular, strong narratorial voice.

Complexity and the Use of Voices

 The passage argues that authors like Woolf, who delve deeply into characters' thoughts,
might be seen as less complex compared to those who balance a narratorial voice with
diverse character voices.
 This variety of voices (idiolects and sociolects) contributes to the richness of the text.

Looking Ahead

 The passage concludes by mentioning the exploration of echoic discourse in parody and
irony, as well as relevance theory's role in understanding metaphor, in the next chapter.

Overall

This passage emphasizes the value of both relevance theory and Bakhtin's ideas in analyzing how
writers use language to create complex narratives that engage readers in active interpretation. It
highlights the power of multiple voices and the resulting instability that enriches the reading
experience.

Unveiling the Mystery of Metaphor: A Journey Through

Meaning and Creativity
This passage dives into the complex world of metaphor, acknowledging its elusiveness and its
prevalence in human language.

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The Enigmatic Metaphor

 The passage acknowledges the vastness of metaphor as a topic and the lack of a single,
universally accepted theory to explain it.
 It suggests that metaphor might be rooted in the workings of the human mind, requiring
further research from cognitive science.

From Literal to Figurative: A Changing View

 The passage highlights the shift away from the outdated view of metaphor as simply
"saying one thing and meaning another."
 The increased interest from linguists and philosophers reflects the complexity of
metaphor.

The Everyday Use of Metaphor

 The passage emphasizes the widespread use of metaphor in everyday language,

suggesting it's a fundamental human cognitive process.
 It also mentions the "ludic element" – the enjoyment we derive from using metaphors.

The Challenge of Interpretation

 The passage acknowledges the challenge of interpreting metaphors, especially when

context is lacking.
 The example "He is a hawk" highlights how context determines whether it's a metaphor
or a literal reference.

Identifying Metaphors

 The passage mentions using the word "literally" as a clue to identify metaphors (e.g.,
"literally stunned").

A Spectrum of Metaphors

 The passage introduces the concept of a "scalar phenomenon" in metaphors.

 This spectrum ranges from "dead metaphors" (e.g., "dead duck") that are readily
understood, to more novel and creative ones.
 The passage also mentions the possibility of reviving dead metaphors through context.

Metaphor and the Perception of Reality

 The example from Golding's "The Inheritors" showcases how metaphors can reflect a
character's worldview.
 For the Neanderthals, perceiving a puddle as "alive" is literal, reflecting their connection
to nature.

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Focus on Pragmatic Approaches

 The passage announces the focus on current pragmatic approaches to metaphor analysis
(how metaphors contribute to meaning in context).
 Traditional methods of analysis are acknowledged but not discussed in detail.

The Power of Metaphor

 The passage uses Sterne's "Tristram Shandy" as an example to explore why we use
metaphors even when literal language seems possible.
 Sterne argues that metaphors like "falling in love" are ingrained in the language and offer
a more nuanced way to express complex emotions.
 Chaucer's metaphor of "bathing in gladness" is presented as a more elegant alternative to
a literal description of love.

Metaphor and Lexical Innovation

 The passage concludes by suggesting that metaphor plays a role in expanding the lexicon
by creating new ways to express ideas.

Overall

This passage provides a springboard for a deeper exploration of metaphor. It highlights the
multifaceted nature of metaphor, its role in shaping meaning, and its ongoing influence on the
evolution of language.

The Social Power of Metaphor: Beyond Literal Meaning

This passage delves into the social functions of metaphor, arguing that it's more than just a way
to communicate ideas.

Metaphor as a Social Tool

 The passage challenges the idea that metaphor is an abnormal use of language.
 David Cooper argues that metaphor, like everyday conversation, serves social purposes.

Metaphor and "Maverick Utterances"

 The passage introduces Cooper's concept of "maverick utterances" – language used for
purposes beyond literal information transfer (e.g., songs, poems).
 Metaphor, along with creative language use in various social groups (slang), falls under
this category.

The Power of New Perspectives

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  Cooper emphasizes the ability of metaphor to spark new lines of thought by presenting
familiar things in a fresh light.
 This "journey" of exploration is more important than reaching a definitive conclusion.

Seeing the Familiar Anew

 The passage highlights another function of metaphor: inducing a state of "relative

linguistic virginity."
 This involves seeing ordinary things in a new way, which explains why metaphors are
common in discussing topics like love.

Metaphor and Social Bonding

 Cooper argues that a key motivation for metaphor is to cultivate intimacy between
speaker and listener.
 A successful metaphor requires shared cultural experiences, the ability to make
connections (analogical reasoning), and familiarity with metaphorical traditions.
 By appreciating the metaphor, the listener demonstrates belonging to a certain social
group.

Metaphor and Attitude

 The passage emphasizes the role of speaker's attitude in metaphor.

 Since attitude doesn't translate well into paraphrase, metaphors often resist literal
rephrasing.
 This aligns with Sperber and Wilson's view of poetic effects and Blakemore's concept of
tailoring language to the listener's knowledge.

Metaphor and Politeness

 The passage suggests that metaphor can be seen as a politeness phenomenon.

 Despite the initial effort required to understand a metaphor, it ultimately flatters the
listener, stimulates thinking, and brings pleasure.

The Interpersonal Power of Metaphor

 The passage concludes by highlighting the interpersonal functions of metaphor.

 Metaphors compliment the listener, encourage reflection, and foster connection.

Overall

This passage emphasizes that metaphor is not just about conveying meaning, but also about
creating social bonds, stimulating thought, and fostering a sense of shared understanding
between speaker and listener.

105
Conceptual Metaphors: Shaping Our Thoughts and
Language
This passage dives into the concept of conceptual metaphors, how they influence our thinking,
and their potential impact.

Conceptual Metaphors: Beyond Language

 The passage introduces Lakoff and Johnson's view of metaphor as a fundamental part of
human cognition, not just a matter of expression.
 These metaphors shape how we perceive and understand reality.

Examples of Conceptual Metaphors

 The passage provides examples like "down is bad," "time is money," and "death is
departure" to illustrate how conceptual metaphors pervade language.
 These are distinct from poetic metaphors, which often build upon these common
conceptual foundations.

The Whorfian Hypothesis and Conceptual Metaphors

 The passage mentions Lakoff's support for the Whorfian hypothesis, which suggests
language shapes thought.
 Conceptual metaphors might be an example of this influence.

The Potential Dangers of Metaphors

 The passage acknowledges Lakoff's argument about the potential negative consequences
of some metaphors.
 Examples include conceptualizing "lust" as war, madness, or hunger, or an "argument" as
a battle.

The Mind as a Container

 The passage highlights the use of metaphors to understand the mind, a complex and not
fully understood concept.
 The metaphor of the mind as a container ("in mind," "out of your mind") is used as an
example.
 This metaphor has a long history, with St. Augustine using a similar concept to describe
memory.

Overall

This passage emphasizes the significance of conceptual metaphors in shaping our understanding
of the world, our reasoning processes, and even our perceptions of abstract concepts like the

106
mind. It raises the interesting question of how language shapes our thoughts and how metaphors
can influence our interpretations of reality.

The Enduring Metaphor of the Mind as a Container

This passage explores the concept metaphor of the mind as a container, tracing its use throughout
history and various literary works.

A Longstanding Metaphor

 The passage highlights Carruthers' work on the historical usage of the mind-as-container
metaphor, dating back to antiquity.
 Examples include dovecots, beehives, and even Chaucer's "male" (a bag for stories).
 This metaphor reflects the idea of the mind as an organized system for memory retrieval.

Literary Examples

 The passage provides literary examples of the mind-as-container metaphor:

o St. Augustine compares the mind to a "den or cave."
o John Locke uses the metaphor of "dark cells" for hidden ideas.
o Virginia Woolf (through her character) describes the mind as an "attic" where
memories are stored.
o Sarah Ellis uses the metaphor of a "room" with furniture representing memories.

Variations on a Theme

 The passage shows variations in how the container metaphor is used:

o Ellis also uses the metaphor of a "lock" to represent controlling the flow of
memories.
o The functionality of a lock introduces ambiguity in interpreting the metaphor.

The Power of Metaphor

 The passage emphasizes that despite their variations, these metaphors all stem from the
same core concept – the mind as a container.
 Each example offers a unique perspective on memory and its workings.

Metaphors for Memory

 The passage shifts focus to metaphors specifically related to memory:

o Julian Barnes uses a "slatted wooden tray" in a cool attic to represent the storage
of creative ideas.
o Alan Bennett uses a "damp unvisited cellar" to represent a storehouse for words.

Overall

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This passage showcases the enduring power of the mind-as-container metaphor. It explores how
this concept has been creatively adapted by various writers to depict the complexities of
memory, imagination, and the process of creating art.

The Mind as Container: A Versatile Metaphor Across

Cultures
This passage explores the versatility of the mind-as-container metaphor, showcasing its use in
various contexts and cultures.

Memory vs. Imagination

 The passage acknowledges the ambiguity in Julian Barnes' metaphor, whether it refers to
the mind or imagination as a container.
 It suggests the third sentence likely refers to memory stored in the mind ("attic").

Consistency Across Examples

 The passage reiterates the core concept: both mind and memory are often metaphorically
depicted in similar ways as containers.

A Violent Twist

 The passage introduces a more aggressive variation: words as "harpoons" aimed at the
brain (a vulnerable container) in Don DeLillo's work.

Controlling the Container

 The passage presents metaphors where the mind is a container with a controllable
opening or closing:
o In Hilary Mantel's work, the character opens their "mind's door" to let thoughts
pass through.
o J.K. Rowling's "Pensieve" allows the wizard to remove thoughts from the mind
(container) for examination.

Universality of the Metaphor

 The passage considers the possibility that the mind-as-container metaphor is a conceptual
metaphor, transcending cultures and languages.
 It acknowledges the alternative explanation that these examples might derive from
classical and medieval influences.

The Enduring Presence of the Metaphor

108
  The passage concludes by emphasizing the widespread use of this metaphor, suggesting
its potential universality.

Overall

This passage highlights the flexibility of the mind-as-container metaphor. It can represent
memory storage, the flow of thoughts, or even the processing of information. The recurring use
of this concept across cultures suggests its effectiveness in conveying the complexities of the
mind.

The Cooperative Principle and Decoding Metaphor

This passage explores how Grice's Cooperative Principle can be applied to understand
metaphors.

Metaphor as Indirect Communication

 The passage acknowledges that metaphors are a form of indirect communication,

requiring interpretation to grasp the intended meaning.
 The literal meaning is often nonsensical, so the listener must infer the implied message.

Grice's Maxims and Metaphor

 The passage discusses how Grice's maxims of conversation can be used to analyze
metaphors:
o Maxim of Quality: Metaphors often violate this by using words in an unexpected
way (e.g., "cream in my coffee").
 This highlights a limitation of Grice's approach, focusing on simple
metaphors.
o Maxim of Quantity: Metaphors may provide too little or too much information
(e.g., "You are the cream in my coffee" doesn't clarify if the speaker likes cream).
 However, some metaphors, like the one about a raided memory, can be
quite informative.
o Maxim of Manner: Metaphors inherently challenge this maxim by presenting
information in an unconventional way.
 They require effort to decode and can have a strong evaluative effect (e.g.,
"tendrils of doubt").
o Maxim of Relation: This maxim is crucial for metaphor interpretation.
 Some metaphors are more relevant to the context than others (e.g.,
"tendrils of doubt" used for a bride suggests a troubled future).

Overall

This passage suggests that Grice's Cooperative Principle can be a helpful tool for understanding
metaphors. By analyzing how metaphors violate or exploit the maxims of conversation, we can

109
gain valuable insights into their intended meaning and impact. However, the passage also
acknowledges limitations in this approach, particularly for complex metaphors.

