WELL LOGGING

What Is Well Logging ?

•Well Logging is the technique of making

petrophysical measurements in the sub-
surface earth formations in order to
determine both the physical and chemical
properties of rocks and the fluids they
contain.
•The objective is to locate, define, and
produce from a given reservoir
 Principal of Well Logging

§ A well log is a record of certain formation data

versus depth.
§ The appropriate downhole logging tools instrument
called ‘sonde’, about 3.5 inches in diameter is
lowered into mud-filled hole on logging cable.
§ This tools will measure the electrical, acoustic, and
radioactive properties of the formation.
§ The result will be analyzed to determine which of
the layers are porous and permeable, and likely to
contain hidrocarbon.
§ A depth calibration wheel records the length of
cable in the hole.
 Principal of Well Logging
GR

§ Survey is normally done 0 50 100 150

from the bottom up. As

5185
5195

the sonde is pulled up the 5205

hole, a continuous 5215

5225
measurement signal is sent 5235

to the surface where the 5245

data is processed and

5255
5265

recorded as a curve. 5275

5285
5295
5305
5315
5325
5335
5345
5355
5365
5375
5385
5395
5405
5415
Objective of Well Logging
1-Lithology identification
2-Determination of reservoir characteristics (e.g.
porosity, saturation, permeability).
3-Discrimination between source and non
source rocks
4-Identification the fluid type in the pore space
of reservoir rock ( gas, oil, water)
5-Identification of productive zones.
6-Determination the depth and thickness of
productive zones.
7-Locating reservoir fluid contacts.
8-Well to well correlation for determining the
lateral extension of subsurface geologic cross
sections.
9-Determination formation dip and hole angle
and size.
WELL LOGGING – The Eye
of Oil Industry

•Well logging is often called the Eye of Oil

Industry

•Well Logging measurements are used to:

•Ascertain hydrocarbon potential of the well
•Determine hydrocarbon type and volume
•Determine what types of fluid will flow and
at what rate
•Optimize well construction and hydrocarbon
production

•Well Logging finally serves to:

•Identify Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
•Define Total and Recoverable Reserves
WELL LOG (The Bore Hole Image)
• What is well Logging
Ø Well log is a continuous record of measurement made in bore hole respond to variation in some physical
properties of rocks through which the bore hole is drilled.
Ø Now a days the log may be taken as films, images, and in digital format.

Uses of Well Logging

• Well logging involves measuring the physical properties of surrounding
rocks with a sensor located in a borehole. The record of the
measurements as a function of depth is called a well log.
• Geophysical well logging has become a standard operation in petroleum
exploration. Identification of geological formations and formation fluids,
correlation between holes, and evaluation of the productive capabilities of
reservoir formations are usually the principal objectives.
• Geophysical well-logging methods include mechanical methods, passive
and a number of active electrical methods (including self-potential,
resistivity, induction, induced polarization), several nuclear methods Traditionally Logs are display on girded
(natural γ-ray detection and observations from induced nuclear reactions), papers
acoustic logging, and measurement of magnetic and thermal properties.
Basic Well Logging
Petrophysical
Measurements:
–Natural Gamma
Radioactivity
–Formation Resistivity
–Formation Density
–Formation Porosity
–Acoustic Travel Time
–Formation Pressure /Fluid
Sampling/Coring
Rock Property Measurements
• The objective of well logging is to measure in situ the properties of the undisturbed rocks and the fluids that
they contain. However, the act of drilling a hole disturbs them. Appreciation of the invasion process is
essential to interpreting well logs because the rock region that exerts the greatest effect on log readings is the
portion nearest the logging sonde, the portion altered most by the drilling process.
• The relative contribution of formations at various distances from the logging tools varies with different sensor
configurations. The effective depth of penetration (investigation), a qualitative term, is the distance from the
borehole that contains the material whose properties dominate the measurements.
• Deep penetration implies that the dominant contribution is from formations that have not been disturbed by
invasion.
• At the other extreme, very shallow penetration implies that the properties of the mud cake or of the borehole
mud dominate the measurements, depending on whether the logging tool is pressed against the borehole
wall or is centered in the borehole.
• Intermediate penetration implies domination by the area invaded by mud filtrate in porous formations.
Electric log measurements using different electrode arrangements may give different results because the mud
and filtrate are usually more resistive than the indigenous formation whose water is usually highly saline and
conductive.
• Well logging for petroleum usually has the primary objective of identifying potential reservoir rocks,
determining their porosity and permeability, and determining the nature and proportions of the fluids
present.
 Basic Definitions
• Source Rock: Rock rich in organic matter capable of generating petroleum.
Common source rock: Shale.
• Reservoir Rock: Porous-permeable rock capable of storing hydrocarbons. Well

