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 Chapter

Water Management and

Planning

Authors

Juan C. Santamarta Cerezal

Jonay Neris
Axel Ritter
Luis E. Hernández-Gutiérrez

University of La Laguna
Viana nº 50, planta baja, 38071,
La Laguna - Tenerife
Spain
 University of
La Laguna,
Tenerife, Spain

Chapter 4

Water Management and Planning

Juan C� Santamarta Cerezal
Jonay Neris
Axel Ritter
Luis E� Hernández-Gutiérrez

ABSTRACT

matter. It is well recognised that water planners require a broad set of inter-

contemporary water management challenges. Solving water-related problems,

ability to integrate environmental, social and political considerations into planning

practice. The 21st century will be an era of increased global concern regarding the
availability of water.

and the population in general. Despite the climate pattern has been changing
continuously during the Earth´s history due to changes in the atmosphere,
topography, volcanic activity, and other natural factors, this change seems to have
been exacerbated recently due to the alteration of the greenhouse gases content
in the atmosphere by the humanity. Nowadays, the extent of this change and its

warming, leaded last century by the climate change, has involved alterations in
the temperature, precipitation and evaporation patters. From the point of view of

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 Chapter 4

the water resources, these changes include an increase in the freshwater losses from
terrestrial sources (glaciers, ice and snow, lakes, soil moisture, swamps, groundwater,
marches and rivers) by evaporation and sublimation from fresh water deposits and
transpiration from the vegetation, but also changes in the rainfall quantity and
patterns. As a result, climate change has leaded short and long-term alterations in the

impact on, among others, the quantity but also quality of water resources.

This module focuses on one of those, the issue of water supply planning and resource
management, in particular, the planning process, systems analysis methods;
institutional framework for water resources engineering; comprehensive integration
of engineering, economic, environmental, security, legal, and political considerations
in water resources development and management. It further discusses the

water usage as well as current issues in water quality, water pollution, and water
resource regulation.

The overall aim of the module is to develop the skills of the students to know how to
plan, develop and manage water resources.

1 WATER PLANNING

1�1 Introduction

Water is an increasingly critical issue at the forefront of global policy change,

management and planning. There are growing concerns about water as a renewable
resource, its availability for a wide range of users, aquatic ecosystem health, and
global issues relating to climate change, water security and water trading.

also considers how water resources can become more integrated and sustainable.

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 Water Management and Planning

1�2 Water plans

Water plans must include recommended alternatives for regional water resources
management, water conservation, protection of the regional public welfare, and
time lines for implementing the water plan. The primary factor that was taken into

resources, such as boreholes, rivers or springs.

The water budget begins with the amount of water provided by precipitation as
the total available water in the watershed.The plan will be reviewed and updated

population forecasts into the forecasts.

Figure 1: Lake in Azores Island, San Miguel (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013).

According to Loucks and van Beek (2005), planning and management activities should
pay attention to these possible negative consequences of industrial development,
population growth and the intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers in urban as well
as in agricultural areas. Issues regarding the environment and water quality include:

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 Chapter 4

•
• Threats from aquatic nuisance species
• Threats from the chemical, physical and biological water quality of the
watershed’s aquatic resources
• Quality standards for recycled water
• Non-point source pollution discharges, including sediment from erosion
• Inadequate groundwater protection compacts and concerned institutions

1�3 Water plans objetives and strategies

The water plans objetives include;

To introduce a Water Act as well as revise existing laws and regulations to serve as

To establish a national level organization responsible for policy formulation; oversee

implementation of the policy by concerned agencies; and establish basin-level and
local level organizations with supporting laws.

Appropriate water allocation for all user sectors at the national and basin levels:
•
• Prioritize water use for the various sectors, i.e., agriculture, domestic, industry,
conservation of ecosystem etc
• Promote conjunctive use of surface and groundwater
• Set water-use criteria/proportions for the various sectors from national to basin level
•

•
the creation of a water market, compensation, taxes and allow users to be
responsible for paying for service, wastewater treatment etc

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 Water Management and Planning

• Campaign to create awareness of users about the necessity to share costs and

• Set up a water resources management fund

• Introduce water reuse/recycling
• Introduce water saving technologies

• Rehabilitate existing infrastructures

• Develop a water network/grid both within and among basins, and a distribution
system to serve as many users as possible
• Improve the organizational structure and management system

To develop water resources in accordance with potential and needs of various activities,
both in terms of quantity and quality with due consideration of the environment. To

• Set clear direction for water resources development both within and outside
the country by emphasizing development of water resources within the country
to their full potential

• Include water related topic at all levels of educational curriculum

• Promote public awareness and understanding of the importance and

•
employing bothstructural and non-structural measures
• Promote and support local organizations to be capable of reduce and solve

• Develop a preparatory process for protection and rehabilitation operations

prior, during and

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 Chapter 4

• after disasters
• Set up a forecasting and warning system
• Set guidelines and procedure for water related disaster warning

1�4 Water budget

seem surprising because water plays such an important role in weather. The annual
precipitation for the earth is more than 30 times the atmosphere’s total capacity to
hold water. This fact indicates the rapid recycling of water that must occur between
the earth’s surface and the atmosphere.

A water balance analyzes the input and output of water in an area of a watershed

surplus water in a watershed taking parameters like rainfall, relative humidity, tem-

of the watershed.

outputs of water mean water that is stored.

Inputs - Outputs = Change in Storage

Applying these concepts, precipitation is expressed as:

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 Water Management and Planning

The usefulness of the knowledge of the water balance is that it allows us to perform
a hydrological planning in accordance with the data coming out in the survey results,
essential for integrated water management in the islands.

In relation to the water balance of the islands, especially oceanic the following
singularities must be taken into account (Santamarta, 2013).

• High demand for water resources for agriculture

• Overpopulation
• Scarce water resources in general
•
• Isolated systems
• Binomial water-energy

Figure 2: Rain over forest in Hierro Island, Canary Archipielago (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013).

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 Chapter 4

which either evaporates (from open water surfaces) or transpirates from vegetation
(evapotranspiration), completing the natural cycle back into atmospheric moisture
and precipitation. It is necessary to understand this balance or water budget in order to
sustain the resource and its environmental and human connections in the watershed.
The understanding of the hydrologic cycle on a watershed basis is essential for
development and implementation of appropriate watershed management policies
and procedures.

A water budget analysis is a computational technique that balances water input and
output while accounting for change in storage. On a watershed scale knowledge of
these relationships can be used in addressing major decisions relating to such issues
as:

• Land use and watershed planning

• Ensuring sustainable development
• Determining the receiving stream capacity for waste discharge
• Assessing risk exposure;
•
• Reporting environmental conditions and status.

1�5 Water planning and climate change

The most important impacts of Climate Change will be on the Earth’s water cycle.

challenge. The water cycle describes the constant movement of water from ocean
to atmosphere to the land surface and back to the ocean. On a global scale the total
amount of water does not change but where it is distributed does.

Water scarcity is expected to become an ever-increasing problem in the future,

for various reasons. First, the distribution of precipitation in space and time is very
uneven, leading to tremendous temporal variability in water resources worldwide
(Oki et al, 2006).

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 Water Management and Planning

Second, the rate of evaporation varies a great deal, depending on temperature

and relative humidity, which impacts the amount of water available to replenish
groundwater supplies. The combination of shorter duration but more intense

evapotranspiration (the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the

earth’s land surface to atmosphere) and increased irrigation is expected to lead to
groundwater depletion (Konikow and Kendy 2005).

As climate change warms the atmosphere and alters the hydrological cycle, we will
continue to witness changes to the amount, timing, form, and intensity of precipitation

environments, Already, water-related climate change impacts are being experienced

temperatures and changes in precipitation and temperature extremes are projected

factors are expected to lead to further deterioration of water quality as well.

The premises that water planning is best done on a regional level is due to the
many variables in climate, water supply, water demand, and legal and institutional
constraints to water resources management.

1�6 Water management on islands

Water problems on islands are mainly related to the limited water resources. Due to
the limited water resources, water related problems that are common elsewhere as
well, such as pollution by wastewater and inadequate water supply systems (mainly
huge leakages) become more acute on islands and thus require special attention and
appropriate management (Hophmayer, 2012).