Relevance Theory and Metaphor: Decoding Meaning

Beyond Literal Interpretation
This passage explores Relevance Theory's perspective on metaphor, contrasting it with other
approaches.

Metaphor as Everyday Communication

 Similar to Cooper's view, Sperber and Wilson (Relevance Theory) argue that metaphors
are part of regular language use, not a special category.

A Spectrum of Meaning

 The passage introduces the idea of a continuum, ranging from literal to loose or figurative
language.
 The choice depends on what's most efficient in a given situation.
 An example is using "I have no money" to imply needing an ATM visit, rather than
stating the exact low balance.

Metaphor and Decoding Effort

 The passage positions metaphor on the "looser" end of the spectrum, requiring more
interpretation effort.
 A successful metaphor offers a rich set of subtle implications that reward the effort.
 Different readers may reach different interpretations based on the implicatures they draw.

Why Metaphors Resist Paraphrase

 This theory aligns with Cooper's view on why metaphors can't be easily paraphrased.
 Metaphors can express unlexicalized concepts (no exact word) or convey the speaker's
attitude towards a topic.
 Examples like metaphors for the mind or falling in love illustrate this point.

Metaphor and Complex Ideas

 The passage suggests that metaphors are a convenient way to convey complex thoughts.
 The burden of interpretation lies with the listener/reader to unravel the intended
meaning(s).

The Role of Context in Metaphor Interpretation

110
  Similar to Grice's view, context is crucial for understanding metaphors, including both
the surrounding conversation and the listener's background knowledge.
 Literary texts are particularly crafted to provide a rich context that rewards close attention
and generates deeper insights.

Metaphors in Everyday Speech vs. Literary Texts

 The passage acknowledges the prevalence of metaphors in everyday language.

 However, literary texts often generate richer layers of implicature and context-driven
effects due to their permanence compared to fleeting spoken language.

Overall

This passage highlights how Relevance Theory views metaphor as a tool for conveying complex
ideas and speaker's attitude, requiring interpretation effort but offering rewarding insights. It
emphasizes the importance of context, especially in literary works, for successful metaphor
interpretation.

Extending the Argument on Weak Implicatures in

Metaphor: A Relevance Theory Approach
Building on the concept of weak implicatures in metaphors, let's delve deeper using the
framework of Relevance Theory. We'll consider the role of lexical chains and context in
buttressing metaphors, drawing an example (without directly quoting) from Joyce's "A Painful
Case."

Lexical Chains and Resonance

As the text suggests (pages 31 and 49-50), lexical chains, or repeated words and related
vocabulary, can strengthen metaphors. These chains create a web of meaning that resonates with
the central metaphor.

Imagine a passage in "A Painful Case" where Mr. Duffy, the protagonist, is described as a
"house" (metaphor for his withdrawn personality). Lexical chains might involve words like
"locked doors," "dusty furniture," and "empty rooms," all reinforcing the metaphor of an
isolated, unwelcoming house. This creates a stronger resonance for the reader, enriching the
understanding of Mr. Duffy's emotional state.

Developing Weak Implicatures

The key to unlocking a metaphor's meaning lies in the weak implicatures it generates. These are
the subtle inferences a listener/reader draws beyond the literal meaning.

Consider again the "house" metaphor. It doesn't literally suggest Mr. Duffy is a building. The
weak implicatures might be:

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  Mr. Duffy is emotionally closed off.
 There's a lack of warmth or connection in his life.
 He might be yearning for connection but feels unable to open up.

These implicatures enrich the character portrayal and the story's emotional impact.

Context is King

As highlighted in the passage, context is crucial for interpreting metaphors effectively.

Surrounding text and the reader's background knowledge all influence the meaning derived.

For instance, if "A Painful Case" establishes Mr. Duffy had a past love that ended badly, the
"house" metaphor might take on a new layer of meaning. The locked doors could symbolize his
fear of getting hurt again.

Conclusion: Why Metaphors Matter

Metaphors are powerful tools in a writer's arsenal. They go beyond literal meaning to:

 Offer fresh perspectives on familiar concepts (e.g., the complexities of the mind).
 Evoke emotions and create a deeper understanding of characters (like Mr. Duffy's
isolation).
 Engage the reader in a playful "hunt" for hidden meanings through weak implicatures.

By considering lexical chains, context, and the generation of weak implicatures, Relevance
Theory provides valuable insights into how metaphors function in literary texts. They are not just
decorative; they are an essential element in creating a rich and meaningful reading experience.

Irony: A Pragmatic Approach

This passage dives into the complexities of irony, acknowledging the difficulty of defining it
precisely.

The Elusive Nature of Irony

 The passage starts by highlighting the lack of consensus on what irony truly is.
 Some argue that precisely defining it undermines its essence (romantic view).

A Pragmatic Lens

 Given the challenge, the passage focuses on a pragmatic approach to irony.

 Irony is traditionally defined as "saying one thing and meaning another," relying heavily
on context for interpretation.

Understanding Irony Through Context

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  Several factors contribute to understanding irony:
o The speaker's and hearer's knowledge and their relationship.
o The topic of discussion.
o Discrepancies between characters' and narrator's knowledge (especially in
literature).

Examples of Irony in Literature

 The passage provides examples of irony from "Pride and Prejudice" and "Not to Disturb":
o Mr. Bennet's oblivious question about Lady Catherine's visit creates irony for the
reader who knows Elizabeth's situation.
o The narrator's description of the servants' "faithful vigil" is ironic considering
their involvement in the murders.

Clues to Irony

 The passage identifies some clues that might indicate irony:

o Inconsistency between what is said and the actual situation.
o Vocal cues and facial expressions (in spoken language).
o Specific words or phrases that deviate from the norm.
o Contradictions within the text itself.

Overall

This passage emphasizes the importance of context and various cues to grasp the intended
meaning behind ironic statements. It highlights how irony can arise from discrepancies between
what is said and what is known or implied.

Cooperative Principle and Irony: Understanding the

"Opposite Meaning"
This passage explores how Grice's Cooperative Principle can be applied to understand irony, but
also acknowledges its limitations.

Irony as a Violation of Cooperative Principle

 Grice proposes that irony stems from a violation of the maxim of quality, which states a
speaker should try to be truthful.
 When a speaker says something obviously untrue, the listener assumes the opposite is
meant (implicature).

Examples of Grice's Approach

 A hospital porter's sarcastic remark about a scenic route to the theater (broken lift)
implies the situation is inconvenient.

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  The poem "Engineer's Corner" uses obvious falsehoods (poets are rich) to ironically
criticize the value placed on poetry.

Limitations of Grice's Approach

 Not all irony is simply "saying the opposite."

 Mr. Bennet's remark about his sons-in-law (one disgraced) is ironic but not a literal
reversal of meaning. He implies dislike for Wickham.
 Similarly, in Lodge's novel, the Vatican spokesman's statement about "certainty" is ironic
but not a direct opposite. It suggests the Church might change its stance.

The Slippery Locus of Irony

 The passage acknowledges the complexity of irony. In some cases (like the poem), the
target of irony might be clear.
 In other cases (like the Vatican spokesman), it's less clear who/what is being mocked,
making irony more ambiguous.

Conclusion

While Grice's Cooperative Principle can explain some forms of irony, it doesn't encompass all its
complexities. Irony can involve more than simply stating the opposite of what is meant. The
context and the relationship between speaker and listener play a crucial role in understanding the
intended ironic meaning.

Irony and Politeness: Beyond Saving Face

This passage explores the limitations of Leech's approach to irony, which connects it to
politeness and avoiding offense.

Leech's Principle of Irony

 Leech proposes an "Irony Principle" that works alongside his Politeness Principle.
 This view suggests irony is used to soften offensive remarks by implying them indirectly.

Irony Beyond Politeness

 The passage argues that irony has a wider range than just saving face in conversations.
 Irony can be used to express disapproval of situations beyond one's control:
o Sarcastic comments about dirty streets indirectly criticize the local authority.

Limitations of Leech's View

 The hospital porter example doesn't fit the politeness model.

o His sarcastic remark about the scenic route isn't meant to avoid offense, but might
be to lighten the mood.

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  Leech's explanation (adding interest) might be better explained by relevance theory,
focusing on the additional meaning conveyed indirectly.

Conclusion

This passage suggests that while Leech's politeness-based view of irony has merit, it doesn't
capture the full range of its uses. Irony can be a tool for expressing disapproval or adding layers
of meaning beyond simply avoiding direct offense.

Relevance Theory and Irony: Decoding Beyond Literal

Meaning
This passage explores how Relevance Theory sheds light on irony, highlighting its strengths and
limitations.

Irony as Echo and Dissociation

 Wilson and Sperber propose that irony involves a speaker:

o Echoing thoughts/words of someone else (could be cultural norms or a type of
person).
o Dissociating themselves from those echoed thoughts.
 This echoed thought may not be literally uttered but implied.

Examples of Irony in Literature

 The opening sentence of "Pride and Prejudice" ("It is a truth universally

acknowledged...") is an ironic statement.
o The narrator doesn't endorse this view, and its exaggeration makes it unlikely
readers do either.
o It likely echoes the thoughts of Mrs. Bennet, who prioritizes marrying off her
daughters.
 Another example is Elizabeth's attempt at civility towards Mr. Collins (another
character).
o The narrator echoes Elizabeth's difficulty in being both polite and truthful.

Irony and Communication Risks

 The passage acknowledges the inherent risk in using irony.

o It requires the listener/reader to infer the speaker's intention, which may not be
successful.

Relevance: The Reward for Processing Difficulty

 Relevance theory suggests irony is used because it's the most efficient way to
communicate in a situation.

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  The extra effort required to process irony is rewarded by the generation of deeper
meaning (implicatures).
 Context plays a crucial role: Mrs. Bennet wouldn't understand the irony in the first
sentence as it aligns with her views.

Irony: Beyond Disapproval

 Sperber and Wilson argue that irony isn't always about disapproval.
 Sometimes, it might convey detachment, as in Mr. Bennet's comment to his daughter's
piano playing.

Irony vs. Literal Meaning

 Traditional views suggesting irony means the opposite of what's said are challenged.
 Relevance theory emphasizes that irony conveys a comment on the situation, not
necessarily the opposite meaning.

The Case of "Candide"

 Voltaire's statement about rival kings celebrating victory with hymns is an ironic
example.
 It doesn't literally mean the opposite; it's a "garden-path utterance" that prompts readers
to reflect on the hypocrisy of politicians.

Irony's Embedded Nature in Literature

 The passage highlights the complexity of irony in literary texts.

o It might be unclear who/what is being echoed or mocked.

Limitations of Relevance Theory and Irony

 The theory requires the first plausible interpretation to be the intended one.
 This might limit the richness of irony, as some readers might find deeper meanings
beyond the initial interpretation.

Overall

This passage highlights how Relevance Theory offers a valuable perspective on irony. It
emphasizes the importance of context, the "echoic" nature of irony, and the role of implicatures
in unlocking its meaning. However, the theory's focus on the first-level interpretation might limit
its ability to capture the full richness of irony, particularly in complex literary works.

Beyond Relevance: The Delights and Complexities of Irony

This passage argues that relevance theory, while valuable, doesn't fully capture the richness of
irony in literature.

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The Joy of Language Games

 The passage acknowledges that communication goes beyond just maximizing relevance.
 We engage in wordplay (hyperbole, metaphor, irony) for the enjoyment of the complexity
and the "game" of language.
 The example from "Tristram Shandy" highlights the playful manipulation of language for
amusement.

