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CHAPTER-6 : EVOLUTION
CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
INTRODUCTION
6.1. ORIGIN OF LIFE
6.2. EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS - A THEORY
6.3. WHAT ARE THE EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION?
6.4. WHAT IS ADAPTIVE RADIATION?
6.5. BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
6.6. MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION

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6.7. HARDY - WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
6.8. A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
6.9. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

THEORY
INTRODUCTION :
Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another. It is change in the heritable
characteristics of biological populations over successive generation. It occur when evolutionary
processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on the variation.
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY:-
 It is the study of history of life forms i.e. the changes in flora and fauna that have occurred over
millions of years on earth.
6.1. ORIGIN OF LIFE
Origin of the Universe –
 Universe is around 20 billion years old and comprise of huge clusters of galaxies.
 Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust.
 The origin of universe is explained by the Big Bang theory.
 “According to it, a huge explosion occurred, the universe expanded, temperature came down and
hydrogen and helium were formed later. The galaxies were then formed due to condensation of
gases under gravitation”.
 Earth belongs to milky way galaxy.
 In solar system of Milky Way galaxies, earth has been supposed to be formed about 4.5 billion
years ago. There was no atmosphere in early earth. Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and
ammonia released from molten mass covered the earth surface.
 UV rays from the sun splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen. Life appeared 500 million years
after the formation of earth.
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THEORIES FOR ORIGIN OF LIFE
 Life appeared 500 million years after formation of earth.
 There are different theories regarding the origin of life on earth-
1. Theory of special creation :-
 According to this theory, God created life by his divine act of creation.
2. Theory of Cosmic panspermia
 Some scientist believes that life comes from other planets. Early Greek thinker thoughts that unit
of life is called spores transferred from other planets including earth.
3. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis/Autogenesis) -
 According to this theory, life cames out of decaying generation and rotting matter like straw and
mud. This theory is called theory of spontaneous generation.
4. Louis Pasteur -
 Louis Pasteur experimentally proved that life arises only from pre-existing life. Spontaneous

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theory of origin of life is dismissed after that.
Experiment of Louis Pasteur -
 His experiment is also known as 'Swan neck flask experiment'.
 He prepared sterilized syrup of sugar and killed yeast by boiling them in flasks.
 He took two flasks one of broken neck and another of curved neck (swan neck flask/ "S" shaped
neck flask).
 He showed that in pre-sterilized swan neck flasks, life did not come from killed yeast because
germ laden dust particles in the air were trapped by the curved neck which serves as filter while
in another flask open to air (broken neck), new living organisms arose.
Microorganisms Broken neck
swan neck in atmosphere
flask steam Air

yeast & sugar

solution
bacteria
(sterilized)
burner present
No bacteria

Fig : Louis Pasteur's swan neck flask experiment

5. Oparin - Haldane theory (Modern theory)

 Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first form of life could have come
from pre-existing non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and that formation of
life was preceded by chemical evolution, i.e., formation of diverse Organic molecules from in
organic constituents.
Chemical Evolution - formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents.
(The condition on earth were - high temperature, volcanic eruption, reducing atmosphere
containing CH4 and NH3).
 Oparin's theory was published in his book 'ORIGIN OF LIFE'.
 First life originated in sea water, so water is essential for origin of life.
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EVIDENCES IN FAVOUR OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION AND MILLER’S EXPERIMENT
(1) Harold Urey & Stanley Miller Experiment:
In 1953, S.L. Miller, an American scientist created similar conditions at laboratory scale which
were thought to be on primitive earth.
 He took CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at 800° C in a large flask.
 He created electric discharge by using two tungsten electrodes as source of energy.
 He observed the formation of simple amino acids like glycine, alanine, and aspartic acid.
 In similar experiments other scientists observed, formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment
and fats.