Islands depend, as other mainland countries, upon the quality and quantity of their
water for their existence and economic activities. However, water management on
islands is unique as it is constrained by their size, isolation from the mainland, fragility,

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Small islands frequently have a relatively limited capacity to store water for use in
the dry season, and the construction of large reservoirs is often prohibited by the

topography, short river channels and easily eroded soils, can cause siltation of
reservoirs, further decreasing storage capacity (Khaka, 1998).

Figure 3: Landscale in Hawaii islands (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013).

1�7 Useful links

• WATER - Environment - European Commission

• Climate Change and Water - US Environmental Protection Agency
• Water resources systems planning and management
• Ground Water Development, Sustaninability, and Water Budgets
• Climate Uncertainty: What it Means for Water Planning and Policy
• Water Resource Planning Options for Climate Change

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 Water Management and Planning

2 water uses

2�1 Introduction

An adequate supply of water is essential to ensure continued economic vitality and

quality of life. Water use must generally respond to two needs: the need to satisfy the
growing demand for water used for human consumption and for production processes
(industry, agriculture, recreation), and the need to preserve water quality and protect

protection of water resources.

The most important water uses are;

• For drinking purpose

• For washing, bathing and cooking etc
• For building construction
• For the generation of steam for industrial use and electricity generation
• For generating hydroelectricity
• As a solvent
• For irrigation purposes
Water is crucial for the economy. Virtually every industry from agriculture, electric
power and industrial manufacturing to beverage, apparel, and tourism relies on it to
grow and ultimately sustain their business. Generally, the largest percentage of water
consumption is attributed to agriculture.

Accounting for water is an essential step toward ensuring that a water utility is
sustainable. This is best accomplished when water systems meter use by their
customers. Metering helps to identify losses due to leakage and also provides the
foundation on which to build an equitable rate structure to ensure adequate revenue
to operate the system.

Options for water demand reduction:

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 Chapter 4

• Landscaping and storm water management

• Grey water use
• Revised irrigation strategies and technologies
• Water pricing
• Education
• Incentives
•

Two-thirds of the world’s population is projected to face water scarcity by 2025,

• Birth rate
• Death rate
• Immigration
• Emigration
• Government policies
• Religious and societal beliefs
• Catastrophes
• State of the Economy

2�2 Water footprint

The water-footprint concept was coined in 2002 by Arjen Hoekstra, a professor of

water management at University of Twente in the Netherlands. Using data from the
UN’s Food and Agricultural Organization, Mr. Hoekstra and other researchers gauged
the water content that went into the making of various products and applied those
statistics to people’s consumption patterns to get a rough water footprint for average
individuals and nations as a whole.

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 Water Management and Planning

People use lots of water for drinking, cooking and washing, but even more for
producing things such as food, paper, cotton clothes, etc. The water footprint is an
indicator of water use that looks at both direct and indirect water use of a consumer

as the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services
consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business.

2�3 Agricultura water uses

Water constitutes a key component in food production. Agricultural use of water

of this water is used for irrigation. On the negative side, irrigation of land causes
salinization of the land that is being irrigated, mostly in arid and semi-arid regions.

the farmers that have livestock must provide clean water for the livestock to drink.

Figure 4: Pineapple crops in Hawaii Islands (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013).

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2�4 Industrial uses

users include power plants, which use water for cooling or as a power source (i.e.

and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.

Some power plants use cooling systems that draw water from a lake, river, aquifer, or
ocean to cool steam and then return virtually all of it, although at higher temperatures,
to the source. Such systems, known as once-through cooling systems, have high
withdrawals but low consumption.

Reusing and recycling industrial water can ease the pressure on water resources
and avoid the need to discharge to the sewer and/or environment. With appropriate
management, which may include treatment, industrial water can be used for a wide
range of purposes including industrial uses (e.g. cooling or material washing) or non-

2�5 Useful links

• What’s your water footprint?

• The EU’s Water Footprint - Institute for Environment and Sustainability
• Water resources across Europe - European Environment Agency
• TEDxOslo - Angela Morelli - The Global Water Footprint of Humanity
• Water Footprint and Conservation projec

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 Water Management and Planning

3 SURFACE WATER EXPLOTATION

3�1 Precipitation

The part of the hydrologic cycle that is of most relevance to water planning is the
precipitation;

•
become soil moisture, part of which is taken up by plant roots and returned to
the atmosphere through the process of transpiration
•
and through channels, from which it may be diverted for various consumptive

• When soil moisture storage capacity is exceeded, recharge to groundwater

occurs

When rainfall falls on the land surface, typically, depending on the intensity of the

catchment.

Surface water budget analyses rely heavily on estimates of components instead

water sources, they are typically measured at only a few locations. Evaporation,

are generally not measured directly and are therefore estimated. Consequently, the
surface water budget calculations presented here have a high degree of uncertainty
and should be used with caution.

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Figure 5: Surface water catchment (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013)

3�2 Reservoir related issues

annual basis. Dam building, or other hydraulic works, is the way usually to control
water quantity, as far as meeting demands is concerned.

is used to store water. Reservoirs may be created in river valleys by the construction
of a dam or may be built by excavation in the ground or by conventional construction
techniques such as brickwork or cast concrete.

conserve the hydrological and ecological functions of their drainage networks.

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 Water Management and Planning

in those areas. Reservoir construction inevitably results in loss of land and forces the
evacuation of residents due to impoundment

Water stored here during wet times is used during dry times, making the region’s

The reasons for constructing reservoirs are ancient in origin, and initially focused

Accordingly, reservoirs are usually found in areas of water scarcity, or where a

controlled water facility was necessary.

3�2�1 Dams

A dam is any barrier that holds back water; dams are primarily used to save, manage,

dams are made of concrete. Concrete dams can be either gravity dams or concrete
arch dams, depending on how they are built.

maintain an area’s water supply. Many of the world’s largest urban areas are supplied
with water from rivers that are blocked via dams. Another major use of dams is power
generation as hydroelectric power is one of the world’s major sources of electricity.
Hydropower is generated when the potential energy of the water on the dam drives
a water turbine which in then turns a generator and creates electricity. To best make
use of the water’s power, a common type of hydroelectric dam uses reservoirs with

demand is low for instance, water is held in an upper reservoir and as demand
increases, the water is released into a lower reservoir where it spins a turbine. Some

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3�2�2 Water storage ponds

The demand for water has increased tremendously in recent years, and ponds are one
of the most reliable and economical sources of water. Ponds are now serving a variety

and landscape improvement.

Water storege ponds are a key component in the treatment, storage and distribution
of potable water. Built in many sizes and shapes they serve as repositories for the
regions water.

Figure 6: Water reservoir (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013)

3�2�3 Water supply and transport

The functions of the formal urban water supply and wastewater sector include
storage, supply, distribution, and wastewater treatment and disposal systems that
provide organized water services to established urban areas. The infrastructure

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generally includes water and wastewater utility systems with large raw-water storage
facilities, storm-water collection systems, trans-basin diversion structures, potable
and wastewater treatment plant equipment, pipelines, local distribution systems,

Some urban distribution systems also include secondary distribution systems for
reuse of treated wastewater, advanced treatment systems such as reverse osmosis

distributed to meet irrigation and other non-potable needs, and with adequate
treatment can be used to augment some drinking water supplies provided that
communities are willing (Hurliman, 2007).

Figure 7: Water channel in Canary Islands (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013)

Water leaking from water company pipes is wasteful of water and energy if the

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3�3 Managed aquifer rechargue

Potential sources of recharge water include, but are not limited to, treated wastewater,
urban stormwater or groundwater drawn from other aquifers. Some level of pre-
treatment of the source water will generally be required prior to recharging the
aquifer, depending on the outcome of environmental and health risk assessments.

In urban areas where there’s not enough surface water storage, aquifers can provide a
way to store excess water when it becomes available until the time it is needed.

Intentionally injecting or depositing water into an aquifer and then extracting the
water for use at a later date is known as managed aquifer recharge. There has been an
increasing interest in using managed aquifer recharge as a mechanism to store and
later supply an alternative water source for various uses. For example, stormwater
could be injected into an aquifer and then later reused for watering parks and gardens
in drier seasons.