Strengths of Relevance Theory for Irony

 Wilson and Sperber's view of irony is praised for acknowledging:

o Cases where the opposite is meant.
o Instances of more subtle criticism or detachment.
 Their concept of "echoing" another's opinion while disagreeing explains irony well.

Limitations of Relevance Theory

 The theory's focus on the first-level interpretation might miss deeper meanings.
 Irony can be similar to indirect discourse or quoted utterances, but it's more complex.

Irony and Traditional Literary Analysis

 Traditional critics like Booth use concepts like "mask" and "persona" to explain irony's
two-voiced nature.
 Irony, like metaphor, cannot be simply paraphrased; it relies on context and
interpretation.

Irony as a Discoursal Phenomenon

 The passage critiques both Relevance Theory and speech act approaches for neglecting
context.
 Irony is embedded in a situation (spoken or written) and requires considering
relationships and the broader communication context.
 Socio-cultural context also plays a role in interpreting irony.

The Detachment in Irony

 Irony often involves seeing something from two perspectives, not necessarily
condemning one.
 Detachment (from both perspectives) might be the key marker of irony.

Examples of Literary Irony

 The passage provides examples of irony from "Heart of Darkness" and "The Secret
Agent."

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 o Marlow's description of a death as a "noble cause" is ironic considering the
triviality of the reason.
o Calling a murderer a "widow" is ironic as it contradicts the literal meaning.

The Challenge of Identifying Irony

 The burden of recognizing irony falls on the reader/listener.

 There's no foolproof linguistic marker for irony, making interpretation tricky.
 Context sensitivity is crucial for (fallible) recognition of irony.

Irony and Shared Understanding

 The passage acknowledges the awkwardness of missed irony and compares it to

metaphor.
 Successfully interpreting irony can be gratifying and signal membership in an "in-group"
that understands these complexities.

Conclusion

This passage argues that irony goes beyond the first-level interpretation emphasized by relevance
theory. It highlights the importance of context, detachment, and the shared enjoyment of
wordplay in appreciating irony's full richness, especially in literature.

Echoic Utterances Beyond Irony: The Merging of Voices

This passage explores the concept of "echoic utterances" and how it applies to more than just
irony.

Echoes and Hybrid Discourse

 The idea of "echoic utterances" is valuable because it reflects a merging of perspectives

in a single statement (hybrid discourse).
 This aligns with Bakhtin's concept of combining two voices within one utterance.

Echoes in Indirect Discourse

 Indirect discourse (reporting someone's thoughts/speech) is a clear example of echoing.

 The narrator's voice and the character's voice are combined in a single sentence.
 The distinction between echoic utterances and Free Indirect Discourse (FID) can be
blurry.

Irony and the Locus of Echoic Utterances

 In FID, it's often unclear how much is the character's thought and how much is the
narrator's commentary.
 This ambiguity is what frequently makes FID a breeding ground for irony.

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Example: Echoic Utterances in "Vacant Possession"

 The passage analyzes an excerpt from "Vacant Possession" where different discourse
styles are used.
 The first sentence is in Free Indirect Thought, blurring the lines between character and
narrator.
 The next sentences can be FID or Free Indirect Speech, further blurring the source.
 The last sentence is clearly the narrator's ironic comment on the character's thoughts.

Irony, Dual Voice, and Interpretation Challenges

 This analysis connects irony to Pascal's concept of the "dual voice" in FID.
 Difficulty in interpreting irony arises from the uncertainty of who the "echoing voice"
belongs to.
 It can be challenging to pinpoint where one voice begins and the other ends.

Irony and the Novel

 The passage suggests this blurring of voices might be why novels are often seen as
inherently ironic.

Conclusion

This passage emphasizes the concept of echoic utterances as a way to understand how irony and
other forms of discourse can combine multiple voices within a single expression. It highlights the
challenges of interpreting such utterances due to the ambiguity of the source of the "echoed"
voice.

Irony in First-Person Narratives: Challenges and Huck Finn

as a Case Study
This passage explores the difficulties of interpreting irony in first-person narratives, using
Twain's "Huckleberry Finn" as an example.

Challenges of Irony in First-Person Narration

 There's no guarantee a reader will definitively identify irony in a first-person text.

 Similar to interpreting symbolism, the interpretation of irony might rely on the reader's
choice.
 Wilson and Sperber's theory of irony acknowledges the difficulty in recognizing it.

Gap Between Narrator and Implied Author

 A common source of irony is the difference between the narrator's voice and the implied
author's perspective.

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  The implied author might be aware of ironies the narrator isn't, creating a gap.
 This gap is often present when narrators are morally or intellectually limited.

Huckleberry Finn: A Case Study

 The novel is set in a slave-owning society, narrated by Huck, a young, uneducated boy.
 The opening lines show the gap between Huck and Twain (the implied author).
o Huck seems to vouch for his honesty, but the irony lies in a fictional character
verifying the creator's truthfulness.

Huck's Moral Conflict and Internal Irony

 The main conflict revolves around Huck's conscience and his actions regarding the
runaway slave Jim.
 Huck feels loyalty to Jim yet struggles with the societal view of slavery.
 There's a disparity between Huck's actions (helping Jim) and his internalized societal
beliefs (slavery is okay).
 This internal conflict creates a layer of irony.

The Difficulty of Identifying Huck's True Voice

 When Huck wrestles with the decision to help Jim or turn him in, his justifications are
riddled with irony.
 He fears social disapproval more than the immorality of slavery, highlighting the societal
influence on his thinking.
 The passage analyzes Huck's internal monologue where he contemplates both helping
Jim and the potential consequences.
o It's unclear if Huck truly believes his justifications or if the irony lies in his
attempt to rationalize his actions based on societal norms.

Huck's Choice and the Ultimate Irony

 In the end, Huck chooses to tear up the letter that would return Jim to slavery, defying
societal expectations.
 This act can be seen as ironic because he chooses potential damnation (going to hell) over
following the prevalent racist views.

Conclusion

The passage analyzes "Huckleberry Finn" to demonstrate the complexities of irony in first-
person narratives. Huck's limited perspective and the gap between him and the implied author
create layers of irony that challenge the reader to interpret his true motivations and the overall
message of the novel.

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Irony in Huckleberry Finn: A Battle Between Morality and
Societal Norms
This passage delves deeper into the layers of irony in "Huckleberry Finn," focusing on Huck's
limitations and societal influences.

Tom Sawyer's Arrival and the Heightened Irony

 Huck's outrage at Tom's involvement in freeing Jim adds another layer of irony.
 Huck sees Tom, a respectable boy, "stooping" to help Jim, highlighting the absurdity of
societal norms.

The Final Irony: Freedom and Unexpected Twist

 The revelation of Jim's legal freedom through the will is the final ironic twist.
 Huck, despite understanding laws and religion, lacks the confidence to reject societal
views.

Huck's Moral Compass and Internal Conflict

 Huck recognizes the wrongness of slavery but feels guilt for defying societal teachings.
 He doesn't understand why Tom would help or why Jim wants to buy his children's
freedom.
 This internal conflict exposes the limitations of Huck's perspective.

Huck's Juxtaposition with Society

 The novel portrays a corrupt society: a hypocritical church service and a feud.
 Huck's good actions and judgments are contrasted against this societal decay.
 He has a conscience shaped by this society, though he rejects its core values.

Huck's Limited Capacity for Irony

 Huck possesses the ability to see contrasting viewpoints but lacks the maturity to fully
grasp the irony.
 Twain's social critique is even more powerful because it's delivered through Huck's
innocent eyes.

The Importance of Reader Perspective

 Recognizing the ironies depends on comparing the reader's values with those of Huck,
society, and the implied author.
 The disparities between these value systems create the irony, along with the critique of
Southern society.

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Another Example: Spark's "You Should Have Seen the Mess"

 The passage discusses another first-person narrator, limited by her upbringing.

 The narrator's sole judgment criterion is cleanliness, revealing the societal and
educational influences.
 The irony might be missed by someone who shares the narrator's values.

Irony and Shared Values

 The interpretation of irony depends on the reader's cultural assumptions and shared
values.
 If the reader aligns with the implied author's views, the irony becomes clear.

Conclusion

The passage emphasizes that irony can be subjective. It depends on the reader's perspective in
relation to the values presented by the narrator, society within the story, and the implied author.
"Huckleberry Finn" is a prime example of how a first-person narrator's limitations can create
layers of irony that highlight societal flaws.

Irony: A Multifaceted Tool with Risks and Rewards

This passage wraps up the discussion on irony, acknowledging its complexity and various
functions.

Challenges of Defining Irony

 There's no single, universally accepted definition of irony.

 It seems to rely on the presence of contrasting perspectives.
 While Wilson and Sperber highlight the separation of these viewpoints, disapproval
might not always be present.

Irony and Free Indirect Discourse

 The potential for irony exists in almost any instance of Free Indirect Discourse (FID) due
to the blending of perspectives.
 This might explain the frequent use of irony as a literary tool.

The Delights and Dangers of Irony

 Irony engages readers on multiple levels, fostering a sense of belonging if understood.

 Misinterpreting irony can be embarrassing and lead to misunderstanding the text.
 Despite the risk of miscommunication, the pleasure of irony keeps it a popular tool.

Irony and Social Dynamics

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  Recognizing irony strengthens bonds and creates a sense of shared understanding.
 Missing it can lead to exclusion.
 Yet, the potential for connection and the inherent amusement make irony a tool worth
using, even with its risks.

Irony: A Balancing Act

 Irony can improve relationships by promoting a sense of closeness and intellectual

engagement.
 It flatters the audience for being able to grasp the intended meaning.

Conclusion

Irony is a complex literary device that offers both risks and rewards. It can deepen reader
engagement, strengthen social bonds, and create humor. However, its effectiveness depends on
the reader's ability to recognize the contrasting perspectives at play.

Echoic Discourse, Parody, and Intertextuality

This passage explores parody and how it relates to other literary devices like irony and echoic
discourse.

Parody and Reader Engagement

 Parody is a complex concept that relies on the reader's knowledge, memory, and
interpretation skills.
 It's heavily reliant on "echoic discourse," meaning it builds on existing forms of
expression.
 Relevance theory (understanding what's relevant to the reader) is helpful in analyzing
parody.

Irony vs. Parody: Key Differences

 Irony focuses on the context of an utterance, conveying a meaning opposite to what's

literally said.
 Parody focuses on the linguistic form, mimicking or imitating the style of another work.
 The passage argues that the distinction between irony and parody might not always be
clear-cut.

Combining Irony and Parody

 The example from Ellis's "The Other Side of the Fire" is given as a case where irony and
parody coexist.
 The sentence uses an overblown style to depict a mundane event, creating both irony and
a parody of a certain kind of dramatic writing.

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Echoic Discourse and Intertextuality

 Intertextuality is the connection between a text and other texts.

 It can be echoic but doesn't necessarily involve parody or irony.
 Ellis's novel is again used as an example. It retells a classic story with modern twists,
creating an echoic and parodic effect.

Evvie as an Example of Parody

 The passage analyzes excerpts from Evvie's writing, a character in Ellis's novel.
 Her "Mills and Boon" style romance writing is a parody of the genre's cliched language
and tropes.
 The analysis highlights features like excessive adverbs, adjectives, and emotionally
charged vocabulary.

Evvie's Academic Prose

 Evvie's academic writing is presented as a contrast to her romance writing.

 It uses formal vocabulary and complex sentence structures, mimicking academic
discourse.

Conclusion

The passage demonstrates how echoic discourse plays a role in parody. It analyzes how a text
can create humor and meaning by imitating and subverting the styles of other works.

