Data Transmission

Fundamentals

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 Contents
 Definitions
 Data Transmission Limits
 Shannon Channel Capacity
 Nyquist Limits
 Binary and Multi-level Signalling
 Line Coding

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 Information Rate (Rb)
 This is the speed at which binary information (bits) can be
transferred from source to destination.
 Units  bits/second.
 The speed of transmission is one of the basic parameters in
digital communication systems.

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 Bandwidth (B)
 The width of a positive frequency band.
 Units  Hz.
 The Bandwidth is one of the most significant limitations on the
performance of communication systems.

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 Bandwidth
 Bandwidth of a Signal:
 The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
contained in the signal.
 Example: Voice contain frequencies between 0 Hz and 4 kHz,
therefore, voice bandwidth = 4kHz.

 Bandwidth of a Channel:
 The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
that the channel will allow to pass through it (its passband).
 Example: A cable television transmission system has a
passband from 500kHz to 5000kHz. Therefore, channel
bandwidth = 4500 kHz.

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 Notes
 Any transmission medium has a finite frequency range over which
signals can be transmitted efficiently.
 This frequency range is called the Transmission Bandwidth of the
Channel for communication purposes.
 Any transmitted signals which fall outside this frequency range, will be
strongly attenuated during their passage over the medium.
 Therefore, it is essential for efficient signal transmission, that all
transmitted signals fall within the bandwidth of the transmission
medium.
 In other words, the bandwidth of the communications channel must
be equal or greater than the bandwidth of the information signal.

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 Notes
 General rule:
 A communication channel cannot propagate a signal that contains
a frequency that is changing at a rate greater than the bandwidth
of the channel.
 The more complex the information signal the more bandwidth
required to transport it in a given period of time.
 Examples: voice vs video.

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 Bandwidth Efficiency ():
 The bandwidth efficiency of a communication link is a measure of how
well a particular scheme is making use of the available bandwidth.
 It is defined by

  = Rb / B; bits/sec/Hz

Where
Rb is the bit rate (bits/sec) and B is the bandwidth (Hz)

 Example: If a system requires 4 kHz of bandwidth to continuously send

8000 bits/sec of information, the bandwidth efficiency of the link is:
η = 8000(bits/sec) / 4000 (Hz) = 2 bits/sec/Hz.

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 Data Transmission Limits
 How quickly information can be sent over any given
channel?
 Limited by the Bandwidth of the channel and Noise in the
channel:
 The transmission rate is determined by how fast the voltage (or
other signal type) can be varied on the channel.
 If the frequency content is too high then the inevitable filtering of
the channel attenuates and hence distorts too much of the signal.
 The noise in the channel will impose an upper limit on the number
of different unique symbol states that can be correctly resolved at a
receiver.

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 Shannon Channel Capacity
 The combined effects of finite bandwidth B and finite signal to noise
ratio S/N on channel capacity are governed by this very famous
relationship.
 Channel Capacity is the Maximum Rate at which data can be sent
over a channel.
 The Shannon Capacity Limit for error-free communication is given by

S
C  B log 2 (1  )
N
 Where
 C is the information rate (bits/sec),
 B is the channel bandwidth (Hz),
 S is the signal power (watts),
 N is the random noise power (watts)
 S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio.
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 Nyquist Limits
 “If a pulse represent one bit of data, non interfering pulses could
be sent over a channel no faster than twice the bandwidth of the
channel B”.
 Nyquist Maximum bit rate is

 Rb = 2B bits/sec

 Nyquist minimum bandwidth is

 B = Rb / 2 Hz

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 Nyquist Limits of PCM systems
 Assume an analogue signal with the highest frequency component fm,
sampled at Nyquist rate fs = 2fm samples/sec, quantised using L
levels L = 2m, where m is the number of information bits carried by
a single sample (number of bits in the quantiser).
 The maximum information transmission rate is

 Rb = mfs

 The Nyquist transmission bandwidth is

 B = Rb / 2 = mfs / 2

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 Example
 Assume that an analogue voice-frequency signal occupies 4kHz is to
be transmitted over a binary PCM system using 8-bit quantiser. Find
the information bit rate and minimum bandwidth.