3�4 Useful links

• Water exploitation index - European Union Open Data Portal - Europa

• Water exploitation-FAO
• Rainwater harvesting

4 WATER WASTE, DESALINATION AND REUSE

4�1 Introduction

The European Union’s Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires member states
to systematically develop River Basin Management Plans (RBMP) with measures
to achieve good chemical and biological water quality. In the eyes of strengthening
regulatory constraints and of the environmental issues at stake, local government
entities must deal with the adaptation of their infrastructures and important decision-

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 Water Management and Planning

The discharges of wastewater by industry and households can have considerable

health.

Declining water quality is an acute problem around the world, particularly in

developing countries where there are notable increases in agricultural and industrial
production, coupled with a lack of adequate wastewater treatment.

Through the natural water cycle, the earth has recycled and reused water for millions
of years. Water recycling, though, generally refers to projects that use technology to
speed up these natural processes.

Reusing and recycling alternative water supplies is a key part of reducing the pressure
on our water resources and the environment. Helping us adapt to climate change and
population growth. When considering alternative water supplies, you should choose
the most appropriate water source, taking into account end use, risk, resource and
energy requirements.

The types of water pollutans are:

• Organic wastes: degradable wastes, residuals, some chemicals (detergents,

pesticides, oil)
• Inorganic substances: toxic metals, salts, acids, nitrate and phosphorous
compounds
• Nonmaterial pollutants: heat, radioactivity
• Infectious agents: bacteria, viruses
It is important that we all reduce the amount of water we use and manage our use of

• System-wide water loss accounting

• Leak detection and repair
• Pricing that encourages consumer water conservation

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 Chapter 4

Figure 8: pretreatment of waste water (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013)

4�2 Greywater

Greywater is untreated wastewater that has not been contaminated by any toilet

a threat from contamination by unhealthful processing, manufacturing, or operating

wastes. Greywater can be a good water resource during times of drought and water
restrictions, but its reuse can carry health and environmental risks. Under this

importance of greywater recycling and reuse has been recognized recently by many
countries.

Greywater is typically wastewater low in turbidity, clear in color, and found from the
drainage of bathtubs, showers, bathroom washbasins, clothes washing machines,
and laundry tubs. Greywater quality is highly variable because it is source dependent
given the variability in household water use.

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 Water Management and Planning

Heavy greywater and blackwater must be conveyed to and treated by centralized

wastewater treatment plants. Only light greywater can be treated on-site for non-
potable usage.

4�3 Desalination of water

thirsty population, there has been a surge in the number of scientists and engineers
involved in water desalting and wastewater reclamation.

Desalination is the process of removing soluble salts from water to render it suitable
for drinking, irrigation, or industrial uses. The principal methods used for desalination
include distillation (or evaporation), electrodialysis, freezing, ion exchange, and
reverse osmosis.

Distillation plants having high capacities and using combustible fuels employ various
devices to conserve heat. In the most common system a vacuum is applied to reduce

Figure 9: Desalination Plant (OI) (Santamarta-Cerezal, 2013)

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 Chapter 4

Another method of desalination is by electrodialysis. When salt dissolves in water,

it splits up into charged particles called ions. Placed in a container with a negative

the membranes as they are attracted toward the electrodes; they become trapped
between semipermeable membranes, leaving outside the membranes a supply of
desalinated water that can be tapped.

By far the most promising approach is the reverse osmosis process, in which pressure
is applied to saltwater to force it through a special membrane. Only pure water passes,
leaving concentrated seawater behind.

4�4 Water waste reclamation

Water reuse allows communities to become less dependent on groundwater and

surface water sources and can decrease the diversion of water from sensitive
ecosystems. Additionally, water reuse may reduce the nutrient loads from wastewater
discharges into waterways, thereby reducing and preventing pollution.The term water
recycling is generally used synonymously with water reclamation and water reuse.

Recycled water can be used in numerous applications to satisfy most water demands,
depending on the level of treatment. The water is treated to meet regulatory
guidelines for the intended end use. Typical uses for recycled water include:

• Surface irrigation
• Groundwater recharge
• Wetlands, wildlife hábitat
• Industrial cooling processes
• Landscape and golf course irrigation
•
• Food crop irrigation
• Potable reuse (typically recharge of groundwater or surface water to augment
drinking water supplies)

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 Water Management and Planning

4�5 Water waste and climate change

There is a need for further research into an environmental accounting system for
comparing the climate change impacts of waste management options.Waste is a clear
indicator of how much of our natural resources we’re using. The cheaper and more

to waste. Not only is climate change a clear symptom of our over-consumption, it is

also a result of our extreme levels of resource use. Waste discharge and wastewater
treatment are sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Although carbon dioxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4) have been the main focus in climate change calculations and
discussions, the potential impact of nitrous oxide (N2O), which is also generated from
wastewater treatment plants, is now gaining increased prominence.

Professionals working in waste management and associated areas need to ensure

that they are aware of current thinking on climate change and the impact of their
area of work on greenhouse gas emissions.

Climate change will likely:

• Contaminate coastal surface and groundwater resources due to sea level rise,
resulting in saltwater intrusion into rivers, deltas, and aquifers
• Increase water temperatures, leading to more algal and bacterial blooms that
further contaminate water supplies
•
and wash soil-based pollutants and toxins into waterways
• Contribute to environmental health risks associated with water. For instance,

mobilize more pathogens and contaminants

water temperature. The increase in water temperatures can lead to a bloom in microbial
populations, which can have a negative impact on human health. Additionally, the

due to a species’ sensitivity to temperature. The health of a body of water, such as a

which is hindered when there is a reduced amount of dissolved oxygen. This occur
when water warms and its ability to hold oxygen decreases.

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Water and wastewater utilities could reduce energy use by just 10 percent through

collectively.

4�6 Useful links

• Urban Waste Water Directive Overview - European Commission

• Desalination: Solving water problems or creating a new one
•
• World Water Day 2012, Reuse
• Wastewater Treament and Water Reuse Basics
•
• Desalination Myths and Misconceptions

5 WATER EFFICIENCY AND SUSTAINABILITY

5�1 Introduction

Conservation of water resources is becoming very important due to climate change

is needed to generate energy, and energy is needed to deliver water. Thereby both
resources are limiting the other”. In this context, nowadays, there is an increasing

service performance.

the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future

address the presence of environmental quality in sustainability.

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 Water Management and Planning

quality as well as its relationship with the other components of sustainability.

Thereby, sustainability means the balance between manipulating the environment
for meeting as many human needs as possible and preserving the natural processes
of the environment.

5�2 Water efficiency

developing new supplies and for expanding the water infrastructure are reduced.
It also diminishes withdrawals from limited freshwater supplies. As a result, there
is more water available for future use, and the ambient water quality and aquatic
habitat improve (i.e. sustainability is achieved).

human health and the environment. When reservoir water levels get lower and ground
water tables drop, water supplies, human health, and the environment are put at
serious risk. For example, lower water levels can contribute to higher concentrations
of natural and human pollutants. Less water going down the drain means more water
available in the lakes, rivers and streams that we use for recreation and wildlife uses
to survive.

and most of that is consumed in crop production. In many areas, this water use is
unsustainable.

types and climatic region, the supply of some freshwater is an absolute essential for
all forms of agriculture. Agricultural activity dominates the use of freshwater and in

estuarine and coastal ecosystems. In addition, large freshwater abstraction resulted

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agriculture will strongly contribute in the sustainability of this resource.

5�3 Water Sustainability

Water resources sustainability means that development of human activities is

compatible with preserving and guarantying adequate living conditions for future

and social development while maintaining the resource base and environmental
carrying capacity for coming generations.

The resource base concept should be widely interpreted, such that besides the
natural resource, it also contains knowledge, infrastructure, technology, durables and
human resources. When development converts natural resources into other durable
products, this remains part of the overall resource base.

part of it is virtually unreneweable. In contrast, surface water may be considered

in many parts of the world, fresh water resources are scarce and to a large extent

overexploitation by destroying resources for future use, development where water

use is not sustainable is ill-planned.