Deep Dive into Parody and Style in Literature

This passage delves into the complexities of parody, analyzing its functions and effects on
readers.

Evvie's Contrasting Styles: A Microcosm of Genre

 Evvie's academic writing and romance novel excerpt showcase contrasting styles.
 The academic writing is complex, with formal vocabulary and sentence structures.
 The romance writing uses cliches, trite metaphors, and focuses on emotions.
 This stylistic contrast reflects the different purposes and target audiences of each genre.

Polyphony and Social Commentary

 Both texts contribute to the novel's "polyphony," reflecting the diversity of voices in
society.
 This stylistic contrast acts as social commentary, highlighting the differences between
academic discourse and popular fiction.
 Ellis's novel itself avoids the "infelicities" of Evvie's romance writing, suggesting a
critique of such styles.

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Parody and Bakhtin's Theories

 The passage connects parody to Bakhtin's concept of "heteroglossic discourse," reflecting

the variety of voices in a society.
 Parody, like many literary devices, can be playful ("ludic") but might exclude some
readers who miss the reference.
 Intertextuality, referencing other works, can also have a parodic effect when the context
is altered.

Examples of Parodic Techniques

 The passage provides examples of parody:

o Wodehouse's humorous rewriting of a famous quote about achieving success.
o Joyce's parody of women's magazine style in "Ulysses," revealing a character's
limited thinking.

Parodic Effects and Reader Interpretation

 Parody can be used to expose a character's inner thoughts or limited perspective.

 The example from "Ulysses" explores the question of whether Gerty truly thinks in the
cliched style or if it reflects the narrator's mockery.
 Different readers may interpret the effect differently, creating ambiguity.

Double-Oriented Speech and Focalization

 The passage introduces Bakhtin's "double-oriented speech," where words can be

attributed to both narrator and character (seen in Gerty's example).
 Focalization (whose perspective the story is told from) can be blurred through techniques
like Free Indirect Thought Discourse (FIT).

Conclusion

The passage explores parody as a tool for social commentary, humor, and character
development. It highlights the importance of reader interpretation and the complexity of style in
creating meaning.

The Power of Parody: Entertainment, Critique, and Reader

Engagement
This passage offers concluding remarks on parody, emphasizing its multifaceted nature.

Parody: Beyond Entertainment

 Parody is more than just entertainment; it can function as a critique of the society it
reflects.

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  By echoing and twisting existing styles, parody can hold up a mirror to social norms and
conventions.

Irony, Parody, and Reader Engagement

 Similar to irony, parody challenges readers to decode its meaning.

 It requires readers to draw on their knowledge and interpret the multiple perspectives at
play.
 Successful interpretation can make the reader feel like part of an "in-group" who
understands the reference.

Parody and the Overall Tone

 Parody contributes to the overall tone or feeling of a literary work.

 It often has a playful element, making the act of creation and interpretation enjoyable.

Looking Ahead

 The next chapter will explore symbolism, another literary device that demands reader
participation in creating meaning.

Parody as a Tool

In conclusion, parody is a powerful tool that can entertain, critique, and engage readers. It
encourages active participation in interpretation and adds depth to a literary work's overall tone.

Symbolism: A Pragmatic Approach

This passage explores a pragmatic approach to symbolism, how we interpret symbols in
literature.

The Focus: Pragmatics and Symbolism

 The passage considers symbolism from a pragmatic perspective, emphasizing the context
of communication.
 This approach aligns with Grice's maxims, which suggest cooperation as a guiding
principle in interpreting language.
 Eco, a prominent scholar, is credited with developing this pragmatic view of symbolism.

How Symbolism Works

 According to Eco, symbols are "allusive" and "elusive," meaning they hint at deeper
meanings rather than stating them directly.
 Similar to poetic effects, symbols require interpretation based on the reader's knowledge
and the context.

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  This contrasts with Sperber and Wilson's view that Gricean maxims can lead to overly
loose interpretations.

Eco's Narrow Definition of Symbol

 Eco defines symbols narrowly as "idiolectical," meaning their meaning arises from a
specific context.
 Common symbolic interpretations, like fire representing warmth, are considered
"emblems" by Eco.
 Emblems have a single, culturally-conditioned meaning, unlike true symbols with
multiple interpretations.

Triggering Symbolic Interpretation

 Eco suggests that a violation of Grice's maxims, particularly those of quantity, manner, or
relation, can trigger a symbolic interpretation.
 An excessive focus on a detail that seems unnecessary in the context might prompt the
reader to look for deeper meaning.
 This "over-encoding" of meaning suggests the potential for symbolic interpretation.

Optional Interpretations and Reader Engagement

 Symbolic interpretations are optional; the text can still be understood literally.
 Readers, based on their experience and knowledge, decide whether to explore the
symbolic meaning.
 This contrasts with allegory, where a clear-cut symbolic meaning is intended by the
author.

Conclusion

This passage highlights that symbolism is a collaborative effort between text and reader. It's an
optional strategy readers can choose based on their understanding of the text and their cultural
background.

Hemingway's "The Snows of Kilimanjaro": A Case Study in

Symbolism
This passage delves into a specific example of symbolism in Hemingway's "The Snows of
Kilimanjaro," applying the pragmatic approach discussed earlier.

The Power of Selective Detail: Guns in Hemingway's Work

 The passage analyzes a scene from Hemingway's novella where the protagonist, Harry,
recalls a childhood memory.

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  The emphasis on the guns in this memory is seen as a potential symbol due to the
excessive detail and focus given to them.
 This violates Grice's maxims of quantity (too much information) and manner (repetitive
and unusual syntax).

Interpreting the Symbolic Meaning

 The lack of explanation for the guns and their placement within the house suggests a
deeper meaning.
 The child's perspective adds another layer, as the guns are desired for play rather than
their intended purpose.
 The passage offers multiple possible interpretations for the symbolic meaning of the
guns:
o Lost innocence of childhood.
o Masculinity and the adult world.
o The changing social role of the grandfather.

Juxtaposition and Reader Inference

 The connection between the gun memory and the following story of a suicidal hotel
owner is significant.
 This juxtaposition suggests that the loss of the guns was a profound loss for the
grandfather, like the financial ruin for the hotel owner.
 The reader is left to infer the symbolic meaning based on the connection between these
two events.

Possible Interpretations and Reader Engagement

 The passage acknowledges the open-ended nature of symbolism.

 Readers can draw connections between Harry's fate and the grandfather's, interpreting the
guns as a symbol of:
o A bygone era (the American West).
o Loss of purpose and a life well-lived.
o The destructive nature of time.

Conclusion

This example demonstrates how a pragmatic approach to symbolism encourages reader

engagement. By analyzing the text's details and connections, readers can arrive at their own
interpretations of the symbolic meaning.

Unveiling Symbolism in Hemingway's "The Snows of

Kilimanjaro": A Debate

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This passage delves deeper into the symbolic interpretations of Hemingway's work, considering
the limitations and potentials of Eco's pragmatic approach.

The Open-Ended Nature of Symbols

 Eco's view of symbols as having a "nebula" of possible meanings is explored.

 The passage in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" with the guns is used as an example.
 Readers, based on their knowledge, can assign their own meanings to the excessive focus
on the guns.

Symbolism and Emotional Impact

 The pragmatic approach suggests that the symbolic description of the guns allows the
reader to infer Harry's emotional response to the memory.
 This aligns with Hemingway's characteristically understated style, avoiding explicit
emotional commentary.

Distinguishing Symbols from Signs

 Eco differentiates between genuine symbols and culturally-conditioned signs with

established meanings.
 Vultures and hyenas in the story are considered signs, directly associated with death.

Multiple Interpretations: The Case of Kilimanjaro

 The story offers contrasting interpretations based on symbolism:

o Redemption: Harry's dream of reaching Kilimanjaro (the Masai House of God)
might symbolize his redemption through writing at the end.
o Failure: The leopard on the mountaintop (unexplained) could be a parallel to
Harry, seeking something but ultimately failing.

Hyena and the Parable of the Talents

 The hyena's presence near Harry's deathbed suggests another symbolic interpretation.
 It might connect to the Parable of the Talents, with Harry failing to use his talent
(writing) and facing a negative outcome.

Limitations of the Pragmatic Approach

 The passage acknowledges limitations in Eco's theory based on Grice's maxims.

 The subjectivity of interpretation and reader knowledge can make symbolic meaning
unclear.
 The example of the grandfather's guns demonstrates how interpretations can vary.
 The hyena and leopard interpretations, however, seem more clear-cut, potentially
contradicting Eco's definition of symbols.

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Conclusion

The passage highlights the debate around using Grice's maxims to understand symbolism. While
it offers a framework for interpretation, the subjectivity of the reader's background and the open-
ended nature of symbols themselves pose challenges.

Symbolism Beyond the Narrator: Characters as Interpreters

This passage explores how symbolism can be created and interpreted by characters within a
narrative, rather than solely by the narrator.

Characters as Symbolic Interpreters

 Eco's focus on symbolism in the narrator's voice is challenged.

 The passage uses Hemingway's "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" as an example.
 Here, Harry contemplates different symbolic interpretations of death, including "bicycle
policemen."

Symbolism and Shared Knowledge

 The passage highlights the importance of the reader's background knowledge in

interpreting symbols.
 Harry's references might be unclear to his companion due to her lack of shared context
with his memories of Paris.

Metonymy and Emblems vs. True Symbols

 The distinction between metonymy/emblems and true symbols is reiterated.

 Vultures and hyenas in the story are considered metonymic (associated with death) and
not true symbols due to their established meaning.

Character-Driven Symbolism in Woolf's "To the Lighthouse

 Virginia Woolf's novel is presented as an example of character-driven symbolism.

 The narrator guides the reader through the characters' thoughts using "narrated
monologue."
 James Ramsay associates his father with sharp objects, symbolically representing his
resentment.

Applying Grice's Maxims to Inner Thoughts

 The passage questions the applicability of Grice's maxims (principles of cooperation in

communication) to a character's inner thoughts.
 The maxims are meant for conversation, but a character's thoughts might not follow the
same rules.

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Connecting Character Thoughts and Reader Interpretation

 While Grice's maxims might not directly apply, the narrator acts as a bridge.
 In "To the Lighthouse," the narrator is assumed to follow the cooperative principle,
revealing relevant thoughts of the characters.
 This allows the reader to interpret the character's symbolic associations.

Character Obsessions and Reader Understanding

 The passage acknowledges the limitations of using Grice's maxims for character
thoughts.
 However, a character's obsessions can still be interpreted in context.
 In James' case, his recollection of his father is symbolic of his evolving feelings and
understanding.

Conclusion

This passage demonstrates that symbolism can be a powerful tool within a character's mind. By
analyzing a character's thoughts and associations, readers can gain deeper insight into their
motivations and experiences.

Symbolic Interpretation in Golding's "Lord of the Flies"

This passage dives into symbolism in William Golding's "Lord of the Flies," analyzing how
objects take on symbolic meaning beyond their literal function.

Symbolism in Chapter Titles

 The unusual phrasing of chapter titles in "Lord of the Flies" is seen as a nudge towards
symbolic interpretation.
 Phrases like "Fire on the Mountain" and "Gift for the Darkness" suggest a deeper
meaning beyond the literal.

The Conch and its Symbolic Significance

 The conch shell becomes a symbol of order and civilization.

 Its use as a tool for gathering and regulating meetings parallels the function of a gavel.
 This symbolism is considered "conventional" and culturally understood.