Hydrocarbons
Common reservoir rocks: Sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite.
• Cap Rock: Impermeable rock capable of sealing a reservoir rock.
OWC
Cap Rock
Common cap rocks: Shale, Evaporites. Reservoir Rock
Hydrocarbon pool exampleWater
• Porosity(φ): Fraction of the rock volume filled with fluids (Vf /Vt).
It depends on grain size distribution. High porosity range: 0.25 - 0.40
• Water Saturation (Sw): Fraction of the pore volume filled with water (Vw /Vf).
• Hydrocarbon Saturation (Sh=1-Sw): Fraction of pore volume filled with hydrocarbons (Vh/Vf).
• Permeability (k): A measure of the ease with which fluids can flow through a rock under a
pressure gradient. It depends on connectivity and size of the pores. Typical range:1-1000md
• Bulk Water Volume: Fraction of rock volume containing water (Vw /Vt) : φSw
• Bulk Hydrocarbon Volume: Fraction of rock volume containing hydrocarbon (Vh/Vt) : φ(1-Sw)
• Hydrocarbon in place: φ(1-Sw )×h×A
Water Rock Volume = Vt
where h- pay thickness, A- area Fluid Volume = Vf
HC
• Movable hydrocarbon saturation: (1-Sw)-(1-Sxo)= Sxo – Sw Water Volume = Vw

where Sxo-water saturation in the flushed zone HC Volume = Vh

Grain
( Vf = Vw + Vh )
Hydrocarbon bearing rock
 Major Applications
Formation Evaluation
• Formation lithology, bed boundaries and reservoir zones: Natural Gamma Ray (GR), Spontaneous
Potential (SP), Caliper (CALI), Density (ρb), Photoelectric (PEF), Neutron porosity (φn) and
Resistivity logs , Side Wall Cores (SWC)
• Fluid type, fluid contacts, fluid pressure and pay thickness (h): Resistivity, Density, Neutron porosity,
Sonic, SWC, Formation Tester, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
• Shaliness (Vsh): GR, SP, Resistivity, Density-Neutron porosity, NMR
• Porosity (φ): Density, Neutron porosity, Sonic, NMR
• Permeability (k): Sonic (Stoneley), Formation Tester, NMR
• Formation water salinity/resistivity (Rw): SP, Resistivity - Porosity logs, Formation Tester.
• Water saturation (Sw): Resistivity- Porosity logs.
• Hydrocarbon movability: Resistivity- Porosity logs
• Formation strata dips and azimuths: Dipmeter, Formation Micro Imager (FMI)
• Fractures: FMI, Sonic (Cross dipole), Conventional logs
• Stress distribution: Sonic (Cross dipole)
• Lithofacies, depositional environments: Conventional logs, FMI, Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy
(NGS) log.
• Subsurface mapping: Well to well log correlation
Well Completion
• Cement bond evaluation: CBL-VDL, Ultrasonic Imager(USIT)
• Casing perforation: Perforating Guns
• Zone isolation: Bridge Plug Tool
Well/Field Performance
• Well monitoring and sick well diagnostics/revival: Production Logging Tool (PLT)
• Reservoir Monitoring: Induced Gamma Ray Spectroscopy(GST), Cased Hole Resistivity(CHFR)
HISTORY

Ø 1912 Conrad Schlumberger give the idea of using electrical measurements to map subsurface rock bodies.
Ø in 1919 Conrad Schlumberger and his brother Marcel begin work on well logs.
Ø The first electrical resistivity well log was taken in France, in 1927.
Ø The instrument which was use for this purpose is called SONDE, the sond was stopped at periodic intervals
in bore hole and the and resistivity was plotted on graph paper.
Ø In 1929 the electrical resistivity logs are introduce on commercial scale in Venezuela, USA and Russia
Ø For correlation and identification of Hydrocarbon bearing strata.
Ø The photographic – film recorder was developed in 1936 the curves were SN,LN AND LAT
Ø The dip meter log were developed in 1930
Ø The Gamma Ray and Neutron Log were begin in 1941
 Logging Set Up
• Logging setup consists of a logging
truck, wire line (cable) and
downhole logging tools.
• The downhole tool sensors send
data as electrical signals via cable
to be stored in the computer. Control panels and
computer system
• Various tool operations viz. tool
calibration, opening and closing of
pads and recording of log etc. are
performed by sending signals via
computer. Logging truck
• The log depth starts from Kelly
Bush (KB).
• Logs are generally recorded while
moving up.
• Whether downhole tool is moving
or heldup is indicated by tension in
the cable .
Basic Well Logging Equipments
•Logging Unit
–A specialized truck installed with a full computer system for data acquisition & processing

•Logging cable or the Wireline

–An electro-mechanical cable reel mounted on the truck and operated by the truck hydraulics

•Logging Tool or Sonde

–An electronic instrument containing sensors and processing circuitry for data acquisition and
transmission