From physical point of view, sustainability water resources means closing the resource
cycles and considering the cycles in their integrity (water and nutrient cycles). In
agriculture this implies primarily closing or shortening water and nutrient cycles for
preventing accumulation or depletion of land and water resources.

logging. On the one hand, nutrient depletion leads to loss of fertility, loss of water
holding capacity, and in general, reduction of carrying capacity. On the other hand,
nutrient accumulation produced eutrophication and pollution. Loss of top-soil results
in erosion, land degradation and sedimentation elsewhere.

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 Water Management and Planning

Physical sustainability has to do with closing the cycles within the human dimension.
This implies restoring the dynamic equilibria at the appropriate temporal and spatial
scales. The latter is relevant, since at a global scale all cycles close.

closed, then economic sustainability implies a reduction of scale by short-cutting the

short cycles are: water conservation, to make optimum use of rainfall where it falls

pumped back over considerable distances etc.

Increasing the scale through trade in land- and water-intensive commodities facilitates
economic sustainability. This is the virtual water concept, which is an important in

water intensive products itself. Such concept of virtual water is a tool for an equitable
utilisation of water resources. This requires an open and accessible global market and
the use of resource-based economic incentives such as resource taxing, as opposed to
taxing renewable resources such as labour, which is the general practice today.

• Rural scale: water conservation, nutrient and soil conservation, prevention of

over-drainage and the recycling of nutrients and organic waste.
• Urban scale: recycling of water, nutrients and waste in both, towns and mega-
cities.
• River basin scale: soil and water conservation in the upper catchment,

• The global scale: water, nutrient and basic resource cycles are integrated and
closed (virtual water concept).

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5�4 Water Efficiency Strategies for Sustainability

are manifold and depend on the freshwater demanding activity. For example, leak
detection programs can reduce the amount of water, pressure, and energy required
to deliver the same amount of water to consumers’ taps.

supply-side practices, such as accurate meter reading and leak detection and repair
programs, as well as through demand-side strategies, such as conservation-based
water rates and public education programs.

Farmers in many countries are subject to legislative restrictions on water use,

such that, how to reduce agricultural water use and make water resources more
sustainable is an increasingly urgent question. It is a question that requires combined
agronomic, physiological, biotechnological/genetic and engineering approaches,
which collectively represent ‘water saving agriculture’.

5�5 Useful links

•
•

6 WATER RESOURCES AND CLIMATE CHANGE

6�1 Introduction

population in general. Despite the climate pattern has been changing continuously
during the Earth´s history due to changes in the atmosphere, topography, volcanic
activity, and other natural factors, this change seems to have been exacerbated
recently due to the alteration of the greenhouse gases content in the atmosphere by
the humanity.

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and population. It is easy to understand why the water cycle is one of the most

leaded last century by the climate change, has involved alterations in the temperature,
precipitation and evaporation patters. From the point of view of the water resources,
these changes include an increase in the freshwater losses from terrestrial sources
(glaciers, ice and snow, lakes, soil moisture, swamps, groundwater, marches and
rivers) by evaporation and sublimation from fresh water deposits and transpiration
from the vegetation, but also changes in the rainfall quantity and patterns. As a
result, climate change has leaded short and long-term alterations in the frequency of

the quantity but also quality of water resources.

Figure 10: the Water Cycle (U.S. Geological Survey, 2011)

Useful links
• Climate Change 2013 Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis
• BBC THE TRUTH ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE PART 1

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6�2 Modelling climate change

One of the main problems of facing climate change and developing adaptation
policies and measures is to evaluate its long-term impacts. Atmospheric and Oceanic
Global Circulation Models (AOGCMs) (see e.g. Varis et al., 2004) are nowadays the
most useful tools to predict the impact of human activity on the climate change for
large spatial and temporal scales. AOGCMs are three-dimensional mathematical

future climate using the Navier–Stokes equations on a rotating sphere which govern

or GFDL CM2.X. The main sources of uncertainty for these models nowadays are:

• Ocean circulation
• Feedback processes
• Termohaline circulation
• Carbon cycle
• Photosynthesis processes
• Clouds and radiation
• Ice and snow albedo

As AOGCMs use a coarse scale (100-200 km grid size resolution) which is not suitable
to predict the impact of climate change at regional or local level. As a result, Regional
Circulation Models (RCMs) (see e.g. Houghton, 2004) were developed from AOGCMs

resolution (Bureau of Meteorology, 2003). Despite the improvement in the results,

RCMs still show some extent of inconsistency related to the uncertainty of the
AOGCMs they stem from.

From the point of view of the water resources, the impact of climate change depends
not only on the climate behaviour but also in the population development. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), through the Special Report on
Emission Scenery (SRES) (IPCC, 2000), have developed emission scenarios grouped

4.12) based on the most likely population, politic, social and economic changes.

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Figure 11: Schematic structure of an Atmospheric and Oceanic General Circulation Model
(source: (Bralower and Bice, 2014))

Table 1: Special Report on Emission Scenery scenarios (Source: (IPCC, 2000))

Description Description

Very rapid economic growth

Low population growth
A1
Convergence among regions in terms of income and way of life

Similar to A1
Global A1FI
An emphasis on fossil-fuels
market
Similar to A1
A1B
A balanced emphasis on all energy sources

Similar to A1
A1T
Emphasis on non-fossil energy sources

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 Chapter 4

Self-reliance and preservation of local identities

A2 Continuous population growth
Regional enter- Primarily regionally oriented economic development
prise Economic growth and technological changes are fragmented and
slow

Rapid economic growth as in A1

Rapid changes toward a service and information economy
Low population growth as in the A1 storyline
B1
Reductions in material intensity and the introduction of clean and
Global sustaina-
bility
Global solutions to economic, social, and environmental sustaina-
bility, including improved equity, but without additional climate
initiatives

Emphasis on local solutions to economic social and environmental

sustainability
B2
Continue and moderate population growth (less than in A2)
Local Steward-
Intermediate levels of economic development
ship
Less rapid and more fragmented technological change than in the
B1 and A1

Figure 12: Projected greenhouse gases emission using the scenarios described by IPCC
(2006-2100) (source: (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011))

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6�2�1 Useful links

• Wikipedia: General Circulation Models

• What is a GCM? - the IPCC Data Distribution Centre
•
• IPCC Special Report: Emissions Scenarios (SRES)

6�3 Impacts of climate change

Impacts on water resources by the climate change are temporary and spatially
dependent:

•
or gradual and deeper changes in the hydrological cycle such as spatial and

to the climatic change, etc.

•
the alteration of the climatic patterns.
- In general (North Hemisphere), it is expected an increase in the
quantity of water resources in northern countries as they become
wetter.

transpiration processes and their precipitation decrease and

become more intense unbalancing hydrological functions such as

- From the point of view of the quality of the water resources, a

substantial decrease in this parameter related to the increase
in the water temperature, sediments suspended, nutrients and
eutrophication processes could be expected.

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- However, particular trends of water resources quantity and quality

show a high regional dependence due to the large number of factors
involved and impacted by the climate change, and resilience of the

Due to the importance and high degree of uncertainty arising from its impacts, climate
change may be the most challenging issue that world must face nowadays (Watkiss
et al., 2005) and including adapting measures in the decision-making processes and

6�3�1 Temperature and sea level

Based on the prediction models and SRES scenarios described before, projections of
climate change impacts on temperature and sea level could be developed (table 4.2).
According to these projections, a temperature rise of about 0.1ºC per decade would be
expected and of 0.2 ºC projected for the next two decades for all SRES scenarios. The
temperature will rise between 1.8 and 4.0 ºC and the sea level rise will range from 18 to
59 cm depending on the scenario. In general, scenario A1F1 is the most extreme mainly
due to its rapid economic growth and the use of fossil fuels, whilst scenario B1 show

and the rapid changes toward a service and information economy. Besides, it is very
likely that hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue

processes such as ocean circulation, photosynthesis processes, evaporation, etc.

Uncertainty on the predicted impact of climate change on temperature and sea level

calculations to obtain projected future values.

On the other hand, the high temporal and regional dependence of the climate change
process is highlighted by the fact that the highest increase in both temperature and
sea level are projected to be recorded in the North Pole during the last half of the
21st
Warming is expected to be greatest over land and at most high northern latitudes
and least over Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean.