Piggy's Glasses: A Personalized Symbol

 Piggy's glasses are essential for him but gain additional symbolic meaning.
 They represent civilization, dependence on care, and potentially scholarship.
 Unlike the conch, the meaning of the glasses is more open to individual interpretation.

The Glasses and Jack's Power

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  When Jack steals the glasses, they become a symbol of his dominance and rejection of
order.
 The broken glasses at Jack's waist further emphasize his defiance.

The Conch's Destruction and Symbolic Importance

 The detailed description of the conch shattering upon Piggy's death is seen as
symbolically significant.
 This excessive focus (violating Grice's maxims) suggests the conch represents the
fragility of civilized rules.
 The destruction of the conch parallels the death of innocence and order.

Symbolism vs. Emblem: The Role of Cultural Knowledge

 The passage differentiates between symbols and emblems.

 The conch, with its connection to the mace, is considered an emblem due to its culturally-
established meaning.
 Piggy's glasses, with their more open interpretations, are closer to true symbols.

The Officer's Perspective and the Subjectivity of Symbols

 The officer's lack of understanding of the significance of the glasses highlights the
subjective nature of symbols.
 Their meaning depends on the reader's or character's cultural background and
experiences.

Conclusion

The passage in "Lord of the Flies" demonstrates how seemingly ordinary objects can take on
symbolic meaning, enriching the reader's understanding of the narrative's themes. The
importance of cultural context and individual interpretation in deciphering these symbols is also
emphasized.

Clothing as Symbolism in "Lord of the Flies"

This passage delves into the symbolic meaning of clothing in William Golding's "Lord of the
Flies," particularly focusing on the contrast between the boys and the adults.

Jack's Glasses vs. Officer's Revolver: Symbols of Authority

 Jack's stolen glasses at his waist are compared to the officer's revolver.
 Both represent authority, but the glasses (originally Piggy's) have a more symbolic
meaning for Jack.
 Grice's maxim of manner is used to connect these seemingly different objects due to their
similar placement.

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The Dark Ending: Lost Innocence and Societal Destruction

 The arrival of the officer representing a seemingly "civilized" world is juxtaposed with
the boys' descent into savagery.
 This emphasizes the overall bleakness of the ending, where rescue offers no real solution.

The Choristers' Clothing: Lost Order and a Reminder of War

 The initial appearance of the boys as choristers in their cloaks signifies societal order and
established roles.
 This contrasts with the chaos on the island and foreshadows the destruction of their
idyllic life.
 The officer's "dress whites" might be seen as an inversion of the choristers' uniforms.

Clothing as Characterization and Social Commentary

 The passage acknowledges the use of clothing to depict characters and their social
standing.
 However, the detailed descriptions in this case are seen as potentially symbolic, going
beyond mere characterization.

Interpreting Clothing: A Choice for the Reader

 Eco's view of symbolism as an optional interpretation is reiterated.

 The symbolic meaning of clothing is derived from its connection to the characters and
their experiences.
 Reader perspective, like Ralph's in this case, can influence the interpretation.

Clothing, Schema, and Reinterpretation

 The rescue scenario presented might be seen as a typical "desert island rescue" trope.
 However, the details of clothing challenge this conventional schema and invite a deeper
look.

The End and Its Ambiguities

 The ending offers closure (rescue) but raises questions about the state of civilization.
 The juxtaposition of the boys' savagery, the officer's uniform (potentially symbolic of
war), and the destroyed world suggests a critique of societal structures.
 The reader plays a role in integrating these elements and reinterpreting earlier parts of the
novel.

Learning from Loss: The Boys vs. the Officer

 Ralph's grief over Piggy's death highlights his maturity compared to the naive officer.
 The boys learn that their initial belief in British superiority is shattered.

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Symbolism: A Tool for Understanding

 The passage emphasizes that symbolic interpretation, while optional, enriches the
understanding of the text.
 Analyzing the contrasting clothing of the boys and the adults deepens the thematic
exploration of the novel.

Conclusion

By examining the symbolism embedded in clothing choices, the passage reveals a layer of social
commentary in "Lord of the Flies." The contrast between the boys' descent into violence and the
seemingly civilized world represented by the officer underscores the novel's critique of societal
structures and the potential for human savagery.

Decoding the Ending of "Lord of the Flies" through

Clothing
This passage delves deeper into the symbolic meaning of clothing in "Lord of the Flies,"
particularly at the novel's conclusion.

Jack's Uniform Remnant: A Reminder for the Reader

 The description of Jack's remaining uniform piece is seen as a reminder of his savage
nature.
 This detail is significant for the reader but irrelevant to the officer who doesn't recognize
its symbolism.

Grice's Maxims and Interpreting Descriptions

 The seemingly excessive detail in describing Jack's clothes (violating Grice's maxim of
quantity) is seen as purposeful.
 It prompts the reader to seek a deeper meaning beyond the literal description.

Uniforms and Societal Roles: Multiple Interpretations

 Uniforms typically represent membership, discipline, and social status.

 The uniforms of the Navy and choir boys connect to Englishness, further enriching the
symbolism.

Rescue and its Ambiguity: Religion vs. Warfare

 The officer's uniform, linked to war, contrasts with the choir uniform, potentially
symbolizing religion.
 However, this simplistic interpretation is challenged by the destroyed world the officer
represents.

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Reader Values and the Impact of the Novel

 The passage acknowledges that readers bring their own values to interpret the symbols of
the uniforms.
 The novel likely alters these pre-existing schemas (mental frameworks) about choirs and
navies.

The Search for Meaning: Beyond Literal Interpretation

 Readers are driven to find the most meaningful interpretation (maximal sense).
 Grice's maxims reflect the assumption that communication (including written text) has a
purpose.
 Readers, like Thorne suggests, actively search for deeper significance in literary works.

Re-Examining the Text: Closure and New Questions

 The detailed descriptions near the end (violating the maxim of quantity again) serve
multiple purposes.
 They delay closure, prompt evaluation, and remind readers of Jack's true nature despite
his appearance.

Are They Truly Rescued?

 The contrasting perspectives of the officer and the reader raise questions about the true
meaning of "rescue."
 The boys return to a world potentially no different from the one they created on the
island.

Discipline and its Duality

 The novel challenges assumptions about the value of discipline.

 Both the officer's obedience to authority and the choir's discipline contribute to negative
outcomes.

Conclusion

By analyzing the seemingly unnecessary details about clothing, the passage argues that "Lord of
the Flies" prompts readers to question their assumptions about societal structures, discipline, and
the nature of rescue. The reader is left with a sense of unease and a recognition of the potential
for darkness within seemingly civilized societies.

The Complexity of Symbolism in Literature

This passage wraps up the discussion on symbolism, highlighting its challenges and its
significance in literary interpretation.

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Key Points on Symbolism

 Similar to irony, symbolism can be easily overlooked by readers due to its lack of
obviousness.
 Eco's approach to symbolism using Gricean maxims is acknowledged, but its limitations
are discussed.
 The success of symbolic interpretation depends on the reader's cultural background and
knowledge.
 Different readers may interpret the same symbol differently based on their experiences.

Challenges in Symbolic Interpretation

 The passage identifies weak links in arguments about symbolism, such as the subjectivity
of "over-encoding."
 The maxims themselves are open to interpretation by both the writer and the reader.
 Different readers might have varying reactions to the same symbolic description (e.g.,
Piggy's death).

Symbolism vs. Definitiveness

 The core argument is that symbols are open-ended and resist fixed interpretations.
 Readers choose whether to engage with a text symbolically or not.
 Similar to misinterpreted glances in real life, symbolic meaning can be subjective.

Symbolism and Uncontrolled Implicatures

 The passage critiques the Gricean approach for allowing uncontrolled interpretations
(implicatures).
 Many symbols, like the conch in "Lord of the Flies," might be rooted in metonymy
(representing something else by association).

Symbolism Compared to Metaphor

 Both symbols and metaphors require inferential thinking and rely on the reader's
background knowledge.
 They offer interpretive freedom and enrich understanding within the context of the work.

The Importance of Symbols

 Despite the challenges, symbols are important because they invite deeper exploration of
meaning.
 They function similarly to metaphors in modeling thought and offering a richer
understanding.

Conclusion

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The passage suggests that symbolism, while complex, offers valuable insights into literary
works. It emphasizes the reader's role in interpreting symbols and the connections between
symbolic interpretation and other literary devices like metaphor. The next chapter will explore
how authors depict characters' thoughts in literature.

Exploring How Authors Show Characters' Thoughts

This chapter delves into the various methods writers use to depict the mental activity of
characters in fiction.

Psychonarration: Unveiling the Inner World

 The term "psychonarration" (coined by Cohn) refers to the techniques used to portray
characters' thoughts.
 Authors have always been interested in revealing characters' minds, with examples dating
back to Homer.

Traditional Techniques: Soliloquy and Dialogue

 Early methods included soliloquies (characters speaking their thoughts aloud) and
dialogues with deities (presumably unheard by others).
 Shakespeare's use of soliloquy, though potentially unnatural, is accepted as a convention.

A Shift in Focus: From Logic to Inner Workings

 The 18th century brought a change with Locke's ideas on the mind, emphasizing
introspection.
 Sterne's "Tristram Shandy" exemplifies this shift, using free association (albeit not
entirely free) for humor.
 This marked a move away from depicting only logical, coherent thought.

The 20th Century and the Stream of Consciousness

 The 20th century saw a surge in using psychonarration to explore the "texture of ordinary
existence."
 Focus shifted from major life moments to the unique experiences and internal world of
characters.
 William James' concept of a subjective and individual perception of reality ("stream of
consciousness") influenced this approach.

Psychonarration: A Range of Techniques

 Reproducing speech and thoughts is a starting point, but complexity arises with narration
and blurring the narrator/character voice.
 This leads to the development of "interior monologue" and "stream of consciousness"
techniques.

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  While these terms lack precise definitions, "psychonarration" serves as an umbrella term
for this area.

The Importance of Psychonarration

 Psychonarration is now a well-established tool in a writer's arsenal.

 The following sections will explore the various possibilities and provide examples of
these techniques in action.

Unveiling the Inner World: Techniques for Depicting

Character Consciousness
This section dives deeper into the various tools (listed along a continuum) that authors use to
portray a character's thoughts and internal world:

1. Narrator's Comments, Description, and Observation:

 The narrator directly describes the character's actions, expressions, and situations that
might reveal their thoughts and feelings.

2. Narrator's Report of Thought Acts (NRTA):

 The narrator explicitly tells the reader what the character is thinking, often using phrases
like "he thought" or "she wondered."

3. Indirect Thought (IT):

 The character's thoughts are presented in the third person, grammatically integrated into
the narrative flow.
 This creates a sense of distance between the reader and the character's mind.

4. Free Indirect Thought (FIT):

 The character's thoughts blend with the narrator's voice, blurring the lines between them.
 This offers a closer look into the character's perspective while maintaining a narrative
voice.

5. Direct Discourse (DD):

 The character's thoughts are presented verbatim, often using quotation marks to indicate
internal speech.

6. Free Direct Thought (FDT):

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  The character's thoughts are presented directly in the present tense, without quotation
marks or attributions.
 This offers the most unfiltered access to the character's mind, creating a sense of
immediacy.

The Illusion of Freedom: A Caveat

 The passage acknowledges that even with FDT, the narrator ultimately controls who gets
their thoughts revealed and when.
 Characters, despite their seemingly "free" thoughts, are ultimately creations of the author.

Combining Techniques for Complexity

 Authors often use a combination of these methods to create a more nuanced and flexible
portrayal of a character's inner world.
 This can make the reading experience more complex but also more rewarding.