The logging tool is lowered into the wellbore by means of the logging cable or wireline. The
wireline also connects the logging tool electrically to the surface computer system. Data
acquired by the tool are transmitted to the surface system over the logging cable using digital
telemetry. The surface computer records, processes and plots these data as a function of well
depth and produces what is called a “log” or “well log”.
•This is normally called the Wireline Logging Technique
Logging Method and Depth of Investigation of Logging Tools
Composite Log Example (Clastic
Sequence)
TYPES OF BORE HOLES Types of BoreHoles
According to Casing operation
- Open holes
SP A borehole drilled in the formation, usually available immediately after drilling
-100 -50 0 50 100 –All basic petrophysical measurements for Formation Evaluation
5185
Cased holes
5195
5205 - A borehole wherein steel casing pipes have been placed and cemented suitably
5215 –Measurements mostly concern with Reservoir Development & Production
5225 According to conductivity of the borehole
5235
5245
- Conductive (water base drilling mud)
5255 - Non-conductive boreholes (oil base mud, air drilled or cased holes)
5265
5275
5285
5295 Formation Evaluation
5305 includes
5315
5325 • Mud Logging
5335 • Coring
5345
5355 • Open-hole Logging
5365 • Logging While
5375
5385 Drilling
5395 • Formation Testing
5405
5415 • Cased Hole Logging
 Open-hole Logging

§ Open-hole logging, also known as

well logging is the practice of
making a detailed record (a well
log) of the geologic formations
penetrated by a borehole.
§ Open hole logs are run before
the oil or gas well is lined with
pipe or cased
 Formation Evaluation

§ What is Formation Evaluation?

§ Formation Evaluation (FE) is the process of
interpreting a combination of measurements taken
inside a wellbore to detect and quantify oil and gas
reserves in the rock adjacent to the well. FE data
can be gathered with wireline logging instruments
or logging-while-drilling tools .
§ Study of the physical properties of rocks and the
fluids contained within them.
§ Data are organized and interpreted by depth and
represented on a graph called a log (a record of
information about the formations through which a
well has been drilled).
 Formation Evaluation

§ Why Formation Evaluation?

§ To evaluate hydrocarbons reservoirs and predict
oil recovery.
§ To provide the reservoir engineers with the
formation’s geological and physical parameters
necessary for the construction of a fluid-flow
model of the reservoir.
§ Measurement of in situ formation fluid pressure
and acquisition of formation fluid samples.
§ In petroleum exploration and development,
formation evaluation is used to determine the
ability of a borehole to produce petroleum.
 Mud Logging

§ Mud logging (or Wellsite Geology) is a well logging

process in which drilling mud and drill bit cuttings
from the formation are evaluated during drilling and
their properties recorded on a strip chart as a visual
analytical tool and stratigraphic cross sectional
representation of the well.
§ Provide continuous record of penetration rate,
lithology and hydrocarbon shows.
§ These information supports wireline log data.
§ From the cuttings, an oil stains or odor of oil may be
detected, become an excellent qualitative indicator.
§ The fluorescent lamp is also a great help in detecting
oil shows.
 Mud Logging

§ The gas record and lithological sample are plotted

along with surface parameters such as rate of
penetration (ROP), Weight On Bit (WOB),rotation
per minute etc. on the mudlog which serve as a tool
for the drilling engineers and mud engineers.
§ Some problem: a discrepancy between the time the
rock was drilled and the time it reached the surface
– particularly for deep wells, where it take two or
move hours to reach the surface.
 Coring

§ One way to get more detailed

samples of a formation is by coring,
where formation sample is drilled
out by means of special bit.
§ This sample can provide:
§ Detailed lithological decscription.
§ Porosity, permeability, fluid
saturation and grain density.
§ These parameters are measured in
the laboratory and serve as a basis
for calibrating the response of the
porosity logging tools and to
establish a porosity/permeability
relationship.
 Coring

§ Two techniques commonly used at

present. The first is the "whole
core", a cylinder of rock, usually
about 3" to 4" in diameter and up to
50 feet (15 m) to 60 feet (18 m) long.
§ It is cut with a "core barrel", a
hollow pipe tipped with a ring-shaped
diamond chip-studded bit that can
cut a plug and bring it to the surface.
§ Taking a full core is an expensive
operation that usually stops or slows
drilling operation, and can be done
only before the drilling has been
done.
Coring Tool & Core Barrel
 Coring

§ The other, cheaper, technique for obtaining samples

of the formation is "Sidewall Coring". In this method,
a steel cylinder—a coring gun—has hollow-point steel
bullets mounted along its sides and moored to the
gun by short steel cables.
§ The coring gun is lowered to the bottom of the
interval of interest and the bullets are fired
individually and the core will be retrieved.
§ Advantages of this technique are low cost and the
ability to sample the formation after it has been
drilled.
 Core Preservation

§ Once the core is retrieve to surface then it is

important that it should remain as unchanged as
possible.
§ The core should be prevented from drying out,
coming into contact with oxygen or being
mechanically damaged.
§ Core barrel is filled with resin to prevent the
core from moving and to minimize the exposed
surface area.
§ Freezing the core in freezer containers.
§ Core sample is wrapped in a plastic film, aluminium
foil and then dipped in molten wax.
 Core Analysis

§ Can be divided into two categories:

§ Conventional Core Analysis.
§ Special Core Analysis.