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Table 2: Projected temperature and sea level rises by 2100 according to the SRES scenarios
(Source: (IPCC, 2007))

Scenario

Best estimate temperature rise of 1.8 °C with a likely range of 1.1 to

B1 2.9 °C
Sea level rise likely range 18 to 38 cm

Best estimate temperature rise of 2.4 °C with a likely range of 1.4 to

A1T 3.8 °C
Sea level rise likely range 20 to 45 cm

Best estimate temperature rise of 2.4 °C with a likely range of 1.4 to

B2 3.8 °C
Sea level rise likely range 20 to 43 cm

Best estimate temperature rise of 2.8 °C with a likely range of 1.7 to

A1B 4.4 °C
Sea level rise likely range 21 to 48 cm

Best estimate temperature rise of 3.4 °C with a likely range of 2.0 to

A2 5.4 °C
Sea level rise likely range 23 to 51 cm

Best estimate temperature rise of 4.0 °C with a likely range of 2.4 to

A1FI 6.4 °C
Sea level rise likely range 26 to 59 cm

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Figure 13: Projected global warming using SRES scenarios for 2020-2099 relative to 1980-

(IPCC, 2007))

6�3�2 Trends in precipitation and evaporation

general, the global warming processes mentioned above will increase evaporation
of water from land and water surfaces. Despite on average evaporation is directly
related with precipitation, at regional scale precipitation patterns will become even
more complex and variable given that the changes in the evaporation depend on
many temporary and spatially heterogeneous factors (temperature, humidity, wind
patterns, net radiation, available soil moisture, etc.). In general, according to IPCC
(2007) it is likely that:

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• Tropical cyclones will become more intense, with more heavy precipitation
associated with on-going increases of tropical sea surface temperatures
• Extratropical storm tracks are projected to move poleward, with consequent
changes in wind, precipitation and temperature patterns
• Sea ice will shrink in both the Arctic and Antarctic under all SRES scenarios. In
some projections, arctic late-summer sea ice disappears almost entirely by the
latter part of the 21st century
•
• Heavy precipitation events are very likely to become more common increasing

• Water supplies stored in glaciers and snow cover will be reduced over the course
of the century

• Regional patterns:
- Dry regions are projected to get drier: decrease in fresh water

the dry tropics by 2050

- Wet regions are projected to get wetter: increase in fresh water

areas by 2050

• Temporal patterns:
- Winter is projected to become wetter in northern latitudes but dryer
in southern ones

- Summer is projected to become drier in most areas

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Figure 14: Projected relative changes in precipitation using SRES A1B scenario for 2020-
2099 relative to 1980-1999. December to February (left) and June to August (right) (source:
(IPCC, 2007))

Regarding to the extreme rainfall events, such as rainstorms and no-rain periods

prediction show again regional-dependent tendency. According to NASA, in general

1ºC of global warming. Figure 4.15 shows the predicted heavy precipitation trend for
the period 2080-2099 developed by IPCC (2007). The number of rainstorms increases
mainly in northern latitudes and tropical zones around the equator, particularly in

arid regions of the southwest United States, Mexico, North Africa, Mediterranean
countries, the Middle East and northwestern China in the North Pole; South Africa,
northwestern Australia, coastal Central America and northeastern Brazil in the South

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Figure 15: Distribution of precipitation intensity and dry days changes for 2080-2099
relative to 1980-1999. (source: (IPCC, 2007))

6�3�3 Water resources and climate change

The hydrometeorological records and climate projections developed show a future

climate change, with wide-ranging consequences for humanity and ecosystems

Change and European Water Dimension (2007) give as an overall idea about present
and future challenges on water resources management. As it states:

change will impact the water cycle and water resources worldwide. An increase

expected as well as long-term shifts in regional water balance and water availa-
bility. Both may have disastrous consequences for societies.

drinking water supply and wastewater services, but also on other key economic
activities such as agriculture, hydropower and other electricity production, tou-

that may be experienced by individual regions or sectors.

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hydrology. Ecosystem services play a key role for human and economic activities,
and their long-term protection and preservation should be given priority.

implemented today. Although the magnitude of climate change impacts on the

Therefore, while climate change mitigation should remain a priority for policy-
making, there is also an urgent need to develop strategies for adaptation to the
already inevitable climate-change-driven changes in water resources at all levels
of policy-making – from the European to national to local levels. There is now
consensus on this among the science and policy communities.

Figure 16: Interactions between climate change, hydrology, water resources and human
and ecosystem funtions (source: (National Resources Canada, 2008))

The impacts of climate change on hydrology, water resource, ecosystems and human
activity may include:

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• General decrease of water availability in rivers, lakes, aquifers, snowpack, etc.

•
ecosystem health.
• Decrease in the availability of water for consumption.
• Increased demand of water for agriculture due to changes in crops and longer
growing season.
• Less water availability for business activities such as agriculture, industry,
hydroelectric power, recreation, tourism, etc.
• Increase in the pre-treatment costs due to low water quality.

However, due to the uncertainties arising from the climate change predictions,
models applied but also the singular resilience of societies and terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems, future projections developed about the impact of climate change on
water resources at local or regional level are complex and highly temporally and

Figure 17: Change in wwater availability by 2050 (IPCC scenario A1) relative to 1961-
1990 [source: Rekacewicz (2009a)]

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 Chapter 4

As is mention by numerous researchers, the climate change can impact on water

availability by modifying both quantity and quality of the water resources:

• Impacts on water quality include alteration of physical, chemical and biological

•
societies and ecosystems represented mainly by opposite extreme events.
-

- Water scarcity and drought after no-rainfall periods.

6�3�4 Useful links

• IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 (AR4)

• Time to Adapt - Climate Change and the European Water Dimension

6�4 Water quality

environments. The impact of climate change on water quality could be:

• Related to temperature:
-

- Algae blooms reducing dissolved oxygen.

- Cyanobacteria blooms after the reduction of dissolved oxygen.

•
- Change in the speed, residence time and dilution capacity of the

- Rise in storm events which increase the occurrence of sewer

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- An increase in erosion processes related to extreme rainfall events

involving a rise in suspended particles, nutrients and pollutants from
the transported sediments.

• Others:
- Changes in crop management due to climate change involving an
increase in fertilizers or pesticides.

-
particles and nutrients from the transported sediments and ashes.

-
salinity of rivers and causing saltwater intrusion into the coastal
water bodies and groundwater resources.

Figure 18: Toxic algal bloom [source: U.S. Global Change Research Program (2009)]

Surface, ground and drinking water quality alterations are temporary and spatially

Mediterranean regions during the summer leads a decrease of the dilution capacity

opposite trend but also an increase in suspended sediments, nutrients and chemical

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due to erosion exacerbation may be expected in northern latitude countries during

Besides, as it was stated before, future projections developed about the impact of
climate change on water quality at local or regional level are complex (Murdoch et al.,
2000) and highly temporally and spatially-dependent due to the uncertainties arising
from the climate change predictions, models applied but also the singular resilience
of societies and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

change impact are:

• Temperature
• Suspended particles
• Nutrients
• Salt intrusion into groundwater bodies

6�4�1 Temperature

In general and according to the future projections, an increase in water temperature

temperature is related directly to the speed of the biochemical reactions. The rise

in water quality could be expected as a direct result of water warming as biological

processes and aeration rate are accelerated by this alteration. However, this trend is

Lakes and stagnant water ecosystems are less resilient to the impacts of global

input in deeper water tables and bottom water anoxia.

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 Water Management and Planning

Figure 19: Air (coutinous colors) and water (colored dots) summer temperature for the
1980s and the 2040s [source: (Mantua et al., 2010)]

Regarding to the drinking water, global warming may exacerbate of mitigate water

• Nutrient cycle and delivery rates.

• The mobility and toxicity of contaminants.
•
• Its organoleptic properties (taste and odour).
• Pathogen activity.

6�4�2 Suspended sediments, nutrients and pollutants

consequence of the climate change enhancement of erosion processes. The increase

example massive land use changes or intensive agricultural practices may unbalance

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• Transport and release loads of nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals and other
contaminants.
• Decrease light penetration into the water.
•
•
The same general trend is expected regarding to nutrients. Future projections show

their concentration and residence time could increase due to the less dilution capacity
due to the decrease in water volumes projected for some regions. Besides, some

to this parameter.