In Conclusion

Understanding these techniques equips readers to better appreciate the author's choices in
revealing a character's consciousness. The following sections will likely explore how these
methods are used in specific examples from literature.

Narrator's Role in Revealing Character Thoughts

This section focuses on two methods used by narrators to depict characters' inner worlds:

1. Narrator's Comments:

 The narrator directly analyzes a character's mental state, potentially going beyond what
the character themself might consciously think.
 This can be combined with comments on the character's attitude, offering the reader
additional insights.
 The example from Spark's "The Finishing School" demonstrates this technique.

2. Narrator's Report of Thought Acts (NRTA):

 The narrator explicitly tells the reader what a character is thinking, often using phrases
like "he thought" or "she wondered."
 This method can have various uses:
o It can convey the narrator's judgment about the character's thoughts.
o It creates a distance between the reader and the character's mind compared to
other methods.
o It allows for irony when the narrator and character's perspectives differ.
 NRTA can be combined with other techniques for a more nuanced portrayal of thought.

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Examples of NRTA in Action:

 A simple case of NRTA: "Rowland regretted his early efforts..." (Spark, "The Finishing
School")
 NRTA offering access to non-human thoughts (Focus the cat in Ellis's "The 27th
Kingdom")
 NRTA revealing the thoughts of a dying man (Vickers's "Instances of the Number 3")
 NRTA used ironically to portray limitations in a character's thinking (Stevie in Conrad's
"The Secret Agent")

The Limits of NRTA and the Power of Distance

 NRTA can limit reader empathy compared to other methods.

 The presence of the narrator creates a "hybrid discourse" where two consciousnesses
(narrator and character) coexist.
 This distance can be used for irony or to shape the reader's perception of the character.

An Extreme Case: NRTA in Golding's "The Inheritors"

 This novel depicts Neanderthals and their developing language.

 The narrator uses NRTA with modifications to standard English to mimic their thought
patterns.
 An example is shown where Lok, a Neanderthal, observes a human hiding and climbing a
tree.
 The narrator describes Lok's thought process, including his limited language and reliance
on memories.
 Readers must infer meaning from Lok's perspective, highlighting the limitations of
NRTA in conveying complex thought.

Conclusion

This section emphasizes that even with NRTA, the narrator plays a significant role in shaping
how a character's thoughts are presented. The following sections will likely delve into other
methods for depicting consciousness in fiction.

Woolf's Stream of Consciousness and Narrative Techniques

in "To the Lighthouse"
This passage analyzes Virginia Woolf's use of Narrator's Report of Thought Acts (NRTA) in "To
the Lighthouse," particularly in portraying the character of James.

James's Thoughts: A Visual World

 The passage acknowledges that NRTA is a common technique for depicting character
thoughts.

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  In "To the Lighthouse," Woolf uses NRTA to effectively portray the mind of James, a
child who thinks in vivid images.
 This is evident in James's association of his father with sharp objects like knives and
beaks.

From Child to Teenager: Continuity of Emotions

 The example showcases James's thoughts as a teenager, still harboring resentment from
childhood.
 He imagines using a knife against his father, a recurring image from his younger years.
 This highlights the emotional continuity despite James's growth.

Woolf's Signature Style: Blending NRTA and FDT

 The passage identifies Woolf's characteristic technique of combining NRTA with

elements of Free Direct Thought (FDT).
 This is seen in James's imagined sharp retort to his father, presented almost like direct
speech within the NRTA.
 Cohn (1979) terms this style "narrated monologue," blurring the lines between narration
and character thought.

Beyond NRTA: Sterne's "Tristram Shandy" and Narrative Irony

 The passage contrasts Woolf's approach with an example from Sterne's "Tristram
Shandy."
 Sterne uses NRTA to depict an impossible situation: an omniscient first-person narrator
who is also an infant.
 This creates irony as the narrator reports the thoughts of Susannah, a servant, who
focuses on inheriting clothes while expressing grief.
 This humorously highlights the discrepancy between words and thoughts, a theme also
present in "To the Lighthouse" during the dinner scene.
 Unlike Woolf, Sterne emphasizes the disconnection between thought and speech,
suggesting it's necessary for social order.

The Power of NRTA: Flexibility and Juxtaposition

 The passage concludes by recognizing NRTA's versatility.

 It allows authors to combine a character's thoughts with their own commentary, creating
a rich inner world for the reader.

In Conclusion

This analysis demonstrates how Woolf utilizes NRTA in "To the Lighthouse" to create a
nuanced portrayal of James's consciousness. The passage also explores the broader concept of
NRTA through Sterne's work, highlighting its potential for irony and contrasting perspectives.

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Unveiling Thoughts: Indirect Thought (IT) and Free
Indirect Thought (FIT)
This section delves into two techniques authors use to depict a character's inner world:

1. Indirect Thought (IT):

 IT presents a character's thoughts in the third person, grammatically integrated into the
narrative flow.
 This creates a sense of distance between the reader and the character's mind compared to
more direct methods.
 Example: "she did not think that he was the conscience-ridden type..." (Ellis, "Pillars of
Gold")
o The use of emotive words ("conscience-ridden") conveys the character's specific
perspective.

2. Free Indirect Thought (FIT):

 FIT is a more complex and interesting method.

 It blends the character's voice with the narrator's voice, creating a fusion of perspectives.
 This can make it challenging for the reader to distinguish whose thoughts are whose.

The Allure and Challenge of FIT:

 FIT allows for a seamless integration of thought into the narrative flow.
 It presents a subtle and nuanced portrayal of a character's inner world.
 Example: Passage from Vickers's "Mr Golightly's Holiday" (The character, Mr.
Golightly, is revealed to be God)
o The passage showcases Mr. Golightly's thoughts about ravens and their parenting.
o The use of questions and rhetorical flourishes ("Apparently, not even ravens...")
reflects Mr. Golightly's internal voice.
o However, the final sentence ("A parent...could tell you it was nonsense") hints at
the narrator's voice, creating irony as the reader understands Mr. Golightly's true
identity.

Irony and the Power of FIT:

 FIT is a frequent tool for ironic commentary.

 The narrator can subtly distance themselves from the character's perspective through
word choice or direct/indirect comments.
 This creates a richness in meaning as the reader navigates the layers of thought.

FIT and the Polyphonic Nature of Fiction:

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  FIT contributes to the "polyphonic" nature of fiction, meaning it allows for multiple
voices to be heard simultaneously.
 The blending of narrator and character voice creates a complex interplay of perspectives.

In Conclusion

Understanding IT and FIT equips readers to better appreciate the nuances of how authors portray
a character's consciousness. The following sections will likely explore examples of these
techniques in action.

Unveiling the Raw Mind: Direct Thought (DT) and Free

Direct Thought (FDT)
This section explores two methods for presenting a character's inner world with varying degrees
of immediacy:

1. Direct Thought (DT):

 DT presents a character's thoughts directly, using quotation marks as if they were spoken
aloud.
 This offers a seemingly unfiltered view into the character's mind.
 Example: "She's jealous of me..." (Mantel, "Fludd")

2. Free Direct Thought (FDT):

 FDT presents a character's thoughts without quotation marks, seamlessly integrated into
the narrative flow.
 It often uses truncated sentences and stream-of-consciousness techniques to mimic the
rawness of thought.
 FDT can be a powerful tool, but it also presents challenges for the reader.

Benefits and Challenges of FDT:

 FDT offers a sense of intimacy and immediacy, allowing the reader to directly experience
the character's uncensored thoughts.
 However, FDT can be unclear due to the lack of context or internal logic that might be
present in spoken communication.
 Example: Passage from Faulkner's "As I Lay Dying" (Vardaman, a child, contemplates
his dead mother)
o The passage showcases Vardaman's fragmented thoughts and confusion.
o References like "it" and "her" require the reader to infer their meaning based on
context.
o This reflects how we think in a non-linear way, but it can be challenging to
interpret.

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FDT and Reader Engagement:

 The difficulty of FDT can be similar to eavesdropping on a conversation where context is

missing.
 Readers may find FDT frustrating or rewarding depending on their preference for
interpretive challenges.
 FDT can be seen as a form of "impolite" communication because it doesn't consider the
needs of the audience (the reader) for clarity.

Realistic Representation and the Power of FDT:

 FDT can be considered realistic because it reflects how our thoughts are often messy and
unorganized.
 However, true communication requires filtering thoughts for clarity, which FDT
bypasses.

Nuances of FDT in Ulysses:

 Joyce's "Ulysses" exemplifies the flexibility of FDT.

 Molly Bloom's soliloquy uses FDT to represent her stream-of-consciousness as she drifts
off to sleep.
 The passage lacks punctuation, uses reduced syntax, and jumps between tenses.
 This effectively captures the flow of Molly's thoughts.

FDT and Characterization:

 FDT can be used to reveal a character's thought patterns and personality.

 Example: Passage from Vickers' "Instances of the Number 3" (Thoughts of Frances
contrasted with her spoken words)
o FDT showcases Frances' internal monologue as she feels different from someone
else.
o This internal struggle is juxtaposed with her outwardly polite conversation,
creating a sense of complexity.

In Conclusion

DT and FDT offer authors tools to depict a character's inner world with varying degrees of
immediacy and clarity. FDT, while challenging, can be a powerful tool for creating a realistic
and nuanced portrayal of a character's thoughts.

Woolf's Narrated Monologue: A Symphony of Voices in "To

the Lighthouse"
This passage delves into Virginia Woolf's unique style, particularly the concept of "narrated
monologue" in her novel "To the Lighthouse."

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Narrated Monologue: A Blend of Voices

 Coined by Cohn (1979), this term describes the presence of two distinct voices in Woolf's
writing:
o The narrator's voice offers guidance, interpretation, and context for the characters'
thoughts.
o The character's voice presents their inner world through various methods like
direct and indirect discourse.
 Woolf skillfully combines these resources to create a rich tapestry of consciousness.

A Showcase in "To the Lighthouse"

 This novel exemplifies Woolf's narrated monologue.

 It utilizes all the techniques discussed except the extreme FDT seen in "Ulysses."
 An intriguing aspect is the simultaneous portrayal of multiple characters' thoughts, often
contrasting and uncomfortable.
 Example: The dinner table scene (1927/1964: 108)
o Each character hopes their inner thoughts remain hidden.
o This creates a sense of voyeurism as the reader witnesses their private worlds.
 Yet, focusing on one character's thoughts at a time seems more natural.

Ordinary Minds, Unclear Attribution

 Woolf often portrays the everyday thoughts of ordinary people.

 Her characters lack distinct dialects, making it difficult to distinguish between narrator
and character voice.
 This creates a close alignment between the two, blurring the lines.

Example: Mrs. Ramsay's Stream of Consciousness

 A passage from "To the Lighthouse" is dissected to illustrate this point.

o The passage showcases Mrs. Ramsay's thoughts as she contemplates a necklace
and observes rooks.
o Sentences seamlessly blend narration, free indirect thought (FIT), and other
techniques.
o Attributing each sentence solely to narrator or character becomes challenging.

Beyond Attribution: The Power of Fusion

 While pinpointing the exact voice can be difficult, the combined effect is profound.
 The fusion of narrator and character provides a deeper understanding of Mrs. Ramsay's
inner world.
 The passage reveals her aesthetic appreciation, connection to nature, and her observations
about her children.

Conclusion

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Woolf's narrated monologue, as seen in "To the Lighthouse," transcends the issue of attribution.
It creates a symphony of voices, offering a nuanced and insightful portrayal of human
consciousness.

Unveiling Elizabeth's Inner World: Austen's Technique

Compared to Woolf
This passage explores how Jane Austen, similar to Virginia Woolf, reveals the thoughts of her
characters, particularly Elizabeth Bennet in "Pride and Prejudice."