Electrodes
To vacuum
pump

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Spark
CH4 discharge
NH3 Gases
H2O
H2
Water out
Condenser
Water in
Water droplets

Water containing
Boiling water Organic compounds
Liquid water in trap
Diagrammatic representation of Miller’s experiment

(2) Evidences from meteorite -

Analysis of meteorite contents also revealed similar compounds indicating that similar processes
are occurring elsewhere in space.
With these limited evidences, first part of the conjectured story i.e., Chemical evolution was
more or less accepted.
This version of abiogenesis i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces
from non-living molecules is accepted by majority. However, one formed how the first cellular
forms of life could have evolved into the complex biodiversity of today is the fascinating story
that will be discussed in organic evolution.
Observations :-
 After a week, they observed presence of amino acids and complex molecules like sugars,
nitrogen bases, pigments and fats in the flask.
Conclusions :-
 It provides experimental evidence for the theory of chemical origin.
 It showed that the first non-cellular form of life was created about 3 billion years ago.
 It showed that non-cellular biomolecules exist in the form of DNA, RNA, polysaccharides and
protein.
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6.2. EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS - A THEORY
 Based on observations made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle round the
world, Charles Darwin concluded that existing living forms share similarities to varying degrees
not only among themselves but also with life forms that existed millions of years ago.
 There had been extinctions of different life forms in the years gone by just as new forms of life
arose at different periods of history of earth.
 There has been gradual evolution of life forms due to variation in characteristics.
 Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in natural conditions (climate, food,
physical factors, etc.) would outbreed others that are less-endowed to survive under such natural
conditions. Another word used is fitness of the individual or population.
 The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive fitness.

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 Hence, those who are better fit in an environment, leave more progeny than others.
 These, therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by nature.
 He called it natural selection and implied it as a mechanism of evolution.
 Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also come to similar
conclusions around the same time.
 All the existing life forms share similarities and share common ancestors.
 However, these ancestors were present at different periods in the history of earth (epochs, periods
and eras).
 The geological history of earth closely correlates with the biological history of earth.
6.3. WHAT ARE THE EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION?
1. Evidences from embryology –
 Ernst Haeckel law was based on the observation of certain features during embryonic stage
common to all vertebrates that are absent in adult.
 This proposal was disapproved on careful study performed by karl Ernst von Baer.
For example –
 The embryos of all vertebrates including humans develop a row of vestigial gill slits just behind
the head but it is functional organ only in fish and not found in any other adult vertebrates.
2. Paleontological evidences –
 The study of fossil is called palaeontology.
 Fossils are the remains or impressions of hard parts of organisms preserved in sedimentary rocks
or other media.
 Different-aged rock sediments in earth’s crust indicate the presence of fossils of different life
forms which died during the sediment formation.
 A variety of fossils ranging from the modern organisms to extinct organisms can be observed.
 By studying the different sedimentary layers, the geological time period in which the organism
existed can be predicted, e.g., Dinosaurs.
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Triceratops
Tyrannosaurus

Pteranodon

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Crocodilia
n

Archaeopteryx

Stegosaurus

Brachiosaurus

Thecodont

A family tree of dinosaurs and their living modern day

counterpart organisms like crocodiles and birds

(3) Morphological and anatomical comparative evidences -

 The phylogenetic history can be revealed by comparative study of external and internal

structures.

A. Homologous Organs –

(a) The organs which have common origin, embryonic development and same fundamental structure

but perform similar or different functions are called as homologous organs and this phenomenon

is called homology.

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For example -
(i) Forelimb of Mammals -
the forelimbs of some animals like whales, bats, cheetah and humans have similar anatomical
structure, i.e., all have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
(ii) Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendril of cucurbita both are modification of axillary buds.
(iii) Vertebrates heart or brain.