Regarding to groundwater resources, the projected increase in heavy storms and

may account for the mobilization of pollutants from contaminated surface areas which
usually remain dry or crop soils rich in fertilizers and pesticides leading their transport

are considered as relative robust in the face of climate change due to their partial

their treatment and recovery is highly technical and cost-demanding.

6�4�3 Nutrients and eutrophication

predictions should be evaluated from the point of view of the contributing individual

(Whitehead et al., 2009). The increase in nutrient loads due to higher inputs and
lower water volumes is expected to lead bacterial growth in water bodies. Besides,
the general water temperature increase and the decrease of water turbidity and

and residence time increase allowing sedimentation of suspended particles is also

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 Water Management and Planning

expected to enhance bacteria growth. As a consequence, biological oxygen demand

(BOD) is expected to increase and dissolved oxygen decrease causing impacts on the

Figure 20: Eutrophication processes [source: (Helsinki Commission, 2010)]

Despite this general trend, the spatial and temporal dependence of climate change

eutrophication will depend on:

•
processes.
- Rainfall

- Temperature

- Wind

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- Soil type and erosionability

- Topography

- Land use

- Vegetation cover

- Agricultural practices and use of fertilizers and pesticides

•
oxygenation processes:
- Volume

- Flow volume and speed

- Shape

- Depth

- Water inputs and outputs

6�4�4 Salt intrusion into groundwater and coastal water bodies

saltwater intrusion or the replacement of fresh water by marine water due to the
movement of the later into the former through the existing interface layer between
them in coastal areas. Regarding to aquifers, the salt intrusion processes generally

• Aquifer volume: recharge and exploitation of the groundwater resources impact

on the balance between water input and output and, thus, water volume. A

from it may lead an increase in saltwater intrusion.

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 Water Management and Planning

•
salt and freshwater by inducing both saltwater intrusion and inundation.

Figure 21: Modeled impacts of groundwater extraction (a) and sea-level rise (b) [source:
(Ferguson and Gleeson, 2012)]

Due to the high temporal and spatial dependence of the alteration of climate and
social parameters due to climate change, the local impact of this process on coastal
water bodies’ quality is expected to be highly complex and dependent of the regional

stated before, the impact of climate change on coastal water bodies depends on the
behaviour of:

•
- Precipitation: an increase in the annual precipitation may account
for a decrease in salt intrusion but an increase in extreme events or a
decrease in precipitation may lead the opposite trend.

-
evapotranspiration processes by reducing soil moisture and water
input into the aquifers.

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 Chapter 4

• Social demands:
- Water demand: the expected increase in population, industrial
processes and global warming is expected to lead a general rise in

salt and freshwater inducing salt intrusion in coastal water bodies.

- Land use and agricultural practices: land use and vegetation change
may alter the hydrological cycle by modifying the evapotranspiration

6�4�5 Useful links

• Water Quality and Future Generations

• Water Quality and the Environment
•

6�5 Floods

covering a portion of land not previously covered. They are considered the main threat

Floods are natural processes which occur in river systems on a regular basis generally
by melting snows or heavy rains, but they may occur anywhere related to other
exceptional natural disasters such as hurricanes and cyclones including rain storms,
tsunamis in coastal environments or volcanic eruptions melting snows, or even
human induced causes including incorrect infrastructure planning or wrong land use

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 Water Management and Planning

Figure 22: Flood occurrence (1985-2010) [source: (Brakenridge, 2010)]

6�5�1 Factors involved in flood formation

of erosion and transport of material by the water when a rise in its level occurs.

provide very favourable conditions for human settlements.

Figure 4.23

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 Chapter 4

Flooding can happen anywhere, but certain areas are especially prone to serious

• Conditioning Factors
-
expansion of the water layer whilst sudden changes in slope favour
sudden increases in the velocity of water and its concentration.

- Terrain: the lithological composition of the soil determines its

drainage and erosion capacity, this determines whether rivers may

-
braided, meandering, rectilinear, which can determine the velocity

• Triggering factors
- Weather and climate change: the intensity of rainfall or melting
snow may exceed the capacity of drainage system and cause an

- Seismic: earthquakes can trigger tsunamis that can cause severe

- Deforestation: the lack of a well-developed vegetation cover

- Obstruction of the bed: this can occur when waste, trunks or tailings

the subsoil. Moreover, these favour the deposition of materials on

increasing the topographic level where water circulates.

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 Water Management and Planning

6�5�2 Climate change and floods

Despite the temporal and regional dependence, according to the future prediction
an increase in storm events and severity and intensity of the rainfall is expected in
most temperate and humid regions of the world. Besides, the projected sea level
rise is expected to lead an immersion process of the coastal lands in areas where sea

autumn or even wintertime in Europe (Bergstrom et al., 2001). The severity of this

scenario used.

Figure 24:
(Dirmeyer, 2011))

forecasting, warning, preventions and response systems, and the value of structures
and other property located in vulnerable areas (Pielke and Downton, 2000), than on

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 Chapter 4

the impacts of climatic change. Besides, human activity may directly or indirectly

•
•
• Inducing obstruction of the river bed by providing waste, poor maintenance or
reducing river bed.
•
•

will range from 1.5 to 20-fold the current losses due to this natural disasters depending
on the region and SRES scenario used to model the climate change (see e.g. Hall et
al., 2005).

The predicted regional increase in extreme events due to climate change will alter

industry activity and social development (Economic Commission for Europe, 2009).
The main projected impacts by sector are quoted below.

Table 3: Examples of projected impacts of heavy rainfalls (Source: (Economic Commission

for Europe, 2009))

Agriculture/Ecosys-
Water resources Health Industry/Society
tem
· Flooding Damage to crops Increased risk of Disruption of settle-
deaths, physical ments, commerce,
Soil erosion
injuries and infec- transport and socie-
quality of surface
Inability to cultivate tious, respiratory
and groundwater
land due to water- and skin diseases migration
due to sewer over-
logging of soils
Risk of psychologi- Pressures on urban
cal disorders and rural infrastruc-
· Contamination of
tures
water supply
Loss of property
Water scarcity may
be relieved

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 Water Management and Planning

6�5�3 Flood effects

These are:

deposited undermining bridge structures, levees and buildings causing their

collapse.
• Transport of larger particles (rocks, sediments, branches or logs, but also
vehicles, houses, bridges, etc.) as suspended load due to higher water velocities.
•
• Water entering human built structures causing water damage.
• Flooding of farmland resulting in crop and livestock loss.
•
the water.
• Floodwaters can concentrate garbage, debris and toxic pollutants that can

Figure 25:

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 Chapter 4

• Pollution of drinking water supplies especially if sewerage treatment plants

developed countries.
• Gas and electrical service may be disrupted.
• Transportation systems may be disrupted, resulting in shortages of food and
cleaning-up supplies. In under developed countries, food shortages often lead
to starvation.

•
develop, leaving the old channels dry.
• Destruction of farmland by sediment deposited on farmland (although silt

• Job losses due to the disruption of services, destruction of business, etc.

(although jobs may be gained in the construction industry to help rebuild or

• Increase in insurance rates.

• Destruction of wildlife habitat.

On average, each year, 196 million people, in over 90 countries, are vulnerable

include Somalia, Morocco and Yemen. Venezuela also belongs to this group but due

magnitude. Normally, these losses are not taken into account in estimates of damage
because they are of low severity. However, they do hinder the development of the

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 Water Management and Planning

6�5�4 Useful links

• A new EU Floods Directive

• Dartmouth Flood Observatory, University of Colorado
• The IPCC, Climate Change, Floods & More - Questions for Gerald Meehl (NCAR)
- UConnect Interview
• Flood Lines - Urban Adaption to Climate Change in Hoi An, Vietnam

6�6 Water scarcity and drought

Water scarcity is broadly understood as the lack of adequate quantities of water for

fresh water to the population and environment (rainfall patterns, temperature and

Regarding to drought, they could be divided into:

• Meteorological drought: when precipitation is below the average.