Similarities and Differences:

 Both Austen and Woolf delve into the minds of their characters, but with distinct styles.
 Austen uses this technique sparingly, often during pivotal moments, while Woolf
employs it more frequently.
 Austen's characters' thoughts are generally well-ordered and grammatically correct,
unlike Woolf's stream-of-consciousness approach.

A Turning Point for Elizabeth:

 The passage analyzes a crucial scene in "Pride and Prejudice" where Elizabeth's
perception of Mr. Darcy shifts.
 This moment significantly alters the novel's trajectory.

Austen's Technique: Blending Voices

 Austen primarily utilizes free direct thought (FDT) and indirect discourse (both free and
regular) to portray Elizabeth's inner world.
 The narrator and Elizabeth's voice are often closely aligned, making attribution
challenging.
 Unlike Woolf, Austen doesn't create unique dialects for her characters; they are
differentiated by their proximity to the narrator's language.

A Passage Under Scrutiny:

 The passage dissects Elizabeth's thoughts as she observes a portrait of Mr. Darcy.
o Sentences 1 and 2: Narratorial, with a possible hint of Elizabeth's judgment
(sentence 2).
o Sentence 3: Ambiguous - could be the narrator's general observation (gnomic
generalization) or Elizabeth's reflection (FIT).
o Sentences 4 and 5: Clearly Elizabeth's FIT, with the first sentence using a
reporting clause and exclamation points for emphasis.
o Sentence 6: Possibly FDT due to its directness.
o Sentence 7: NRTA with a touch of irony as Elizabeth misinterprets the painting's
gaze.

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The Beauty of the Blurred Lines:

 Distinguishing between narrator and character voice can be a challenge in Austen's work.
 This ambiguity isn't detrimental; it showcases the close alignment between Elizabeth and
the narrator's perspectives.

Conclusion:

Austen's technique, while distinct from Woolf's, effectively portrays Elizabeth's inner world at a
critical juncture. The blending of narrator and character voice creates a nuanced and cohesive
experience for the reader.

Narrated Monologue: Beyond Woolf - A Look at Ellis's

Technique
This passage explores the concept of narrated monologue, extending the discussion beyond
Virginia Woolf's work and analyzing its use in Alice Thomas Ellis's "The Inn at the Edge of the
World."

Narrated Monologue: A Legacy

 Narrated monologue, as defined by Cohn (1979), has become a widely used technique to
portray a character's inner world.
 It blends the narrator's voice with the character's voice, creating a multi-layered
perspective.

Eric's Twisted Thoughts: A Case Study

 The passage examines the opening of Ellis's novel, where Eric contemplates murdering
his wife.
 The challenge lies in identifying narrator and character voice due to the lack of
established character traits (idiolect) at this point in the story.

Deciphering the Blend:

 Sentence 1: Narrated Thought Report (NRTA) with "tried to imagine" indicating the
narrator's report.
 Sentence 2: Free Indirect Thought (FIT) with a mix of character's perspective ("act") and
narrator's commentary ("satisfaction").
 Sentences 3 & 4: Possibly NRTA due to the reporting verb and formal tone, though
interpretations can vary.
 Sentence 5: Direct Discourse (DD) with fragmented syntax, suggesting a shift towards
FIT.
 Sentence 6: NRTA due to the reporting verb and lack of character-specific language.

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  Sentence 7: FIT with "inmates" potentially reflecting Eric's imagined camaraderie with
criminals.
 Sentence 8: FIT with "recently" suggesting the character's perspective on time.
 Sentence 9: Narratorial with reported speech introducing the lawyer's perspective.

The Power of Narrated Monologue:

 Cohn's term "narrated monologue" aptly captures the fluidity between narrator and
character voice in this passage.
 Ellis, unlike Woolf, employs a layer of irony. The narrator presents Eric's justifications
for murder without endorsing them, creating a sense of dark humor.

Conclusion:

The analysis of Ellis's opening scene demonstrates how narrated monologue can effectively
portray a character's complex inner world, even in the absence of established character traits. The
technique allows for a nuanced blend of perspectives, adding depth and intrigue to the narrative.

The Power of Narrated Monologue: Nuance, Complexity,

and Irony
This concluding section summarizes the key takeaways from the discussion on narrated
monologue and psychonarration:

A Spectrum of Techniques:

 Authors possess a rich toolbox for depicting characters' thoughts, from narrated
monologue to free direct thought (FDT).
 The narrator's role is crucial. Their descriptions and reports (NRTA) can offer
surprisingly complex views.

The Narrator's Advantage:

 A narrator allows for analysis and the inclusion of multiple perspectives besides the
character's.
 Indirect discourse facilitates the inclusion of "echoic language," blending narrator and
character perception, creating a polyphony of voices (Bakhtinian concept).

Irony and the Power of Perspective:

 This blending of voices often leads to irony, as the narrator may offer an unflattering
commentary on the character's thoughts.

FDT: A Double-Edged Sword:

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  While FDT promises a clear window into a character's mind, it can be challenging to
interpret due to its lack of structure and focus on the internal world.
 The character's unfiltered thoughts might not be well-organized or insightful, leaving the
reader with limited gains.

The Limits of Extreme Psychonarration:

 The extreme forms of FDT seen in Joyce and Faulkner may not be entirely realistic.
 The dominance of a single voice can create a sense of isolation and limit the polyphony
that enriches storytelling.

The Narrator's Value: Beyond Characterization:

 A narrator offers the flexibility to shift focus between characters seamlessly.

 Even inanimate objects can become focalizers (e.g., the cat Focus).

Psychonarration and Characterization:

 Psychonarration can provide a sense of a character's inner world, although interaction

with others strengthens this effect.
 An interesting example is the ending of "The Inheritors," showcasing the contrasting
minds of Neanderthals and modern humans through FDT.

Narrated Monologue's Legacy:

 The narrated monologue, utilizing various techniques, remains influential in

contemporary fiction.
 Its adaptability allows for its use even in detective stories, as seen in the works of Ellis,
Vickers, and Rankin.

The Enduring Value:

 The ability to delve into characters' minds through narrated monologue adds depth,
complexity, and intrigue to storytelling.
 It allows authors to explore the nuances of human thought and create a richer reading
experience.

Literary Criticism: Unveiling the Hidden Meanings

This passage delves into the world of literary criticism, exploring how scholars approach and
interpret literary texts.

The Ever-Shifting Landscape of Language

 The text acknowledges the fluid nature of language in literature, emphasizing the
importance of understanding how literary scholars analyze these complex works.

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Schema: The Foundation of Interpretation

 Literary scholars like Culler (1975) highlight the role of "schema" – our cultural
background and genre knowledge – in shaping our understanding of texts.
 These pre-existing schemas act as filters, influencing how we interpret a story based on
our past experiences with similar genres (like fairy tales).

Formalism: Decoding the Structure

 The formalist approach, championed by Genette, emphasizes how the structure of a text
guides interpretation.
 Elements like the length of sections and the order of events (chronological or not) reveal
the author's focus and influence how readers approach the narrative.
 These structural features create "massive implicatures" – unspoken messages about
what's important – that shape our reading experience.

Reading Beyond the Surface: The Reward of Attention

 Chapter 1 references Thorne's argument about the distinct way we read literature. We
invest more attention because we expect a payoff in the form of hidden meanings (weak
implicatures) as defined by Sperber and Wilson.
 Thorne suggests readers might go further in their search for meaning compared to
relevance theory's framework.

The Poetic Effect and the Quest for "Literariness"

 Pilkington (2000) proposes that "poetic effects" can explain what makes a text literary.
 By refining this concept, relevance theory might offer a more comprehensive
understanding of literature.
 There's a debate about the extent of this search for meaning. While Pilkington advocates
for an extensive exploration of weak implicatures, Sperber and Wilson might favor a
more moderate approach.

The Active Reader: A Continuous Search

 The passage acknowledges that successful readers, like Pilkington, may engage in a
lengthy pursuit of hidden meanings within a text.

In Conclusion

Literary criticism equips readers with tools to delve deeper into literary works. By understanding
how scholars analyze structure, schema, and the search for meaning, we can become more active
and insightful readers ourselves.

The Importance of Context in Understanding Language

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This passage highlights the critical role of context in interpreting any form of communication,
including literary texts.

Beyond Words: The Power of Context

 The ability to interpret language effectively hinges on understanding the context in which
it was produced.
 This includes knowing the speaker/writer and the circumstances surrounding the creation
of the message.

Defining Context: A Psychological Perspective

 The ideal definition of context should reflect how people naturally interpret language.
 It should consider the broad range of knowledge and experiences we bring to each
interaction.

Contextual Frameworks:

 The text analyzes different approaches to defining context:

o Discourse analytical tradition (Brown and Yule, 1983): Focuses on the
preceding discourse and the physical setting.
o Sperber & Wilson: Expands the definition to include all relevant knowledge for
interpreting explicit and implicit meanings.
o Werth (1999): Takes the most comprehensive approach, encompassing:
 Encyclopedic knowledge
 Relationships with participants in the discourse
 The text itself (text-driven)
 Social and sociolinguistic factors (including the speaker/writer's
reliability)

Context in Literary Texts:

 Werth's view of context acknowledges the unique considerations in interpreting literature.

o Readers evaluate the narrator's reliability and consider the author's background
and social situation.
o For example, our perception of the narrator in Virginia Woolf's work differs from
that in Irvine Welsh's novels due to their distinct styles and social contexts.

The Dynamic Nature of Context:

 The passage emphasizes that even within a single text, the context can shift.
 The narrator of "Tom Jones" is generally friendly but can occasionally become abusive,
requiring readers to adapt their interpretation.

Real-World Relevance:

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  Werth's strength lies in acknowledging the complexity of how we interpret language in
real life, which extends to our reading of fiction.

Conclusion

Understanding context is crucial for unlocking the full meaning of any utterance, be it a spoken
conversation or a literary masterpiece. By considering the various elements that shape context,
we can become more adept interpreters of the world around us.

Speech Act Theory in Literature: A Limited, but Valuable

Tool
This passage discusses the role of Speech Act Theory (SAT) in analyzing literary discourse,
acknowledging its limitations but highlighting its usefulness in specific contexts.

Limited Value for Everyday Analysis:

 The passage suggests that applying SAT to classify every speech act in a novel can be
tedious and not particularly insightful.

Distinguishing Narrator and Character:

 Narrator speech is typically composed of representative speech acts (simply reporting

information).
 Character speech exhibits more variety, including expressives (expressing emotions) and
directives (commands or requests).
 Some authors, like Sterne and Fielding, utilize directives in unique ways.

Unveiling the Unreliable Narrator:

 SAT becomes valuable when analyzing "malformed speech acts" – instances where
communication deviates from the norm.
 These deviations can be a powerful tool for identifying unreliable narrators.
o One example is a first-person narrator using representative speech acts to report
the thoughts or motivations of another character, potentially misrepresenting their
true feelings.

Conclusion

SAT may not be the most comprehensive tool for everyday literary analysis. However, its ability
to identify "malformed speech acts" offers a valuable approach to understanding unreliable
narrators and their deceptive narratives.

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Grice's Cooperative Principle: A Boon for Literary Analysis
(with Limitations)
This passage explores the usefulness of Grice's Cooperative Principle (CP) and its maxims in
understanding literary texts.

The Power of Cooperation:

 Grice's concept, originally intended for spoken language, proves surprisingly valuable for
interpreting written works.
 It highlights our inherent assumption that communication is cooperative, with both
parties aiming for successful understanding (strengthened by relevance theory).