 The minimum sampling frequency is

fs = 2fm =2 x 4 kHz = 8 kHz

 The information bit rate is

Rb = mfs = 8 x 8 kHz = 64 kbits/sec

 The minimum (Nyquist) transmission bandwidth of the PCM signal is

B = Rb / 2 = 32 kHz  Therefore a minum bandwidth of 32 kHz is
required to tx this voice signal digitally
where the bandwidth of the original
analogue voice was 4 kHz!!.

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 Binary and Multi-level Signalling
 Binary Signalling:
 The number of signal levels is limited to two (“1” and “0”).
 One of the two possible bits is transmitted during each
signalling period.

 Multi-Level Signalling:
 The number of signal levels is greater than two (M symbols).
 One of the M possible symbols is transmitted during each
signalling period.

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 Binary and Multi-level Signalling
 Multi-level signalling can be achieved by partitioning the input
binary data into blocks of length k bits and then assigning one
level (symbol) to each block.

Binary i/p Multi-level o/p

k
M=2
R b bits/sec R s symbols/sec

 The number of levels (symbols) M needed to uniquely represent

any pattern of k bits is given by

 M = 2k ; Where k is the number of bits per symbol

 The value of k and M represents an important initial choice in the
design of digital communication system.

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 Symbol Rate
 The symbol rate in terms of the bit rate Rb is given by
 Rs = Rb / k ; Where k is the number of bits per symbol.

 The symbol period in terms of the bit period Tb is given by

 Ts = kTb

 The symbol rate in terms of symbol period Ts is

 Rs = 1/Ts symbols/sec

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 Notes on Symbol Rate
 The Symbol Rate (Rs) must not be confused with the information transfer
rate.
 This is the rate at which symbols or levels are varied to convey the binary
information over the channels.
 In this case, the information bit rate which is in bits/sec, does not
necessarily equal to the symbol rate.
 Therefore, more correct definition is the rate at which the signal state
changes when observed in the communications channel.
 Units are Symbols/sec.

 Example: If a system uses 4 levels to convey pairs of bits through a

channel, and the level is changing every 0.5 msec, then the symbol rate is
Rs = 1 / 0.5ms = 2000 symbols/sec

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 Examples
(1) 2-level (binary) Signalling System
 The number of unique symbols is two.
 Each symbol is a bit (k=1  M= 2k =2)
 Rs=Rb and Ts =Tb

 Bit to Symbol Mapping table:

Bits Symbols
0 s1
1 s2

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 Examples
(2) 4-level Signalling System:
 The two bits “1” and “0” are arranged in blocks of length 2 (k=2).
 We have M=2k= 22=4 unique combinations (symbols).
 Rs=Rb/2 and Ts =2Tb

 Bit to Symbol Mapping table:

Bits Symbols
00 s1
10 s2
01 s3
11 s4

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 Examples
(3) 8-level Signalling System:
 The two bits are arranged in blocks of length 3 (k=3).
 M=23=8 unique symbols.
 Rs=Rb/3 and Ts =3Tb

 Bit to Symbol Mapping table:

Bits Symbols
000 s1
100 s2
010 s3
110 s4
001 s5
101 s6
011 s7
111 s8
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 Design Example
 Design a 4-level signalling to transmit the bit stream
1011000110.
 The input binary data must be partitioned into blocks of 2 bits (i.e. k=2)
which will result in M = 4 levels (symbols).
 Choose for example the 4 amplitude levels to be 0, 1, 2, 3.
 Then every two bits will be assigned one of these 4 possible amplitudes
as shown in the following mapping table:

Binary i/p Symbols

00 0
01 1
10 2
11 3

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 Design Example
 The binary and 4-level waveforms:

Binary input 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
Data

1
Binary
signalling 0

0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb 6Tb 7Tb 8Tb 9Tb 10Tb

3
2
4-Level 1
signalling 0
0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts 5T s

 The information bit rate is kept the same for both binary and 4-level.
 However, the symbol rate is reduced by a factor of two (Rs=Rb/2).
 This translates directly into a two-fold reduction in bandwidth required to
support communication.

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 Bandwidth for Multi-level Signalling
 The minimum bandwidth (B) required for error-free transmission in a
baseband channel is given by
B = Rs / 2 = Rb / 2k

 In terms of symbol rate and bit rate can be written as follows.