• Hydrological drought: when river, lakes and groundwater show a low water
level.
• Agricultural drought: when soil moisture is below wilting point.
• Environmental drought: a combination of the above mentioned.

Nowadays, approximately 1.2 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water

any country.

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Figure 26: Water scarcity in major basins [source: Rekacewicz (2006)]

6�6�1 Measurements of water scarcity

Despite the growing concern about water scarcity and droughts during the last

The four main approaches regarding to the assessment of the degree of water stress
are (White, 2012):

1. The Water Stress Index (Falkenmark et al., 1989): It measures water scarcity
in terms of total water resources availability per person per year in a region or

- Vulnerable: the renewable water in the region is below 2.500 m3 per

person per year.
3
- per person per year.
3
- per person per
year.
3
- per person
per year.

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 Water Management and Planning

This is one of the most popular methods to measure water stress due to its
straightforwardness and low data requirements. However, its simplicity lead
that this approach has some limitation:

- It ignores regional-dependence of water availability.

- It does not take into account water accessibility or water quality.

- It excludes water treatments (e.g. desalinization) as water resource

suppliers.

- It takes into account water availability but not the dissimilar water

Figure 27: Water Stress Index per country (2007) (source: (Rekacewicz, 2008))

2. it takes into account that all countries show

-
drawn water - available water. The threshold of water scarcity for a region is
-
tions related to this index are that:

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 Chapter 4

- It excludes water treatments (e.g. desalinization) as water resource

suppliers.

- It ignores water reusing and recycling processes.

- It ignores the capacity of countries or regions to adapt to lower

water availability.

Figure 28: Water withdrawals-available water ratio projection (1995-2025) [source:

(Rekacewicz, 2009b)]

3.

including water infrastructures (e.g. desalinization plants) into the water avai-
lability assessment; reuse and recycle concepts by using water consumption
instead of total withdrawals; and adaptive capacity of the region or country by
-
ments. IWMI consider that two types of water scarcity:

- Economical water scarcity: when a country or region is predicted

to be unable to meet it future demand without investment in water

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 Water Management and Planning

- Physically water scarcity: when is predicted to be unable to meet its

future demand even with such investment.

As some degree of complexity and sophistication has been including in this

approach to solve the problems of the previous ones, its main limitations are
that:

- Time and data requirements are considerably higher than in previous

approaches.

- It still ignores country or region capacity to adapt to a lesser water

consumption.

4. this approach takes into account

wealth levels into the evaluation of water scarcity by measuring:

- The access to water.

- The water quantity, quality and variability.

- The amount of water used for domestic, food and productive

purposes.

- The capacity for water management.

- The environmental issues related to water consumption.

This index was developed to assess water scarcity at local or regional levels
due to its high complexity and demand of available data.

6�6�2 Climate change and water scarcity

arid and arid environments or induce drought periods in more humid or temperate

water availability and demand. As it was stated in previous sections, the impact of

water quantity and quality and thus its availability for consumption. Besides, climate
change alteration of evapotranspiration patterns and water demand by population,

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industry and agriculture may induce water scarcity by increasing water consumption.

• A decrease in the natural water storage capacity from snowpack melting.

• A decrease in surface and ground-water bodies especially in the subtropics and
mid-latitudes due to changes in precipitation patterns and intensity, including

• Impacts on surface and ground-water quality including suspended sediments

and pollutants, algae blooms, eutrophication.
• Sea-salt intrusion into aquifers and coastal water bodies due to sea-level rise
reducing their quality.
•
of temperature increases changes in precipitation patterns, and prolonged
droughts on the ecosystems.
•
and sea level rise.
• Increase of the water demand water for human, agricultural, livestock and
industrial due to temperature rise and changes in precipitation patterns.

in tropical and subtropical regions mainly due to the precipitation decrease and
temperature increase altering atmospheric circulation, enhancing evapotranspiration
and reducing soil moisture and snowpack. Extreme events such as heatwaves have
also contributed to the last observed changes in drought frequency (see e.g. Bates et
al., 2008). Current projections show that the Mediterranean area is one of the world´s

e.g. Rosenzweig et al., 2004; Vicente-Serrano et al., 2004). According to most studies,
the combination of increasing temperatures and decreasing precipitation projected
for this region may lead to a substantial unbalancing of the water discharge-demand
ratio and, thus, to induce or aggravate the current water scarcity in this region. As

frequent every 10 years by 2070 in parts of Spain, Portugal, France, Poland and Turkey
(Lehner et al., 2005).

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 Water Management and Planning

Figure 29: Projected change in the recurrence of the current 100-year return period droughts
[source: (Lehner et al., 2005)]

6�6�3 Impacts of water scarcity and droughts

Some expected future impacts of water scarcity and drought due to climatic drivers
such as rise in temperature and precipitation variability based on projections to 21st
century are summarized below by sector (Bates et al., 2008):

1. Water resources:

a
b More widespread water stress.
c Increased water pollution due to lower dissolution of sediments, nutrients,
dissolved organic carbon, pathogens, pesticides and salt, as well as thermal
pollution.
d Salinization of coastal aquifers.

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 Chapter 4

2. Agriculture/Ecosystem
a
b Lower yields/crop damage and failure.
c Increased livestock deaths.
d

3. Health

a Increased risk of food and water shortage.

b Increased risk of malnutrition.
c Increased risk of water and food-borne diseases.

4. Industry/Society

a Water shortages for settlements, industry and societies.

b Reduced hydropower generation potentials.
c Potential for population migration.

Figure 30: Water stress map and examples of freshwater resources vulnerabilities and
their management [source: (Bates et al., 2008)]

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6�6�4 Useful links

•
• Water Scarcity & Droughts in the European Union
• Climate change and water
• Water Scarcity

7 EUROPEAN LEGISLATION

7�1 Introduction

The European Union has developed a complete set of legislative tools for the State

pollution, inland waters and discharge of substances. Besides, it range from general

as for example the Environment Strategy for the Mediterranean; from Directives to
Communications; from general recommendations such as water management to

from marine to fresh water; from industrial use of water such as industrial emissions
to recreation use as for example bathing.

7�2 European legislation

The European legislation on water resources may be divided according to the stated
before as follows:

1. General Framework

2.

3. Marine pollution

4. Regional waters

5. Discharge of substances

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Next sections will broaden the main European legislation related to water resources

act established by the European Union (European Commission, 2013).

7�2�1 General Framework

The European Union (EU) has established a Community framework for water protection and
management. Firstly, Member States must identify and analyse European waters, on the
basis of individual river basin and district. They shall then adopt management plans and pro-
grammes of measures adapted to each body of water.
Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000

-
cing policies enabling the sustainability of water resources to be boosted.
Communication from the Commission to the Council, European Parliament and Econo-
mic and Social Committee: Pricing and sustainable management of water resources.

Communication from the Commission to the Council, European Parliament and Economic

Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2007

The Commission provides guidelines for addressing sporadic drought and medium- or long-
term water scarcity. The guidelines deal with water pricing, water allocation, drought pre-
vention and rapid response in the event of a drought, as well as high-quality information and
technological solutions tackling water scarcity and droughts.

and droughts in the European Union”.

Due to their volume, discharges of urban waste water are the second most serious cause of
water pollution in the form of eutrophication. This Directive seeks to harmonise measures
relating to the treatment of such waters at Community level.
Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste water treatment.

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7�2�2 Specific use of water

intended for human consumption must meet.

Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for
human consumption.

The European Union (EU) lays down rules for the monitoring, assessment and
management of the quality of bathing water and for the provision of information on
that quality. The aim is twofold, to reduce and prevent the pollution of bathing water,
and to inform European citizens of the degree of pollution.
Council Directive 76/160/EEC of 8 December 1975 concerning the quality of bathing
water.

The European Union (EU) introduces new legislation aimed at improving bathing
water quality. This Directive enables water monitoring and management measures to
be improved, and information to be made available to the public.
Directive 2006/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 February
2006 concerning the management of bathing water quality and repealing Directive
76/160/EEC.

