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Unit 1

ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

It’s Interior and Exterior

Syllabus outline- Introduction to Geology (2012)

NO. of Course Assignment
TOPICS/ SUB TOPICS session Outcomes /Quizzes/
(Hrs) Addressed Tests
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH: Theories of Origin of Earth, Interior and Exterior CO1 & MCQ/ MA/
UNIT I 06
of Earth, Fundamentals of plate tectonics, convergent, divergent and transform margins. CO3 TF
MINEROLOGY & PETROLOGY: Introduction and classification of Minerals, Elementary ideas CO1 & MCQ/ MA/
UNIT II 06
about crystal structures. Introduction to Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks. CO2 TF
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY: Rock weathering and its types. Geological work of Wind, River and MCQ/ MA/
UNIT III 08 CO3
Ocean, glacier. Principles of Isostasy. TF/ Assign
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL AND FIELD GOEOLOGY: Dip, strike, clinometer compass
and its uses. Basic concepts of Stress, Strain and Rock deformation, Geometry, Mechanism CO4 & MCQ/ MA/
UNIT IV 08
and classification of Folds and Faults. Morphology and Mechanism of Joints, shear zones CO5 TF
and Salt Domes.
BASICS OF STRATIGRAPHY AND PALEONTOLOGY: Stratigraphic Principles, Type Section,
Type Location and Type Area, Unconformities – origin and types, Geological Time Scale,
MCQ/ MA/
Introduction to Paleontology, Fossils and Fossilization, Introduction and Importance of CO4 &
UNIT V 08 TF/ Assign
Invertebrate Paleontology. Micro-Paleontology: Morphology and Distribution of CO5
Microfossils (Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Conodonts, Ostracodes, Diatoms and Palynology),

Importance of Microfossils in Petroleum Exploration.

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Geology and its branches

GEOLOGY: Geology is an earth science, comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which
it is composed, and the processes by which they change.
Various branches of the geology

It is the science, which deals with the physical structure and substance of the earth, their
history, and the processes which act on them.

The Origin of the Earth…

4.6 billion years

https://www.bioscience.com.pk/topics/zoology/item/592-origin-of-life-on-earth

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Origin of the Earth & other planets of the Solar System

• Gravity makes hydrogen and helium gas amalgamate to form giant clouds that
will became galaxies, smaller clumps of gas-collapse to form the first stars.
• There are few famous theories of the origin of the Earth and Solar system.
Monistic or Parental Hypothesis
• Nebular hypothesis
a) Kant’s Gaseous hypothesis (1755)
b) Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace (1796)
Dualistic or Biparental Concept
• Collision or encounter hypothesis
• Planetesimal hypothesis
• Tidal hypothesis (By Harold Jeffreys and James Jeans 1916)
• Big bang theory (George Gamow 1948)
• Binary Star hypothesis
• Interstellar Dust Theory

Nebular Hypothesis
• The idea that the Solar System originated from a nebula was first proposed in 1734 by Swedish
scientist Emanual Swedenborg.
• Kant, developed the theory further and gave Theory of the Heavens (1755).
• In this, he argued that gaseous clouds (nebula) slowly rotate, gradually collapsing and flattening
due to gravity and forming stars and planets.
• A similar but smaller and more detailed model was proposed by Pierre-Simon Laplace, which he
released in 1796.
• Laplace theorized that the Sun originally had an extended hot atmosphere throughout the Solar
System, and this “protostar cloud” cooled and contracted. As the cloud spun more rapidly, it threw
off material that eventually condensed to form the planets.
• The Laplacian nebular model was widely accepted during the 19th century, but it had some rather
pronounced difficulties.
The main issue was angular momentum distribution between the Sun and planets, which the nebular
model could not explain.
For more details – video link-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0LwWFnA-Mh0

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Nebular Hypothesis
• In this theory, the whole Solar System starts as a large cloud of gas that contracts under self-gravity.
• Conservation of angular momentum requires that a rotating disk form with a large concentration at
the center (the proto-Sun) and within the disk, planets form.
Kant, explained

Angular velocity

Temperature

Concentric ring formation

https://www.bioscience.com.pk/topics/zoology/item/592-origin-of-life-on-earth

Summary: A huge cloud of dust and gas (called a Nebula) spun faster and flattened as it cooled and shrank. It threw
of 9 rings of matter which compressed into planets. The central strongest cloud became the sun.