 The maximum Rs that can be supported on a channel of bandwidth B is
Rs = 2B symbols/sec

 The maximum bit rate (Rb), that is the transmission channel capacity
for a baseband channel with bandwidth B Hz is given by
Rb = 2kB

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 Summary
 Binary signalling:
 Increasing
 M=2, k=1 (1 bit/symbol), Rs=Rb & Ts=Tb number of Bits
per Symbol (k).
 4-level signalling:
 M=4, k=2 (2 bits/symbol), Rs=Rb/2 & Ts=2Tb  Decreasing
Symbol Rate
(Rs)
 8-level signalling:
 M=8, k=3 (3 bits/symbol), Rs=Rb/3 & Ts=3Tb  Decreasing
Bandwidth
 .. So on requirement.

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 Multi-level Signalling
 Advantages:
 We saw as M increases the symbol rate Rs decreases.
 A lower symbol rate leads to a reduced bandwidth requirement for
a given information bit rate.
 This results in an increase of bandwidth efficiency.

 Disadvantages:
 The price paid for this reduction in bandwidth is reduced noise
immunity when compared with binary signalling.
 It becomes more and more difficult to distinguish between
symbols.

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 Line Coding
 A baseband coding technique that changes the shape or format of
voltage pulses representing the data bits.
 It places restrictions on the data sequence before transmission.
 By selecting or designing a pair of pulses to represent the data bits
“1” and “0” which retain sharp transition between voltage levels.
 Also known as Data Conditioning.
 There are many line coding methods.
 Three are considered next

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 Factors affecting choice of line coding
 The choice of one line coding depends on following factors:
1. Spectral occupancy (bandwidth). Matching the spectrum of the
signal to the frequency response of the channel.
2. Presence or absence of a DC level.
3. Clock recovery (inherent clocking features to aid in clock signal
recovery for bit synchronisation).
4. Presence or absence of inherent error detection properties.
5. Noise immunity (probability of error performance).

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 Classes of Line Codes
(1) Nonreturn-to-Zero (NRZ):
 The binary pulse does not return to zero during an interval.
 The duration of the binary pulse “1” or “0” is equal to the duration of
the bit slot.
 This gives 100% duty cycle (the pulse is active for the entire bit time).
 Three types of NRZ line coding are shown below:

Data 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

+1
Unipolar NRZ 0

+1
Bipolar NRZ 0
-1

+1
Differential 0
encoding -1

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 Notes on key features of NRZ coding
 Unipolar NRZ & Bipolar NRZ:
 Have DC component in the waveform.
 No synchronisation capability.
 Small bandwidth occupancy.

 Differential encoding (also called NRZ-M, the M stands

for mark or 1):
 Useful as it allows the polarity of differentially encoded waveform to
be inverted without affecting the data detection.
 It is in communication systems where waveforms some times
experience inversion.

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 Classes of Line Codes
(2) Return-to-Zero (RZ):
 The duration of the binary pulse “1” is less than the duration of the bit slot.
 Usually the pulse is present only in the first half of the bit time slot, then
return to zero for the second half.
 This gives 50% duty cycle (each pulse is active only 50% of the total bit
time).
 Three types of RZ line coding are shown below:

Data 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

+1
Unipolar RZ 0

+1
Bipolar RZ 0
-1

AMI 0
-1

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 Notes on key features of RZ coding
 Unipolar RZ:
 DC appears for series of 1’s and 0’s.
 Synchronisation capabilities are limited.
 Large bandwidth.

 Bipolar-RZ:
 DC is minimised.
 Synchronisation is very good (there is a transition at each clock cycle).
 Large bandwidth.

 AMI:
 Removes all DC component from the data.
 It can have poor synchronisation if string of 0’s is transmitted.
 Small Bandwidth.
 Error detection capability.

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 Classes of Line Codes
(3) Phase Encoding: Manchester coding (also called Bi-phase).

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
+1

-1

 Key features of Manchester coding:

 No DC components.
 Self synchronisation (there is always a transition in the middle of the bit
period).
 Large bandwidth.
 Used for magnetic recording, Ethernet LANs, optical communications,
satellite links.

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