Compliance with these criteria is essential in order to maintain or improve water

Council Directive 2006/44/EC of 6 September 2006 on the quality of fresh waters

The European Union establishes compulsory quality criteria for Member States’

Directive 2006/113/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of

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7�2�3 Marine pollution

Member States will have to evaluate requirements in the marine areas for which they
are responsible. They will then have to draw up and implement coherent management
plans in each region, and then monitor their application.
Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008

policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive).

This proposal aims to improve the liability and compensation arrangements for
pollution damage caused by ships.
Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the
establishment of a fund for the compensation of oil pollution damage in European
waters and related measures.

The Community legislation on maritime safety must be adapted at regular intervals

to take account of the amendments or the protocols to the international conventions,
new resolutions or changes to the codes and compendia of existing technical rules.
Directive 2002/84/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 November
2002 amending the Directives on maritime safety and the prevention of pollution
from ships.

The European Union creates a legal framework for imposing penalties in the event of
discharges of oil and other noxious substances from ships sailing in its waters.
Directive 2005/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of
7 September 2005 on ship-source pollution and on the introduction of penalties,
particularly criminal penalties, for infringements.

This regulation aims to prohibit organotin compounds (anti-fouling paints) on all ships

these products on the marine environment and human health.

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Regulation (EC) No 782/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14

April 2003 on the prohibition of organotin compounds on ships.

This Decision aims to authorise the Member States to become Contracting Parties to

Council Decision 2002/762/EC of 19 September 2002 authorising the Member

States, in the interest of the Community, to sign, ratify or accede to the International
Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001 (the Bunkers
Convention).

7�2�4 Regional waters

Following a request from the European Council, the Commission presents a strategy
aimed at developing the Danube Region in a coherent and sustainable way. Emphasis
is placed on mobility, energy, innovation, the environment, risk management and
security.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions of 8 December
2010, European Union Strategy for Danube Region.
Baltic Sea Strategy
The Commission establishes a strategy to deal with the deterioration of the Baltic Sea,
to improve the quality of transport networks and remove obstacles to trade.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions of 10
June 2009 concerning the European Union Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region.

The Commission outlines the essential features of a coordinated strategy for the
Mediterranean basin to protect the marine environment and the coastline of this

provides for the accomplishment of targeted activities, planned within a common

an environment strategy for the Mediterranean”.

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change, etc.) facing the Mediterranean basin. It is based on improving governance of

environment. The success of this strategy requires enhanced cooperation with the
third countries concerned.
Communication from the Commission of 11 November 2009 - Towards an Integrated
Maritime Policy for better governance in the Mediterranean.
Black Sea Synergy
The Black Sea region, which includes Bulgaria and Romania, occupies a strategic
position between Europe, Central Asia and the Middle East. The European Union

remove obstacles to the stability, security and prosperity of the countries in this region.
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament
of 11 April 2007 - Black Sea Synergy - A new regional cooperation initiative.
Danube - Black Sea region
Highlight actions to be taken to improve environmental quality in the Danube - Black
Sea region and the outline of a strategy aimed at protecting the environment of the
region.
Communication from the Commission: Environmental cooperation in the Danube
- Black Sea region.

7�2�5 Discharge of substances

Industrial emissions

minimise polluting emissions in the atmosphere, water and soil, as well as waste
from industrial and agricultural installations, with the aim of achieving a high level of
environmental and health protection.

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Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of

24 November 2010 on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and
control).

activities with a high pollution potential must comply. It establishes a procedure

for authorising these activities and sets minimum requirements to be included in all
permits, particularly in terms of pollutants released. The aim is to prevent or reduce
pollution of the atmosphere, water and soil, as well as the quantities of waste arising
from industrial and agricultural installations, to ensure a high level of environmental
protection.
Directive 2008/1/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008
concerning integrated pollution prevention and control.

The Commission establishes environmental quality standards so as to limit the

and to health in surface water in the European Union (EU). These standards are
coupled with an inventory of discharges, emissions and losses of these substances in
order to ascertain whether the goals of reducing or eliminating such pollution have
been achieved.
Directive 2008/105/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16

amending and subsequently repealing Council directives 82/176/EEC, 83/513/EEC,

84/156/EEC, 84/491/EEC, 86/280/EEC and amending Directive 2000/60/EC.

The European Union is establishing a framework to prevent and control groundwater

pollution. This includes procedures for assessing the chemical status of groundwater
and measures to reduce levels of pollutants.
Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December
2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration.
Detergents
The legislation on detergents permits improved protection of the environment by

detergents. It also increases consumer protection through more complete labelling

which includes any substance that could cause allergies.

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Regulation (EC) No 648/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of

31 March 2004 on detergents.

The Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) forms a framework,

based on the precautionary principle, which seeks to guarantee the safe elimination of
these substances, which are harmful to human health and the environment, as well

Council Decision 2006/507/EC of 14 October 2004 concerning the conclusion, on

behalf of the European Community, of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants.
Agricultural nitrates

nitrates from agricultural sources through a number of measures incumbent on

Member States. These measures concern monitoring surface waters and groundwater,
designating vulnerable zones, introducing codes of good agricultural practice, adopting
action programmes, and evaluating the actions implemented.
Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 concerning the protection of
waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources.
Community strategy concerning mercury
In view of the risks mercury poses for human health and the environment, the European

actions, aimed mainly at reducing the quantity and the circulation of mercury within
the EU and throughout the world as well as human exposure to this substance.

concerning Mercury”.

The European Union (EU) lays down harmonised rules to protect the aquatic
environment against the discharge of dangerous substances. The new regulations
impose in particular the granting of an authorisation for certain pollutant discharges,
emission limits for some chemicals and an improvement in the quality of waters under

288
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Directive 2006/11/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 February

2006 on pollution caused by certain dangerous substances discharged into the
aquatic environment of the Community.

This Directive prohibits or limits the discharge of certain dangerous substances into
groundwater and establishes systematic monitoring of the quality of such water. It will

Council Directive 80/68/EEC of 17 December 1979 on the protection of groundwater

against pollution caused by certain dangerous substances.

7�3 Useful links

• Summaries of EU legislation: Water protection and management

8 MISCELLANEOUS HYDROLOGY STUDIES

World Water Assessment Programme. 2003. Water for People, Water for Life: The
United Nations World Water Development Report. UNESCO: Paris.
Kabat, Pavel, Henk van Schaik, et al. 2003. Climate changes the water rules: How wa-
ter managers can cope with today’s climate variability and tomorrow’s climate
change. Dialogue on Water and Climate: The Netherlands.
Dialogue on Water and Climate. 2002. Coping with Impacts of Climate Variability and
Climate Change in Water Management: A Scoping Paper. Dialogue on Water and
Climate: The Netherlands.
Nijssen, Bart, Greg M. O’Donnell, Alan F. Hamlet, and Dennis P. Lettenmaier. 2001.
50, No. 1-2, July, pp. 143-175.
Vörösmarty, Charles J., Pamela Green, Joseph Salisbury, and Richard B. Lammers.
-
tion Growth,” Science, Vol. 289, 14 July, pp. 284-288.
-
mental Change, Vol. 9, Suppl. 1, October, pp. S31-S49.
-
ces,” Climatic Change, Vol. 37, No. 1, September, pp. 7-23.

289
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Change Assessment Methods,” Climatic Change, Vol. 37, No. 1, September, pp. 25-
40.
Major, D. C., A. Omojola, M. Dettinger, R. T. Hanson, R. Sanchez-Rodriguez, 2011: Cli-
mate change, water, and wastewater in cities. Climate
Change and Cities: First Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research
Network, C. Rosenzweig, W. D. Solecki, S. A. Hammer,
S. Mehrotra, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 113–143.
-
Change, Vol. 35, No. 4, April, pp. 415-434.

Future: Washington, D.C.

assessments of climate change,” Nature, 358, pp. 119-123.

of American Geographers, Vol. 93, No. 1, March, pp. 30-41.

Year-Round Water Temperatures in Temperate Zone Lakes,” Climatic Change, Vol.

40, No. 3-4, December, pp. 547-576.

the Inland Lake - A Case Study of Lake Qinghai, China,” Climatic Change, Vol. 39,
No. 4, August, pp. 695-714.

Forest Hydrology,” Climatic Change, Vol. 39, No. 2-3, July, pp. 215-272.

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