Navigating the Maxims:

 The applicability of the four maxims (quantity, quality, manner, relevance) varies in
literary contexts:
o Quantity: Easy to judge in factual texts (newspaper articles) but becomes
ambiguous with fiction. We might have to trust the author's choices or view them
as excessive. Withholding information can be a deliberate strategy, as seen in
detective fiction or stories that thrive on suspense (e.g., Joyce's "A Painful Case").
o Quality: Not a major concern in fiction, as it's inherently made-up. However, it
applies to character interactions and the reliability of first-person narrators (e.g.,
the governess in "The Turn of the Screw").
o Manner: Most flexible maxim. How something is expressed reveals the
speaker/writer's attitude (e.g., Labov's evaluative devices). It also connects to
Genette's work on the order and structure of texts, influencing how readers
interpret the narrative.
o Relevance: Challenging to define. In literature, we generally assume all elements
are relevant, but judging an element's specific contribution involves reader
interpretation and engagement. Descriptions, like clothing choices, can be
economical ways to suggest a character's background and social status through
implicatures (unstated meanings).

Conclusion

Grice's CP offers valuable tools for literary analysis, particularly through the maxims of manner
and relevance. While some maxims require adaptation for fiction, they provide a framework for
understanding how authors construct meaning and how readers actively participate in the
process.

Relevance Theory: Unveiling Meaning Through Effort

This passage examines Relevance Theory (RT) as a framework for interpreting language,
highlighting its strengths and limitations, particularly in the context of literature.

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Beyond Grice: Relevance as the Guiding Light

 Sperber and Wilson critique Grice's Cooperative Principle for allowing limitless
interpretations (implicatures).
 RT proposes that relevance is the sole driving force behind interpretation. We assume all
communication is relevant and continue searching for implied meanings until satisfied.

The Literary Consideration:

 The theory wasn't originally designed for literature, but followers have adapted it
somewhat.
 The analysis of weak implicatures and poetic effects remains subjective, with readers
reaching satisfaction at varying points.

Demystifying Language: Metaphor and Irony

 RT offers valuable insights into common language phenomena like metaphor and irony,
treating them as ordinary language use rather than special cases.
 This "demystification" shows how metaphors and irony function as part of regular
communication.

The Spectrum of Meaning-Making in Metaphor

 RT explains metaphor as a spectrum of precise and loose expressions used strategically to

convey meaning.
 This approach suggests why metaphors are engaging – they require effort from the
listener/reader to decipher the intended meaning.

Individuality in Interpretation:

 The theory acknowledges that interpretations will vary due to differences in background
knowledge (encyclopaedic knowledge) and the effort invested by each reader.
 This explains why the same metaphor can have different meanings for different people or
even the same person at different times.

Connecting Metaphor and Thought

 RT's view of metaphor aligns with Lakoff's concept of "concept metaphors" – underlying
conceptual frameworks that guide our understanding of metaphorical language.
 This perspective helps us grasp how metaphors create meaning within a specific context.

Freedom with Responsibility: The Power of Implicatures

 Sperber and Wilson (developed by Pilkington) advocate for interpretive freedom while
acknowledging the role of individual knowledge and effort in shaping interpretations.
 This avoids imposing a rigid framework that restricts understanding.

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Conclusion

Relevance Theory offers a valuable framework for analyzing language, particularly metaphors
and irony, acknowledging the active role of the interpreter in constructing meaning from
communication. While its application in literature requires some adaptation, it emphasizes the
effortful nature of communication and the unique experiences that each reader brings to the text.

Unveiling Irony and Beyond: The Power of Echoic Discourse

This passage delves into the concept of "echoic discourse" and its role in interpreting irony,
indirect speech, and other language features. It also highlights the strengths and weaknesses of
Relevance Theory (RT) in this context.

RT's Echoic Account: A Boon for Interpretation

 RT's theory of echoic discourse offers a powerful tool for understanding irony, indirect
speech, and various forms of implied meaning.
 It explains how we interpret irony successfully (or miss it entirely) and how our own
biases can influence interpretation.

Demystifying Irony:

 By treating irony as part of everyday language, RT removes its mystique and explains
how we can detect the speaker's intended meaning.
 The theory emphasizes the concept of "distancing" – the ironic speaker acknowledges
another perspective while expressing disapproval to some degree.
 This approach contrasts with views that see irony as strictly condemnatory.

Bakhtin's Social Lens: A Valuable Counterpoint

 Mikhail Bakhtin's concept of "hybrid discourse" (essentially echoic discourse) aligns with
RT's view but adds a crucial social dimension.
 Bakhtin emphasizes the role of social context and historical factors in shaping language
use.
 Our experiences, both as readers and in social interactions, influence how we
communicate and interpret communication.

Synergy: Combining Strengths for Deeper Understanding

 While both RT and Bakhtin offer valuable insights into echoic language, their approaches
are complementary.
o RT provides a cognitive framework for interpretation.
o Bakhtin adds the crucial social and historical context.
 By combining these perspectives, we gain a richer understanding of how language
functions in all its complexity.

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RT's Achilles' Heel: The Social Dimension

 The passage critiques RT for neglecting the social and historical aspects of language use.
 Language is embedded in social relations, and our communication is shaped by these
dynamics.

Conclusion

The concept of echoic discourse provides a powerful tool for analyzing irony and other forms of
indirect communication. By combining RT's cognitive approach with Bakhtin's focus on social
context, we gain a more comprehensive understanding of how language creates meaning in a
dynamic social world.

Labov's Framework: A Tool for Understanding Narrative

Structure (with Limitations)
This passage explores the applicability of William Labov's work on natural narratives to
analyzing fictional narratives.

Labov's Model: A Foundation, Not a Prescription

 Labov's framework for analyzing the structure of personal narratives (abstract,

orientation, complicating action, resolution, coda) can be helpful for understanding
fictional narratives as well.
 However, the passage acknowledges that the model isn't entirely original and shouldn't be
a rigid structure.

Flexibility in Fiction: The Absence of Elements

 Contemporary novels often deviate from Labov's structure:

o Resolutions and codas (clear endings) are not mandatory and may be absent for
artistic effect, leaving room for reader interpretation.
o Orientations (introductions) can be brief or even omitted.
o Abstracts (summaries) are unnecessary as readers choose to engage with the text.
 An example: Virginia Woolf's "To the Lighthouse" lacks a causal chain of events,
focusing on character interactions over time. Major events are mentioned indirectly.

Labov's Contribution: Unveiling Textual Organization

 Despite the flexibility of fictional narratives, Labov's framework offers valuable insights
into how these stories are organized.

The Power of Evaluative Devices: Shaping Reader Response

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  The passage shifts to the concept of evaluative devices (tools that guide interpretation)
used by narrators to influence readers' reactions.
 These devices can be more densely packed in written narratives compared to spoken
language, where processing speed is a factor.
 Metaphors, for instance, invite deeper interpretation and require more effort from the
reader.

Conclusion

Labov's framework provides a helpful foundation for analyzing narrative structure, even in
fictional works. While fictional narratives may not always adhere to a strict structure, Labov's
model sheds light on how authors organize their stories. Additionally, the concept of evaluative
devices highlights the author's influence on shaping reader response through language choices.

Unveiling the Inner World: A Look at Psychonarration

This passage delves into the complexities of depicting characters' thoughts in fiction, focusing on
the concept of "psychonarration" and its various forms.

The Duality of Voices: Narrator vs. Character

 Fiction thrives on portraying characters' thought processes, blurring the lines between the
narrator's voice and the characters' voices.
 Distinguishing these voices can be challenging, and the location of authority (who
controls the interpretation) becomes a question.

Navigating Focalization:

 Focalization, the perspective from which a story unfolds, becomes even more
complicated when it shifts to a character's point of view (focalization into character).
 Even in Narrated Thought Representing Action (NRTA), the distance between the
character's thoughts and the narrator's voice varies.
 NRTA can be used for summarizing thoughts, echoing a character's words, or subtly
conveying the narrator's attitude.

The Intricacies of Embedded Discourse:

 Indirect Discourse (ID) and Free Indirect Discourse (FID) present difficulties in
pinpointing where one voice ends and another begins.
 FID, where a character's thoughts are interwoven with the narrator's voice, is particularly
challenging to disentangle.
 This creates some of the most intricate and nuanced effects in fiction, allowing for irony,
intimacy, and even criticism of the character.

The Power (and Unease) of FID:

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  FID, while offering a close look into a character's mind, can feel intrusive or "unnatural"
as we don't have this ability in real life.
 This creates a fascinating tension for the reader, as it's both a challenging task to interpret
and an opportunity to experience a character's inner world.

Beyond the Human Mind: FID in Unexpected Places

 The passage uses an example where FID is used to depict the thoughts of a cat,
highlighting its versatility.

The Nuances of NRTA:

 NRTA can be flexible in how closely it follows a character's thoughts.

 The choice of words and phrasing can sometimes reveal the narrator's subtle influence on
the portrayal of the character's thoughts.

The Enigmatic World of Indirect Language:

 The passage emphasizes that indirect language in fiction, encompassing various forms of
psychonarration, creates a complex and ambiguous space.
 Readers grapple with uncertainties – who is "speaking," and how reliable is the
information presented?
 This very ambiguity makes this aspect of fiction so captivating and challenging for
readers.

Conclusion

Psychonarration, in its various forms, offers authors a powerful tool to delve into the characters'
inner lives. However, it creates a complex interplay of voices and perspectives, leaving readers
to navigate uncertainties and interpretations, making it a rich and thought-provoking aspect of
literary analysis.

Pragmatics: Unveiling the Magic of Language in Literature

This summary explores the role of pragmatic theories in analyzing and appreciating literature.

Core Concepts and Debates

 Pragmatics explores how we interpret language considering context and speaker

intention.
 Grice's Cooperative Principle and maxims (quantity, quality, relevance, manner) offer a
framework for interpreting communication, aiming for mutual understanding.
 Relevance Theory by Sperber and Wilson suggests relevance is the sole driving force,
while others debate the role of additional principles.

The Pragmatic Lens on Literature

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  Pragmatic theories help us understand how we process and react to literary texts, even
seemingly "uncooperative" ones like Finnegans Wake.
 They highlight the importance of "interest principle" – literature should engage the
reader.
 By examining elements like organization, narrative voice, and indirect discourse,
pragmatics sheds light on how authors craft meaning.

Cooperative Communication: Beyond Ordinary Talk

 The core idea of cooperation in language use (Grice's maxims) is still relevant when
interpreting literature, even though it's fictional.

Echoic Language and Beyond: Relevance Theory's Contribution

 Relevance Theory is particularly insightful in analyzing "echoic language" - indirect

speech, thought representation, and irony.
 It explains how irony functions and why it can be misinterpreted.
 Bakhtin's concept of "dialogic discourse" aligns with this view, adding a social and
historical dimension.

Pragmatics and Other Theories: A Tapestry of Understanding

 Pragmatics complements other literary theories like politeness theory, which explains the
effects of humor, parody, and offensive language.
 Genette's work on narrative structure aligns with how we interpret information flow in
real-life conversations.

The Power of Pragmatics in Teaching and Analysis

 Pragmatic theories offer a systematic approach to tackle puzzling aspects of literature,

making them valuable tools for both analyzing and teaching literature.
 By understanding the "why" behind language choices, we can appreciate the artistry and
complexities of literary texts.

Conclusion

Pragmatics provides a valuable framework for delving deeper into the language of literature. It
reminds us that literature, while distinct from everyday communication, shares some
fundamental principles, enriching our reading experience and unlocking the magic woven by
words.

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