§ Conventional Core Analysis.

§ The core is usually slabbed, cut lengthwise to
make the structure visible.
§ Provides information on lithology, residual fluid
saturation, ambient porosity, ambient gas
permeability and grain density.
 Gas Permeameter

Liquid Permeameter
Porosimeter
 Core Analysis

§ Special Core Analysis :

Provides the following information:
§ Porosity and permeability at elevated confining
stress.
§ Electrical properties such as formation factor
and resistivity index.
§ Capillary pressure.
§ Wettability and relative permeability.
§ Mechanical rock properties such as
compressibility.
§ Waterflood sensitivity for injectivity and well
performance.
Types of well logs
Wireline logs
(Electrical, Radioactive, Acoustic, mechanical, Thermal and Magnetic logs)

Formation Testers
(Repeated Formation Tester, Drill Stem Tests)
Why Logs are required?
• These measurements are necessary because geological sampling during drilling (cutting
sampling) leaves a very imprecise record of the formations encountered.
• Entire formation samples can be brought to the surface by mechanical coring, but this is
both slow and expensive.
• The results of coring, of course, are unequivocal. Logging is precise, but equivocal, in
that it needs interpretation to bring a log to the level of geological or petrophysical
experience.
• However, logs fill the gap between ‘cuttings’ and cores, with experience, calibration and
computers, they can almost replace cores, as they certainly contain enough information
Principal uses of open hole wireline logs in HC Exploration & Production
 Electrical Logs

§ Developed by Conrad & Marcel Schlumberger (who founded

Schlumberger Limited), and intoduced to the US in 1929.

§ ELECTRIC LOGS The physical properties of rocks and minerals

measured in electrical well logging are principally electrical resistivity
and self-potential (SP). In most petroleum exploration logging, several
logs are recorded on the same logging run. Resistivity and SP logs are
generally recorded as adjacent curves. Because most electrical
measurements can be made only where the hole has not been cased,
logs are commonly run over different parts of the borehole at
different times.
§ Can be divided into two main types: measurement of natural electrical
current in the rock (SP Log), and measurement of induced electrical
current (Resistivity Log and Induction Log).
Self-Potential (SP) logging

• The self-potential log is the oldest type of

geophysical log in use.
• The first one was run in 1927.
• The spontaneous log records the electric
potential set up between an electrode in a
sonde drawn up the borehole and a fixed
electrode at the earth’s surface.
• It can only be used in open (i.e., uncased)
holes filled with conductive mud.
• Provided that there is a minimum amount
of permeability, the S.P. response is
dependent primarily on the difference in
salinity between drilling mud and the Basic arrangement for the SP log.
formation water.
The electric charge of the SP is caused by the flow of ions (largely Na+ and Cl-) from
concentrated to more dilute solutions. Generally this flow is from salty formation
water to fresher drilling mud .This naturally occurring electric potential (measured in
millivolts) is basically related to the permeability of the formation.

Diagram showing how ionic

diffusion causes the
spontaneous potential
effect. Looped arrows show
the direction of positive
current flow. Log response
is for the situation in which
the salinity of the formation
water is greater than that of
the drilling mud.
The amount of the current, and hence the amplitude of deflection on the SP curve, is related not only
to permeability, but also to the contrast between the salinity of the drilling mud and the formation
water. Specifically, it is the contrast between the resistivity of the two fluids. Empirically, it has been
found that:

where
E = SP charge (mV)
K = a constant, which is generally taken as 65+0.24T(ºC) or 61+0.133T(ºF)
Rmf = resistivity of mud filtrate (Ωm)
Rw = resistivity of formation water (Ωm)

Note that since the resistivity of salty water varies with temperature, it is necessary to allow for that factor when
solving the equation. The resistivity of the filtrate of the drilling mud may be measured at the surface and, if the
bottom hole temperature is known, can be recalculated for the depth of the zone at which the SP charge is
measured. The equation may then be solved, and Rw, the resistivity, and hence the salinity of the formation
water can be determined.
In summary the SP log may be used to delineate permeable zones, and hence it aids lithological identification
and well-to-well correlation. The SP log can also be used to calculate Rw, the resistivity of the formation water.
The SP is limited by the fact that it cannot be run in cased holes and is ineffective when Rmf is approximately
equal to Rw. This situation occurs with many offshore wells drilled using saltwater-based drilling muds.
• Deflection of the log from an arbitrarily determined shale baseline indicates permeable, and therefore
porous sandstones or carbonates.
• In most cases this deflection, termed a normal or negative SP deflection, is to the left of the baseline.
Deflection to the right of the baseline, termed reversed or positive SP, occurs when formation waters are
fresher than the mud filtrate.
• A poorly defined or absent SP deflection occurs in uniformly impermeable formations or where the salinities
of mud and formation water are comparable . In most cases, with a normal SP the curve can be used to
differentiate between interbedded impermeable shales and permeable sandstones or carbonates.