Man Cheetah Whal Bat

Tendril

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Thorn

Bougainvillea Cucurbita

Appearance Hand Foot Flipper Wing

Function Holding Running Swimming Flying

(b) Due to different needs, some structures developed differently. This is called divergent evolution.
(c) Homology indicates common ancestry.
B. Analogous Organs
(a) The organs which are anatomically different but functionally similar are called analogous organs.
For example - wings of butterfly and birds.
Other examples
 Eye of octopus and mammals.
 Flippers of penguins and dolphins.
 Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification).
(b) Due to same function, different structures evolve similarly. This is called convergent evolution.
Similar habitat resulted in selection of similar adaptive features in different groups of organs but
towards the same functions.
(4) Biochemical evidences :-
The similarities in proteins and genes performing a common given function among diverse
organisms give clues to common ancestry.
 The metabolic processes in organisms are also similar with same new materials and end products.
(5) Biogeographical evidence
 Species restricted to a region develop unique features. Also, species present in widely separated
regions show similarity of ancestry.
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6.4. WHAT IS ADAPTIVE RADIATION?
Adaptive Radiation:-
 It is the process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a
common point and radiating to other geographical areas (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.

Examples:
(i) Darwin’s finches
(ii) Marsupials of Australia
(iii) Placental mammals in Australia
(i) Darwin’s finches
 During the journey of Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed an amazing diversity of creatures.
 Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin's Finches amazed him.
 Galapagos island is situated near south America which is a group of 22 smaller islands.

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 He realized that there were many varieties of finches at Galapagos island.
 All the varieties, he conjectured, evolved on the island itself. From the original seed-eating
features, many other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to become insectivorous and
vegetarian finches.

Variety of beaks of finches that Darwin found in Galapagos Island

(ii) Marsupials of Australia -
A number of marsupials, each different from the other evolved from an ancestral stock, but all
within the Australian island continent.

Tasmanian wolf

Sugar
glider Tiger cat

Marsupial
mole Marsupial
radiation
Banded
Koala AUSTRALIA anteater
Marsupial
rat
Bandicoot

Wombat Kangaro
Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia

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(iii) Placental animals in Australia
A number of placental mammals have evolved from a common ancestral type in other parts of
world also. Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation.

Placental mammals Australian marsupials

Marsupial
Mole mole

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Anteater
Numbat (anteater)

Mouse Marsupial mouse

Lemur Spotted cuscus

Flying
Flying squirrel phalanger

Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat

Wolf Tasmanian wolf

Picture showing convergent evolution of
Australian Marsupials and placental mammals

6.5. BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

[A] Lamarck’s theory of evolution or Lamarckism

 Lamarck’s had said that evolution of life forms had occurred but driven by use and disuse of
organs. Nobody believes this conjecture any more.
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Examples:

1. Long neck and forelimbs of giraffe:

Lamarck gave the example of Giraffes who in an attempt to forage leaves on tall trees had to
adapt by elongation of their necks. As they passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to
succeeding generations, Giraffes, slowly over the years came to acquire long necks.

[B] Darwinism /Theory of Natural selection –

 It was proposed by Charles Darwin (1859) in his book “Origin of Species”.
 It is based on two key concepts namely,
(a) Branching descent (b) Natural selection

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(a) Branching Descent
 It explains that all organisms are modified descendants of previous life forms.
Adaptive ability is inherited. If has a genetic basis. Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt
and get selected by nature.
(b) Natural Selection -
 The work of Thomas Malthus on principle of populations (1794) was influenced by Darwin.
 Natural selection is based on the following facts:-
(a) Heritable minor variations.
(b) Over production by organisms.
(c) Limited natural resources.
(d) Struggle for existence for food and space.
(e) Survival of the fittest.
 Population sizes will grow exponentially if everybody reproduces maximally (e.g., bacterial
population).
 In fact, population size is limited due to competition for resources (Struggle for existence).
 Only some survives (Survival of the fittest).
 Darwin said that the organisms with heritable variations make resource utilization better.
 They reproduce and leave more progeny.
 It leads to a change in population characteristics and new forms appear.
Examples of natural selection.
(i) Industrial melanism Before Industrialization (1850s)
(ii) Drug resistance
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(1) Industrial Melanism - This phenomenon was studied by Bernard Kettlewell in England.

