LESSON 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS Various units are used to express pressure.

Some of
these derive from a unit of force divided by a unit of
WHAT IS THERMODYNAMICS?
area; the SI unit of pressure, the pascal (Pa), for
Thermodynamics is a branch of science that treats example, is one newton per square meter 𝑁/𝑚2;
various phenomena of energy and the related similarly, the pound-force per square inch (psi) is the
properties of matter, especially of the laws of traditional unit of pressure in the imperial and U.S.
transformation of heat into other form of energy and customary systems.
vice versa.
Pressure may also be expressed in terms of standard
Thermodynamics is the science of the relationship atmospheric pressure; the atmosphere (atm) is equal to
between heat, work, temperature, and energy. In broad this pressure. Manometric units such as the centimeter
terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of of water, millimeter of mercury, and inch of mercury
energy from one place to another and from one form to are used to express pressures in terms of the height of
another. The key concept is that heat is a form of column of a particular fluid in a manometer.
energy corresponding to a definite amount of
Simply, Pressure can be expressed mathematically by
mechanical work.
the formula.
INTENSIVE PROPERTIES

- An intensive property is one that does not depend on

the mass of the substance or system. Where:
The properties of matter that do not depend on the size P = Pressure
or quantity of matter in any way are referred to as an F = Force
intensive property of matter. Temperatures, density, A = Area
colour, melting and boiling point, etc., all are intensive CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF PRESSURE
properties as they will not change with a change in size Gage pressure - The pressure of a fluid or system
or quantity of matter. The density of 1 litre of water or measured by pressure measuring instruments
100 litres of water will remain the same as it is an Atmospheric pressure - The force exerted by the
intensive property. column of atmosphere per unit area at the surface of
the earth. It is the intensity of force per unit area due to
EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
the weight of the atmosphere
- An extensive property of a system depends on the Standard atmospheric pressure - The pressure of the
system size or the amount of matter in the system. atmosphere measured at the surface of the earth near
sea level
There are properties such as length, mass, volume,
Absolute pressure - The pressure of a fluid or system
weight, etc. that depend on the quantity or size of the
with reference to an absolute zero pressure.
matter, these properties are called an extensive
a. Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric
property of matter and their value changes if the size or
pressure:
quantity of matter changes. Suppose we have two boxes
made up of the same material, one has a capacity of
b. Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric
four litres while the other has a capacity of ten litres.
pressure:
The box with ten litres capacity will have more amount
of matter as compared to that of a four-litre box.
CONVERSTION OF PRESSURE
WHAT IS PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE? Note:
WHAT IS PRESSURE??? ✓ Pgage = negative (-) when the pressure is vacuum.
✓ Perfect vacuum is -101.325.
Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied
1 Patm = 101.325 kPa
perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area
over which that force is distributed.
 per unit mass. Specific volume is the inverse of
density.
1 Patm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
= 1.032 kg/sq. cm Specific Weight
= 29.92 in Hg - this defined as weight (force) of the
= 760 mmHg thermodynamic substance per unit volume
= 760 torr
= 1.013 bar
WHAT IS TEMPERATURE?? Specific Gravity or Relative Density
Temperature - measure of intensity of heat. The degree - the ratio of the density of a substance by the
of hotness or coldness density of standard substance, such as water at
➢ Absolute temperature - the temperature measured 4 degree C.
from absolute zero.
➢ Absolute zero - the temperature at which the FORMS OF ENERGY
molecules stop moving. 1.Potential Energy
- The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
• Relation between temperature scales: position.

2. Kinetic Energy
- The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
Temperature interval/change – the difference between
motion.
two temperature readings from the same scale, and the
change in temperature through which the body is
heated.

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM and SURROUNDINGS

𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 Thermodynamics system or also known as control
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒. volume is defined as a region in space that is under
consideration, it also contains mass or thermodynamic
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW substance. It has the specific boundaries that separate it
- States that the object will accelerate in the from the external effects of the environment.
direction and directly proportional to the A system can be anything, for example, a piston,
unbalanced force acting on it. pump, blower, turbine or compressor.

TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM:

Where; Open system (steady flow system) are able to exchange
F = unbalance force energy (heat and work) and mass across the system
m = mass of the object boundaries.
𝑎0 = observed acceleration or local acceleration
= 9.81m/sec. square = 32.2 ft/sec. square

𝑔𝑐 = proportionality constant =

Density and Specific Volume Closed system (non-flow system) are able to exchange
- The density is defined as mass per unit volume energy (heat and work) across the system boundary not
and the specific volume is defined as volume mass.
 Where:
A = cross sectional area normal to the flow, sq. meter
v = average flow velocity,
m/s V = volume flow rate, cu. Meter/sec.

Isolated systems are totally isolated from the

HEAT AND ENTROPY:
environment. There is no exchange of heat, work, or
Heat – a form of energy associated with the kinetic
mass across the system boundaries.
random motion of large number of molecules.
Sensible heat – the heat needed to change the
temperature of the body without changing its phase.

Where:
Qs = sensible heat
Nonflow Process – a process that takes place in a closed m = mass
system. Example: compressor ΔT = change in temperature
Steady flow Process – a process that takes place in an C = specific heat
open system in which the quantity of matter within the Cwater = 1.0 cal/gm C = 1 Btu/lb F = 4.186 kJ/kg K
system is constant. Example: turbine
Non-flow work – work in a non-flow process. Latent heat – the heat needed by the body to change its
phase without changing its temperature.
Latent heat of fusion – solid to liquid
Steady flow work – the work in a steady flow process. Latent heat of vaporization – liquid to gas

Where:
Where:
QL = heat needed
P = pressure
m = mass
V = volume
L = latent heat (fusion/vaporization)
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
(+) = heat entering; substance melts
- States that the mass going in in the system is
(-) = heat leaving; substance freezes
equal to the mass going out of the system.
- Mass flow rate going in the system = mass flow
Note:
rate going out the system
Latent heat of fusion of ice (Lf)
= 144 Btu/lb = 334 kJ/kg = 80 cal/gm
Latent heat of vaporization of boiling water (Lv)
= 970 Btu/lb = 2257 kJ/kg = 540 cal/gm

Entropy – the measure of randomness of the molecules

of a substance. It is also the measure of the amount of
energy that is unavailable to do useful work in a closed
THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
system undergoing a change of state.
The continuity equation was derived from the law of
Enthalpy – the heat energy transferred to a substance
conservation of mass.
at a constant pressure process.
Internal energy – the energy stored within the body. It
is the sum of the kinetic energy of all its constituent
particles plus the sum of all the potential energies of
For frictionless flow interaction among these particles.
 𝑯 = 𝑼 + 𝑷V
Where;
H = enthalpy
U = internal energy
P = absolute pressure
V = volume