Schematic SP logs for different

salinity contrasts of mud and
formation water. Reversed SP logs
are very rare. Suppressed SP logs
occur where salt muds are used.
The usual response, in which the
salinity of the drilling mud is less
than the salinity of the formation
water, is shown in the right-hand
log.
 Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log- Application
SP

§ Also known as Self Potential Log. 5185

-100 -50 0 50 100

§ SP Log record weak electrical 5195

5205
Shale
currents that flow naturally in the 5215

rock next to the wellbore (natural 5225

electricity).
5235
5245

§ The log shows the boundaries and 5255

5265
Sandstone
thickness of each layer of rock, 5275

especially permeable (sandstone) and 5285

Shale
impermeable (shale).
5295
5305

§ Because the SP Log is so simple to 5315

obtain and provide such basic

5325
5335

information, it is the most common 5345

Sandstone
log.
5355
5365
5375
5385
5395
5405
Shale
5415
 Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log- Application
SP

§ Useful for: 5185

-100 -50 0 50 100

§ Detecting permeable beds 5195

and it thickness. 5205

5215
Shale

§ Locating their boundaries 5225

and permitting correlation

5235
5245

of such beds. 5255 Sandstone

§ Determining formation
5265
5275

water resistivity. 5285

5295 Shale
§ Qualitative indication of 5305

bed shaliness. 5315

5325
5335
5345
5355
Sandstone
5365
5375
5385
5395
5405
Shale
5415
 (2)Resistivity Logs
• Use to measure the resistivity of the formation, and thus the possibility
of hc shows.
• The three main ways of measuring the electrical resistivity of formations
penetrated by boreholes are the normal log, laterolog and induction log
techniques.
Normal resistivity logging
• The basic methods of resistivity logging are similar to those used in
surface resistivity prospecting.
• A low-frequency alternating current is applied between an electrode on the
sonde and an electrode at the surface.
• A pair of electrodes on the sonde is used to measure the variation in
formation resistivity (potential electrodes) as the sonde is raised to the
surface.
• The spacing between the current electrode (A) and the recording
electrode (X) can be varied.
• The electrode spacings usually employed between A and X are 16 in. (short
normal) and 64 in. (long normal).
• The other two electrodes (B and Z) are either fixed near the top of the
hole or a long distance away in the borehole
A sonde sends an electrical signal through the formation and relays it back to Normal resistivity logging device.
a receiver at the surface (induced electricity). The surface detector will Variation of the spacing between
measure the formation’s resistance to the current. A and X determines the distance
A rock which contains an oil and/or gas saturation will have a higher away from the borehole at
resistivity than the same rock completely saturated with formation water. which the resistivity is measured.
• The electrical resistivity of
formations varies greatly.
• Solid rock is highly resistive, as is
porous rock saturated in
freshwater, oil, or gas.
• Shale, on the other hand, and
porous formations saturated with
salty water or brine have very low
resistivities.
• When run simultaneously, SP and
resistivity logs enable qualitative
interpretations of lithology and
the nature of pore fluids to be
made

The four basic responses for SP and resistivity logs for a

bed between impermeable formations
• One of the functions of drilling mud is to prevent fluids from flowing into the borehole from permeable
formations.
• At such intervals a cake of mud builds up around the borehole wall, and mud filtrate, is squeezed into the
formation.
• Thus the original pore fluid is displaced, be it connate water, oil or gas. So a circular invaded, or flushed zone is
created around the borehole with a resistivity (referred to as Rxo) that may be very different from the
resistivity of the uninvaded zone (Rt).
• A trnsition zone separates the two. This arrangement is shown in Fig. As already noted, various types of
resistivity log are not only adapted for different types of mud but also for measuring resistivity of both the
uninvaded zone (Rt) and the flushed zone (Rxo). The latter are generally referred to as microresistivity logs.

The situation around a

borehole adjacent to a
permeable bed. Resistivity
of flushed zone, Rxo;
resistivity of uninvaded
zone, Rt; resistivity of mud
filtrate, Rmf; and resistivity
of formation water, Rw.
• The responses of Rt and Rxo (deep and shallow) resistivity logs in various water-bearing reservoirs.
• Note the convention that the deep-penetrating log is shown by a dashed curve and the shallow log by a
continuous line.
• Where formations are impermeable, there is no separation between the two logs, since there is no
flushed zone.
• A single sonde can simultaneously record the SP and more than one resistivity curve.