(a) (b)
Figure showing white – winged moth and dark – winged moth (melanised) on a tree trunk (a) In
unpolluted area (b) In polluted area

 In a collection of moths (Biston betularia) made in 1850s, i.e., before industrialization set in, it
was observed that there were more white-winged moths on trees than dark-winged or melanised

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moths.
 However, in the collection carried out from the same area, but after industrialization, i.e., in
1920, there were more dark-winged moths in the same area, i.e., the proportion was reversed.
 The explanation put forth for this observation was that 'predators will spot a moth against a
contrasting background'.
 Before industrialization set in, thick growth of almost white-coloured lichen covered the trees - in
that background the white winged moth survived but the dark-coloured moth were picked out by
predators.
 Lichens can be used as industrial pollution indicators. They will not grow in areas that are
polluted.
 During post industrialization period, the tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and
soot. Under this condition the white-winged moth did not survive due to predators while dark-
winged or melanised moth survived.
 Hence, moths that were able to camouflage themselves, i.e., hide in the background, survived.
 This understanding is supported by the fact that in areas where industrialization did not occur
e.g., in rural areas, the count of melanic moths was low.
 This showed that in a mixed population, those that can better-adapt, survive and increase in
population size. Remember that no variant is completely wiped out.
(2) Drug resistance: The drugs which eliminate pathogens become ineffective in the course of time
because those individuals of pathogenic species which can tolerate them survive and flourish to
produce tolerant/resistant population.
 Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs, etc. resulted in selection of resistant
varieties (Natural selection by anthropogenic action).
Note:- The evolution is not a directed process in the sense of determinism. It is a stochastic
process based on chance events in nature and chance mutations in the organisms.

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6.6. MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
 Darwin ignored about origin of variation and mechanism of speciation.
Mutation Theory -
 Hugo de Vries (1901) proposed Mutation Theory of evolution in his book “Mutation theory”.
 He conducted some experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana (evening primrose) and believed that
evolution takes place through mutation and not by minor variation.
 Evolution for Darwin was gradual while for deVries it is a sudden / spontaneous process. He
believed mutation caused speciation and hence called it saltation (single step large mutation).
6.7. HARDY - WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
 In a given population one can find out the frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene or a locus.
This frequency is supposed to remain fixed and even remain the same through generations.
 This principle says that allele frequencies in a randomly mating population are stable and is

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constant from generation to generation. The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a
population) remains a constant. This is called genetic equilibrium. Sum total of all the allelic
frequencies is 1.
p+q=1
Where:
p - Frequency of dominant allele (A)
q - Frequency of recessive allele (a)
The binomial expansion of this equation is :
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Where:
p2 - Frequency of individuals with genotype AA
q2 - Frequency of individuals with genotype aa
2pq - Frequency of individuals with genotype Aa
 When frequency measured, differs from expected values, then the difference (direction) indicates
the extent of evolutionary change. Disturbance in genetic equilibrium, or Hardy- Weinberg
equilibrium, i.e., change of frequency of alleles in a population would then be interpreted as
resulting in evolution.
 Disturbances in genetic equilibrium result in evolution.
Factors Affecting Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium
(i) Gene migration or gene flow: When individuals migrate to another place or population, new
genes or alleles are added to new population and are lost from old population, in turn changing
the frequencies. When gene migration occurs many times, it is called gene flow.
(ii) Genetic drift: Changes occurring in frequencies by chance is called genetic drift. Sometimes,
due to changes in allele frequency in new population, some form a different species. This effect
is called founder effect and the original drifted population is called founder.
(iii) Mutation: Advantageous mutations lead to new phenotypes and over few generations, result in
speciation.
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(iv) Genetic recombination: During gametogenesis, variations due to recombination result in new
phenotypes.
(v) Natural selection: Heritable variations that enable survival of the fittest will leave greater
number of progeny.
 Natural selection can have following three effects:
(a) Stabilisation: Larger number of individuals acquire mean character value so peak gets higher
and narrower.
(b) Directional change: Large number of individuals acquire value other than mean character value
so peak shifts in one direction.
(c) Disruption: Large number of individuals acquire peripheral character values at both ends of the

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distribution curve and hence 2 peaks are formed.
Peak gets higher
and narrower