Video link

• Nebular Hypothesis - Origin of the Earth Solar system

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PL3YNQK960Y

• The Formation of the Solar System

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x1QTc5YeO6w

• The History of Earth - How Our Planet Formed - Full Documentary HD

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uHUTbq-j0UU

• Formation of the Solar System (Stephen Hawking)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uhy1fucSRQI

• The Encounter Theory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxRflR9dGfY

• Nebular Hypothesis - Origin of the Earth Solar system

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ESGUAU2Du0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PL3YNQK960Y

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Encounter Hypothesis (by G.L.L. de Buffon in 1745)

It’s one of the earliest theories for the formation of the planets- This theory proposes that the planets
formed from material ejected from the sun or acompanion star during the encounter with another star.

1. In this scenario, a rogue star passes close to the Sun about 5 billion years ago.

2. Material, in the form of hot gas, is tidally stripped from the Sun and the rogue star.

3. This material fragments into smaller lumps which form the planets.

4. This hypothesis has the advantage of explaining that why all the planets revolve in
the same direction (from the encounter geometry) and also provides an
explanation for why the inner worlds are denser than the outer worlds.

However, there are two major problems for a theory of this type. (1) One is that hot gas expands, not contracts. So
lumps of hot gas would not form planets. (2) The second is that encounters between stars are extremely rare, so
rare as to be improbable in the lifetime of the Universe (15 billion years).
http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec23.html

Planetesimal Hypothesis (By T.C. Chamberlin and F.R. Moulton 1901-05)

• They suggested that a passing star caused the Sun to eject filaments of material. These condensed
into planetesimals from which the planets formed by accretion.
• Also, suggested that the close passage of a star…..? to the sun caused many small bodies
(Planetesimals). Which are drown from the sun, eventually coalescing to form the planets.
• The planets and satellites of the solar system were formed by gravitational aggregation of
planetesimals.
Cold Sun

Intruding star

Gravitational Pull…..
Mass ejected
(Planetesimals)

https://slideplayer.com/slide/6863350/

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https://formationofsolarsystem.wordpress.com/2017/09/30/planetisimal-theory/

Tidal theories (By Harold Jeffreys and James Jeans 1916)

• The theory was proposed by Sir James H. Jeans and Sir Harold Hot sun
Jeffreys.

• This Theory of the origin of the solar system, involving the approach
near the Sun of another star.

• This set up tidal forces, and the instability of the Sun resulted in part
Gravitational
of its mass being torn off to form the planets. Pull

• They suggested that a star grazed the Sun, drawing out into solar
orbit a cigar-shaped filament of material that fragmented to form Cigar shaped filament
the planets: the larger planets – Jupiter and Saturn – condensed
from the thicker central regions of the filament.

Schematic representation of the Jeans-Jeffreys tidal hypothesis.

(a) A tidal bulge is induced….. (b) A filament of material is drawn out in which condensations form.
(c) The produced protoplanets orbit the Sun with high eccentricities. Image credit: Stephen Oxley, doctoral thesis, Univ. of York, 1999

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Origin of Universe (BIG BANG THEORY)

An surprising observation was made in the late 1920's. The light from distant galaxies is shifted to lower
frequencies (red shift) similar to the way the sound of a horn on a passing train or car shifts to a lower
pitch (The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength). The light frequency shift can be explained
in the same way; the distant galaxies are moving away from us.

About 4.6 billion years ago our solar system formed from a cloud of gas and dust which slowly
contracted under the mutual gravity of all of its particles.

Big bang theory (George Gamow 1948)

• The Big bang theory is the dominant scientific theory about the origin of the Universe.

• This theory suggest that the universe was created sometime between 10-20 billion years ago from a
cosmic expansion that continue to spread matter in all directions.

• George suggested that, if this universe was created with a hot big bang, then the various elements,
such as H, He, would be produced for a minutes immediately after the Big bang due to the extremely
high temperature and density of the universe.

• As the universe expanded, H and He cooled and condense into stars and galaxies.

Support: (a) Distant galaxies are travelling away from us at great speeds. (b) Cosmic radiation can be
observed.

Problem: (a) 1st law of Thermodynamics- energy can neither be created nor destroyed. (b) Doesn’t
account for organic living matters, only gas….?

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Video link
Motive to show the concept of the Earth origin………
…………………I think rest theories u can read from the books/ papers
• Nebular Hypothesis - Origin of the Earth Solar system REF: Physical and Engineering
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PL3YNQK960Y
Geology by S. K. Garg.
• The Formation of the Solar System ISBN: 81-7409-032-0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x1QTc5YeO6w

• The History of Earth - How Our Planet Formed - Full Documentary HD

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uHUTbq-j0UU

• Formation of the Solar System (Stephen Hawking)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uhy1fucSRQI

• The Encounter Theory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxRflR9dGfY

• Nebular Hypothesis - Origin of the Earth Solar system

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ESGUAU2Du0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PL3YNQK960Y