Impermeable-
No Separation

SP and resistivity logs showing the responses for a water-bearing reservoir for cases of various differences
between the resistivity of the drilling mud (Rm) and that of the formation water (Rw)
• The identification of
hydrocarbon zones from a
single resistivity log has
already been discussed.
• Where two resistivity logs
are run together, the
response is as shown in Fig.
• This figure is, however, only
a qualitative interpretation.
• No absolute resistivity cut-
off reading can be used to
determine oil saturation

SP and resistivity logs through a hydrocarbon reservoir showing

typical response for the situation where Rmf>Rw
 (3) Induction Logs

§ Use to measure the conductivity of the formation,

and thus the possibility of hc shows.
§ A rock which contains an oil and/or gas saturation
will have a lower conductivity than the same rock
completely saturated with formation water.
§ Induction logs use an electric coil in the sonde to
generate an alternating current loop in the
formation by induction.
§ Induction tools t give best results when mud
resistivity is high with respect to formation
resistivity, i.e., fresh mud or non-conductive fluid.
In oil-base mud, which is non conductive, induction
logging is the only option available.
 (4) Dielectric Logs

§ Responds essentially to water and is unaffected by

the presence of hydrocarbons.
§ Particularly important in determining the
irreducible water saturation when oil-based muds
are used.
 Nuclear Logs
§ Just as SP and resistivity logs record natural and induced electrical currents, nuclear logs (also called radioactivity logs) record
natural and induced radioactivity.
§ Three type of logs: Gamma Ray Log, Neutron Log and Formation Density Log. The nuclear radiations are in the form of α, β or γ
rays. Natural and induced γ radiation and neutrons possess appreciable penetrating power and are used in radioactivity logging.
§ Well-logging instruments that measure radioactivity of nearby formations may be considered under three headings: (1) those that
detect γ radiation resulting from natural radioactivity,
§ (2) those that employ artificial γ rays, and
(3) those that use neutron sources to induce nuclear processes.
Natural radioactivity
§ Natural radioactivity results from the presence of small amounts of U, Th, and 40K; it is usually lowest in basic igneous rocks,
intermediate in metamorphic rocks and highest in some sedimentary rocks, especially shales. Although the γ radiation from either
the U or Th series is much higher intensity than that of 40K , 40K is far more common and the total background radiation is
attributable more-or-less equally to the three elements.
§ Gamma-ray emissions of U, Th and K are shown in Fig. The energy spectra of U and Th are broad and relatively complex, with
characteristic γ rays: 1.76 MeV from U and 2.62 MeV from Th. The γ ray from 40K is monoenergetic at 1.46 MeV.
 (1) Gamma Ray Log
GR
§ Record the natural γ- 0 50 100 150

radioactivity of rocks 5185

5195
surrounding the borehole. 5205
Shale
5215

§ The γ-radiation arises from 5225

three elements present in the 5235

5245
rocks, isotopes of potassium, 5255 Sandstone
uranium and thorium. 5265
5275

§ Useful for defining shale beds 5285

Shale
because K, U and Th are largely
5295
5305

concentrated in association 5315

with clay minerals.

5325
5335

§ It is used to define permeable

5345
5355
Sandstone

beds when SP log cannot be 5365

employed (eg. When Rmf = Rw). 5375

5385
5395
Shale
5405
5415
 (2) Neutron Log

§ To obtain a neutron log, a sonde sends atomic

particles called neutrons through the formation.
§ When the neutrons collide with hydrogen, the
hydrogen slows them down.
§ The response of the devise is primarily a function
of the hydrogen nuclei concentration.
§ When the detector records slow neutrons, it means
a lot of hydrogen is present – main component of
water and hydrocarbon, but not of rocks.
§ Considered as porosity log because hydrogen is
mostly present in pore fluids (water, hydrocarbons)
the count rate can be converted into apparent
porosity.
 (3) Formation Density Log
§ This devise measure number of photon then be related to
electron density of the formation.
§ Electron density is related to an apparent bulk density which
equivalent to formation bulk density.
§ Useable to detect formation lithology.
§ The density log or gamma-gamma log, is used to determine
porosity.
§ Measures formation density by emitting gamma radiation
from the tool and recording the amount of gamma radiation
returning from the formation.
§ For this reason the device is often called the gamma-gamma
tool.
§ Corrections are automatically made within the sonde for the
effects of borehole diameter and mudcake thickness.
§ The corrected gamma radiation reading can be related to the
electro density of the atoms in the formation, which is, in turn,
directly related to the bulk density of the formation.
§ Bulk density of a rock is a function of lithology and porosity.
Porosity may be calculated from the following equation:

§ where Pma = density of the dry rock (g/cm3), Pb = bulk density

recorded by the log and Pf = density of the fluid. Density values
commonly taken for different lithologies are as follows Density log schmatic and typical log.
 Sonic or Acoustic Logs
§ A third way of establishing the porosity of a rock is by measuring its acoustic velocity by the sonic or
acoustic log
§ Provide continuous record of the time taken in microsecond/foot by sound wave to travel from the
transmitter to the receiver n the sonde.
§ Velocity of sound through a given formation is a function of its lithological and porosity.
§ Dense, low porosity rocks are characterized by high velocity of sound wave and vise-versa for porous and
less dense formation.
§ In this technique interval transit times are recorded of clicks emitted from one end of the sonde
travelling to one or more receivers at the other end.
§ The sound waves generally travel faster through the formation than through the borehole mud.
§ The interval transit time (Δt), which is measured in microseconds per foot, can then be used to calculate
porosity according to the following equation (Wyllie et al., 1956,1958):

OR

where Δt is the formation transit time, Vp is the formation velocity, Vf=1/Δtf is the velocity in the fluid which fills the
pore spaces, Vm=1/Δtm is the velocity in the rock matrix, and Φ is the porosity. Velocities used in this calculation, given
in Table 2, involves ranges from which the velocity that gives the best porosity values is selected.
• The sonic log can be used only in open, uncased holes.
• The sonic method is the least accurate of the three porosity logs because it is the one most affected by lithology. On the
other hand, for this very reason, it is widely employed as a means of lithology identification and hence for correlation from
well to well.
• The sonic log is also extremely useful to geophysicists because it can be used to determine the interval velocities of
formations and thus relate timing of seismic reflectors to actual rocks around a borehole by means of computed time-depth
conversions.
• For this reason the sonic log also records the total travel time in milliseconds along its length by a process of integration, the
result being recorded as a series of pips along the length of the log. The cumulative number of these constant time interval
pips can be counted between formation boundaries, and hence formation velocities can be related in time and depth.

Fluid and matrix velocities

 Logging While Drilling

§ One of the major drawbacks of wireline

information is that it is received several hours to
several weeks after the borehole is drilled.
§ During this time period, the formation can undergo
significant alteration, especially in its fluid
saturation, effective porosity, and relative perm.
§ LWD allow wireline-type information to be
available as near as real-time as possible.
§ Logging While Drilling (LWD) is a technique of
conveying well logging tools into the well borehole
downhole as part of the bottom hole assembly
(BHA).
 Logging While Drilling

§ Some available measurement in LWD technology:

§ Gamma Ray
§ Resistivity
§ Density
§ Neutron
§ Sonic (fairly recent)
§ Formation pressure
§ Formation fluid sampler
§ Borehole caliper (Ultra sonic azimuthal caliper,
and density caliper).
 Formation Testing

n Is a means of obtaining information concerning the

liquid and pressure in an open-hole formations.
n Three methods:
■ Wireline testing
■ Drill stem test (DST)
■ Well Test Analysis
 Wireline Testing

n Provide reservoir fluid samples, reservoir pressure,

an indication of fluid mobility and information on
reservoir continuity.
n Two types: Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) and
Formation Interval Tester (FIT).
n The RFT is run into the hole and a continuous
digital readout of hydrostatic pressure is obtained.
n At any point in the hole the tool may be actuated
to force a rubber pad against the wall of the hole,
and a tube in the centre of the pad is forced hard
against the formation.
n The formation fluid will flow to the chamber
through the tube.
 Wireline Testing

n The FIT is used for single test – only one pressure

reading and one fluid sample for each run.
n A tool is actuated (a pad is tightly against the
formation to form a seal against hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid in the hole).
n A shaped charge is then fired into the fm, opening
a passageway for fm fluids to flow into a chamber
in the tool. At he same time the fm pressure will be
recorded.
 Drillstem Test (DST)

n A drill stem test (DST) is a procedure for isolating

and testing the surrounding geological formation
through the drill stem.
n The test is a measurement of pressure behavior at
the drill stem and is a valuable way to obtain
important sampling information on the formation
fluid and to establish the probability of commercial
production.
n The test is made by lowering a valve, a packer, and
a length of perforated tailpipe to the level of
formation.
n The packer set against the wall of the borehole so
that it seals off the test interval from the mud
column above.
 Drillstem Test (DST)

n The valve is then opened, and

the fm fluid will flow to the
surface through the drillpipe.
n The amount of fluid produced
will represent the fluid
production can be expected
from the well.
 Well Test Analysis