(a)
Medium sized
individuals are
Number of individuals

favoured
With phenotype

Peak shifts in
one direction

(b)

Two peaks form

(c)
Diagrammatic representation of the operation of natural selection
on different traits (a) Stabilising (b) Directional and (c) Disruptive

6.8. A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION

 First cellular forms of life appeared around 2000 million years ago (mya).
 Some of these cells are said to release oxygen by splitting water with the help of solar energy
captured by light harvesting pigments(as in light reaction in photosynthesis).
 Single-celled organisms eventually became multicellular.
(i) Evolution of plants
 Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
 The first organisms that invaded land were plants. They were wide spread on land when animals
invaded land.
 Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
 Some of the land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles probably 200 mya
(e.g. Ichthyosaurs).
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Coenozoic

Quaternary Angiosperms (flowering plants)

Tertiary Monocotyledons
Bryophytes
Gnetales Dicotyledons
Cretaceous Sphenopsids
Ginkgos
(horsetails)
Mesozoic

Herbaceous Conifers Cycads

Jurassic Ferns
lycopods
Triassic

Arborescent

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Permian
lycopods
Seed ferns
Carboniferous
Palaeozoi

Progymnosperms
Devonian
c

Psilophyton
Silurian
Zosterophyllum
Rhynia-type plants

Tracheophyte ancestors

Chlorophyte ancestors

A sketch of the evolution of plant forms through geological periods

(ii) Evolution of animals

 About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
 By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed and became active.
 Jawless fishes probably evolved around 350 mya.
 Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water. This was about 350
mya. In 1938, a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which was thought to be
extinct.
 These Coelacanth or lobefins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land and water.
 There are no specimens of these left with us. However, these were ancestors of modern day frogs
and salamanders.
 The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun
unlike those of amphibians. Again we only see their modern day descendants, the turtles,
tortoises and crocodiles.
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 The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs. The biggest of them, was Tyrannosaurus rex
about 20 feet in height and had huge fearsome dagger like teeth.
 About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. We do not know the true
reason. This may happened due to (i) Climatic changes killed them or (ii) Meteorites collisions
killed them. The truth is still unknown.
 Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
 The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized.
 Mammals were viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother's body.
 Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least.
 When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth.
Birds

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Lizards Tuataras
Turtles Snakes s Crocodiles Mammals

Quaternar 0
y

Tertiary 50

Dinosaurs
(extinct)
Cretaceous 100

150
Jurassic

Therapsids
Triassic 200 (Extinct)

Thecodont
(Extinct)
Permian 250

Pelycosaurs
Sauropsids (Extinct)
Carboniferous 300 Synapsids

350
Early reptiles
(Extinct)
Representative evolutionary history of vertebrates through geological periods

6.9. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

 Origin and Evolution of Man (Human ancestry)
(i) Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus (15 mya)
(a) Hairy.
(b) Walked like gorillas and chimpanzee.
(c) Dryopithecus : ape-like.
(d) Ramapithecus : man-like.
(e) Fossils of man-like bones found in Ethiopia and Tanzania.
(f) Man-like primates (3-4 mya) : Height up to 4 feet.
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(ii) Australopithecines (2 mya)
 In East African grasslands.
 Hunted with stone weapons.
 Ate fruits.
(iii) Homo habilis
 First human-like being (hominid).
 Brain capacity : 650-800 cc.
 Did not eat meat.
(iv) Homo erectus (1.5 mya)
 Large brain (900 cc) : Ate meat.

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 Neanderthal man : 40,000 - 1 lakh yrs ago :
 Brain 1400 cc.
 Lived in East and Central Asia.
 Used hides to protect their body.
 Buried their dead.
(v) Homo sapiens (Modern man) :
 Evolution took place during 10,000 to 75,000 years ago.
 Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago.
 Agriculture and settlements : 10,000 years ago.

A comparison of the skulls of adult modern human being, baby

chimpanzee and adult chimpanzee. The skull of baby
chimpanzee is more like adult human skull than adult
chimpanzee skull.
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