n Two types of testing: pressure build-up and draw

down test.
n The primary objectives of well testing are to
establish:
n Permeability thickness (Kh) and permeability (K)
n Stratification (by sequential testing of layer).
n Well productivity.
n Investigate reservoir boundaries and size.
n The amount of fluid produced will represent the
fluid production can be expected from the well.
 Cased-hole Logging

n Two major areas of cased-hole logging:

n Production logging.
n Reservoir monitoring.
n Production logging refers to obtaining production
or injection profiles over a completed interval.
n Reservoir monitoring refers to obtaining real time
information about changes in hydrocarbon
saturation.
n Crucial for understanding water contact movement.
n Other services include cement bond log which used
to evaluate the degree of isolation provided by the
casing cement.
GAMMA RAY LOG
• Gamma Rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves which
are emitted by atomic nuclei as a form of radiation
• Gamma ray log is measurement of natural radioactivity in
formation verses depth.
• It measures the radiation emitting from naturally occurring
U, Th, and K.
• It is also known as shale log.
• GR log reflects shale or clay content.
• Clean formations have low radioactivity level.
• Correlation between wells,
• Determination of bed boundaries,
• Evaluation of shale content within a formation,
• Mineral analysis,
• Depth control for log tie-ins, side-wall coring, or perforating.
• Particularly useful for defining shale beds when the sp is
featureless
• GR log can be run in both open and cased hole
 Spontaneous Potential Log (SP)

• The spontaneous potential (SP) curve records the

naturally occurring electrical potential (voltage)
produced by the interaction of formation connate
water, conductive drilling fluid, and shale

• The SP curve reflects a difference in the electrical

potential between a movable electrode in the
borehole and a fixed reference electrode at the
surface

• Though the SP is used primarily as a lithology

indicator and as a correlation tool, it has other
uses as well:
• permeability indicator,
• shale volume indicator
• porosity indicator, and
• measurement of Rw (hence formation water
salinity).
 Neutron Logging
• The Neutron Log is primarily used to evaluate formation
porosity, but the fact that it is really just a hydrogen detector
should always be kept in mind
• It is used to detect gas in certain situations, exploiting the
lower hydrogen density, or hydrogen index
• The Neutron Log can be summarized as the continuous
measurement of the induced radiation produced by the
bombardment of that formation with a neutron source
contained in the logging tool which sources emit fast
neutrons that are eventually slowed by collisions with
hydrogen atoms until they are captured.
• The capture results in the emission of a secondary gamma
ray; some tools, especially older ones, detect the capture
gamma ray (neutron-gamma log). Other tools detect
intermediate (epithermal) neutrons or slow (thermal)
neutrons (both referred to as neutron-neutron logs).
Modern neutron tools most commonly count thermal
neutrons with an He-3 type detector.
 The Density Log
• The formation density log is a porosity log that
measures electron density of a formation
• Dense formations absorb many gamma rays, while low
-density formations absorb fewer. Thus, high-count
rates at the detectors indicate low-density formations,
whereas low count rates at the detectors indicate high-
density formations.
• Therefore, scattered gamma rays reaching the
detector is an indication of formation Density.
• The most frequently used scales are a range of 2.0 to
3.0 gm/cc or 1.95 to 2.95 gm/cc across two tracks.
• A density derived porosity curve is sometimes present
in tracks #2 and #3 along with the bulk density (rb) and
correction (Dr) curves. Track #1 contains a gamma ray
log and caliper.
Resistivity Log
• Basics about the Resistivity:

• Resistivity measures the electric properties of the

formation,
• Resistivity is measured as, R in W per m,
• Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity,
• The ability to conduct electric current depends upon:
• The Volume of water,
• The Temperature of the formation,
• The Salinity of the formation

The Resistivity Log:

Resistivity logs measure the ability of rocks to
conduct electrical current and are scaled in units of
ohm- meters.
The Usage:
Resistivity logs are electric logs which are used to:
Determine Hydrocarbon versus Water-bearing zones,
Indicate Permeable zones,
Determine Resisitivity Porosity.
Acoustic Log
• Acoustic tools measure the speed of sound waves in
subsurface formations. While the acoustic log can be used
to determine porosity in consolidated formations, it is also
valuable in other applications, such as:

• Indicating lithology (using the ratio of compressional

velocity over shear velocity),

• Determining integrated travel time (an important tool for

seismic/wellbore correlation),

• Correlation with other wells

• Detecting fractures and evaluating secondary porosity,

• Evaluating cement bonds between casing, and formation,

• Detecting over-pressure,

• Determining mechanical properties (in combination with

the density log), and

• Determining acoustic impedance (in combination with the

density log).
CONCLUSION
•Well Logging Techniques play a fundamental role in the
Hydrocarbon E & P processes

•Integrated interpretation of well logging data can strongly

reduce uncertainties in Formation Evaluation and in Reservoir
Characterization studies

•Integration of formation evaluation data is an inter-disciplinary

team work